blO-AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
RIVERSIDE.  CALIFORNIA  92502 


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University  of^alifornia 

Southern  Cliifo^--*''"'^^'"^ 

OF        - 

Plant  Pathology 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL 


IN  THE 


UNITED    STATES 


BY 

GEO.  W.  RAFTER,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 


M.  N.  BAKER,  Ph.B., 

Associate  Editor,  ENomEERrNO  NEWS 


THIRD  edition: 


University  of  California 

Southern  California  Lalwruiury 

OK     — 

Plant  Pathology 


5^ 
NEW  YORK 

D.  VAN   NOS IRANI)   COMPANY 

LONDON 
SA3IPS0N    LOW,   INIARSTON    &   COMPANY,  Limited 

1000 


(JOPTRIGHT,    1893 

By  D.  van  NOSTKAND  COMPANY 


AH  rights  reserved 


plant  f^^^^^'^tV 


DEDICATED 

TO  THE  HEALTH  AND  PROSPERITY  OP 
AAIERICAN   CITIES  AND  TO^VNS 


ic^'K'^io^ 


PREFACE. 


Questions  of  River  Pollution  and  Sewage  Disposal  have  assumed  so 
much  importance  in  this  country  that  no  excuse  is  necessarj-  for  put- 
ting forth  an  American  treatise  on  the  subject.  The  chief  object,  there- 
fore, of  this  book  is  to  speciiically  call  the  attention  of  sanitary 
authorities,  engineers,  and  others  interested  in  questions  of  public 
sanitation,  to  the  fact  that  we  have  already  accumulated  a  considerable 
stock  of  experience  in  sewage  disposal  in  this  countrj^,  and  that  for 
the  future  Americans,  who  wish  to  study  the  subject  in  detail,  will  not 
be  obliged,  as  until  recently  was  the  case,  to  go  abroad  for  the  purpose. 

In  making  tliis  remark  we  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  discour- 
aging the  study  of  foreign  precedents  in  sewage  disposal ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  cheerfully  conceded,  inasmuch  as  the  necessity  for  sew- 
age purification  first  arose  abroad,  that  consequently  the  foreign  en- 
gineers had  the  opportunity  to  attack  the  problem  first,  and  we  may 
very  properly  profit  by  their  experience.  The  full  idea  is  that  the 
conditions  here  are  generally  quite  dissimilar  from  those  obtaining 
abroad,  and  that,  with  most  of  the  feasible  methods  of  sewage  purifica- 
tion now  in  successful  operation,  the  chances  are  decidedly  in  favor  of 
quite  as  much  profit  from  studying  carefully  the  results  obtained  here 
as  can  be  expected  from  the  casual  examination  of  executed  projects 
abroad,  which,  after  all,  are  for  the  most  part  only  relatively  appli- 
cable. 

The  experience  at  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  is  a  striking  exemplifi- 
cation of  the  truth  that  in  the  end  the  American  engineer  must  design 
works  to  suit  his  specific  case.  In  the  preliminary  discussion  at 
Worcester  it  was  nearly  universally  assumed  that,  by  reason  of  an 
identity  of  climatic  conditions  between  Worcester  and  Danzig,  the 
sewage  irrigation  fields  of  the  latter  city  might  be  duplicated  a^ 
Worcester,  and  results  obtained  quite  as  successful  as  those  attending 
sewage  farming  at  Danzig.  But  Mr.  Allen  took  the  ground  that  the 
climatic  conditions  wen;  sufliciently  dissimilar  to  render  an  extensive 
sewage  farm  at  Worcester  an  experiment,  relative  to  which  it  was  im- 
possible to  ])redicate  success  from  what  had  occurred  at  Danzig. 

At  Soutli  Framiiigham,  Massachusetts,  however,  disposal  by  broad 


Vi  PREFACE. 

irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration  is  in  operation  on  a  comparatively 
large  scale  ;  and  inasmuch  as  the  distance  from  this  town  to  Worcester 
is  only  twenty-three  miles,  we  may  hope  to  g-ain  in  a  few  years  some 
useful  experience  from  these  two  towns  on  the  relative  value  of  different 
systems  of  treatment  at  low  temperatures.  The  extensive  intermittent 
filtration  works  at  Marlborough,  Massachusetts,  in  the  immediate 
vicinity,  may  also  be  looked  to  for  interesting  information  on  the  same 
point. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  present  in  Part  I.  the  governing  prin- 
ciples of  sewage  disposal  with  special  reference  to  American  needs ; 
while  in  Part  II.  there  have  been  given  the  salient  features  of  the 
principal  American  sewage  disposal  works,  with,  so  far  as  they  can  be 
obtained,  reliable  statements  of  cost  of  construction  and  operation.  It 
is  hoped  that  the  information  may  be  of  use,  not  only  to  such  sanitary 
authorities  as  Sewer  Commissioners  and  Health  Ofiicers,  but  also  to 
those  engineers  who  are  looking  into  the  subject  for  the  first  time. 
We  even  venture  to  hope  that  it  will  prove  of  material  benefit  to  the 
few  engineers  of  ability  and  experience  who  have  thus  far  designed 
most  of  the  sewage  disposal  works  of  the  country ;  for  American 
knowledge  of  and  practice  in  sewage  purification  is  growing  rapidly, 
and  has  never  before  been  brought  together  with  any  degree  of  com- 
prehensiveness. 

Our  references,  citations  of  authorities,  and  quotations  are  drawn 
very  largely  from  American  sources  of  information.  The  reason  for 
this  is,  as  already  indicated,  that  we  need  to  know  first  of  all  about  our 
own  special  conditions.  At  the  same  time  we  have  not  hesitated  to 
use  foreign  data  Avhen  necessary  for  the  completeness  of  the  discussion. 

As  conducing  to  a  knowledge  of  our  own  special  conditions,  the  ex- 
periments of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  may  be  cited 
first  of  all.  The  views  of  a  high  English  authority  on  the  comparative 
value  of  these  experiments  have  been  referred  to  in  the  footnote  on 
page  265,  and  it  appears  unnecessary  to  further  elaborate  this  part  of 
the  subject.  The  work  accomplished  by  our  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations  has  also  been  freely  drawn  upon,  with  the  result,  it  is  believed, 
of  furnishing  a  large  amount  of  new  data  of  special  value  in  projecting 
American  seAvage  disposal  works. 

Concluding  this  part  of  the  subject,  it  is  sincerely  hoped  that  Ameri- 
can engineers  and  physicists  may,  by  their  improvements  and  increase 
of  accurate  knowledge  of  sewage  disposal,  be  able  to  pay  back  some 
portion  of  the  obligation  which  we  owe  chiefly  to  English  engineers, 
and  investigators  for  our  preliminary  ideas  in  relation  to  sewage  puri- 
fication. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  amount  of  original  matter  in  the  book  is 
relatively  small.     This  is  partially  owing  to  the  use  of  the  language  of 


PREFACE.  vii 

the  aiitliorities  drawn  upon,  instead  of  veiling  its  identity  under  slig-lit 
verbal  changes.  For  all  this,  of  necessity  many  elaborate  and  valuable 
contributions  to  the  literatin-e  of  sewage  disposal  have  been  either 
condensed  into  a  few  sentences  or  dismissed  with  a  brief  reference. 
In  all  cases  the  aim  has  been  to  present  as  clearly  and  yet  as  briefly  as 
possible  the  best  available  information  on  the  subject  under  discus- 
sion and  to  indicate  the  sources  of  information. 

Quoted  matter  has  generally  been  indicated  by  the  use  of  smaller 
type.  Quotations  have  been  freely  made  in  Part  I.  in  all  those  cases 
where  the  quoted  matter  appears  necessary  for  a  complete  discussion, 
or  where  nothing  can  be  added  to  what  the  various  authors  have 
originally  written.  In  Part  II.  we  have  preferred  to  quote  at  length 
from  available  memoirs  prepared  by  the  engineers  who  have  actually 
designed  and  constructed  the  diflerent  works,  because  these  memoirs, 
by  reason  of  embodying  the  results  of  personal  experience,  are  more 
valuable  than  anj^  mere  abstract  coidd  be  possibly  made.  We  have 
assumed,  in  short,  that  the  making  of  the  ideal  sewage  disposal  manual 
is  to  some  extent  a  matter  of  discreet  editing. 

AVliile  Ave  have  used  footnote  references  liberally,  we  have  not  at- 
tempted to  make  the  references  to  any  part  of  the  subject  absolutely 
complete.  To  do  this  would  involve  an  amount  of  labor  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  results.  Nevertheless  it  is  hoped  that  the  references 
to  original  sources  of  information  are  numerous  enough  to  enable  any 
person  wishing  to  go  further  into  the  subject  than  the  limits  of  a 
volume  of  this  character  would  permit,  to  find  readily,  so  far  as  the 
American  literature  is  concerned,  practically  all  there  is  of  value  at 
the  present  time. 

A  word  in  regard  to  the  joint  authorship.  In  the  fall  of  1891  Mr. 
Rafter  began,  at  the  request  of  the  publishers,  D.  Van  Nof?trand  Co., 
the  preparation  of  a  Manual  of  Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States. 
Early  in  1892  Mr.  Baker  began  the  collection,  largely  by  personal 
visits  to  existing  purification  works,  of  data  in  regard  to  executed 
works  as  the  basis  of  a  series  of  articles  in  Engineering  News.  Neither 
was  aware  of  the  work  of  the  other  until  about  July  1,  1892  ;  at  which 
time  Mr.  Rafter  had  nearly  completed  the  task  to  which  he  had  set 
himself,  while  Mr.  Baker  was  just  beginning  the  series  of  articles  on 
ex(>cuti'd  works  which  have  since  appeared  in  the  journal  named.  A 
coiiqiarisou  of  data  indicated  that  Mr.  Baker's  work  on  the  executed 
])r()je('ts,  by  reason  of  bringing  the  information  more  nearly  down  to 
date,  woiild  add  to  the  completeness  of  the  book,  and  accordingly 
arrangements  were  made  for  joining  forces.  In  addition  to  considera- 
bly extending  Part  II.,  Mr.  Baker  has  also  made  material  additions 
to  Chapter  VII.  in  Part  I.,  and  has  revised  the  whoh^  work  so  far  as 
necessary  to  include    any    additicjnal  information  in  his  possession. 


viii  ■  PREFACE. 

This  revision  brings  the  work  down  to  June,  1893,  as  completely  as  is 
practicable  in  a  work  of  such  a  character,  and  the  additions  include 
descriptions  of  all  the  town  and  city  purification  works  known  to  be 
in  operation  to  date.  That  the  book  is  now  other  than  relatively  com- 
plete is  not  pretended ;  it  is  merely  put  forth  as  representing-  the  best 
effort  in  this  direction  of  which  the  joint  authors  are  capable  at  this 
time. 

Our  sincere  thanks  are  due  to  the  many  engineers  who  have  cordially 
responded  to  our  requests  for  information,  as  well  as  to  the  superin- 
tendents of  a  number  of  public  institutions  to  whom  we  have  applied. 
Among  engineers  to  whom  we  are  specially  indebted  may  be  men- 
tioned Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  J.  Herbert  Shedd,  M. 
Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  Samuel  M.  Gray,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  and  Chas.  A.  Allen, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E. 

The  major  portion  of  the  illustrations  have  been  prepared,  specially 
for  this  work,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  F.  P.  Burt,  of  Engineering 
News.  For  the  illustrations  not  so  prepared,  we  are  indebted  to  The 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  The  Engineering  Magazine,  The 
Engineering  Record,  and  Engineering  News. 

G.  ^\.  R. 

M.  N.  B. 

New  York,  June  1,  1893. 


CONTENTS. 

PART   I. 
DISCUSSION  OF  PKINCIPLES. 


CHAPTEK  I. 
PKELIMINABY  DISCUSSION. 


DEFmmoN  OF  Terms,        .... 

The  Germ  Theory  op  Disease, 

Typhoid  Fever,  ..... 

Kesponsibility  of  Purification, 

Typhoid  Fever  at  Loavell  and  Lawrence, 

The  BAcrLLUS  of  Typhoid  Fever,    . 

Vitality  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus, 

Limit  of  Influence  in  the  Merrimac  Eiver, 

Limit  of  Influence  in  Lakes  and  Ponds, 

The  Case  of  Schenectady,  Cohoes,  West  Troy,  and  Albany, 

Why  Crude  Sewage  Should  be  Kept  out  of  Streams, 

List  of  W^ater-uorne  Cojimunicable  Diseases, 

Disinfection  of  De.tecta,  . 

Importance  of  Disinfection,     . 

Typhoid  Fever  at  Lausen,  Switzerland,  .... 
Typhoid  Fe\t3R  in  Massachusetts  Cities,  .... 
Typhoid  Fever  at  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  CmoAGO, 

Typhoid  at  Bochester,  New  York, 

The  Fundamental  Proposition 


PAGE 

1 

4 
5 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

9 

10 

12 

12 

12 

13 

15 

17 

18 

20 

23 


CHAPTER  II. 
THE   JNFECTIOUS   DISEASES   OF  ANBIALS. 


Definition  of  Terms,         .         .        .        . 
Important  Intercommunicable  Diseases, 
Glanders 


24 
24 
25 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Hoo  Choleba, 25 

Texas  Fever, 26 

Anthrax, 27 

Tuberculosis, 27 

Actinomycosis, 28 

Typhoid  Fever  in  Animals, 28 

Blyth's  Theory  of  Typhoid  Fever, 29 

The  Entozoic  Diseases, 30 

The  Tape  or  Intestinal  Worms, 30 

An  Iowa  Case, 30 

Need  fob  Definite  Information, 31 


CHAPTEE  III. 

ON  THE   POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS. 

The  State  of  Massachusetts  Leads  in  the  Study  of  Stream  Pollution,  33 

Amount  of  Stream  Pollution  Investigation, 33 

The  Massachusetts  Work  Reviewed,      .* 34 

Maine, 45 

Connecticut, 45 

Manufacturing  Processes  and  Refuse, 46 

New  Jersey, 57 

The  Pollution  of  the  Passaic  River, 58 

Investigations  in  Pennsylvania, 63 

Minnesota, 65 

The  Illinois  Studies, 65 

Self -purification  in  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,        ....  66 

The  Law  of  the  Self-purification  of  Streams, 69 

Stream  Pollution  in  New  York 70 

Protecttve  Legislation  in  New  York, 71 

Classification  of  Streams  with  Reference  to  Pollution,   ....  72 


CHAPTEE  IV. 

THE  SELF-PURIFICATION  OF  RUNNING  STREAMS  AND  THE  RA- 
TIONAL VIEW  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE 
BY  DISCHARGE  INTO  TIDE-WATER. 

The  Biological  Point  of  View, o         .  75 

Beaver  Dam  Brook,  Massachusetts, .80 

Manurial  Constituents  of  Sewage, 82 

Money  Value  of  Sewage,         ..........  83 

Fallacy  of  the  Argument,       . 83 

The  Right  Way  to  Approach  the  Problem 84 

Sewage  Disposal  Works  not  Properly  Subject  to  Franchisb,    ...  85 

Disposal  into  Tide-water,         . ,        .  86 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


PAGE 

Disposal  xnto  Fresh  Water, 86 

The  LEGiriMATE  Conclusion, 89 

The  Rational  View  of  Disposal  into  Tide-water,        .....      89 


CHAPTEK  V. 

THE  COMPOSITION  OF  SEWAGE  MUDS. 

The  Conditions  Favorable  to  Sedimentation, 

Macadam's  Study  of  the  Water  of  the  Leith,  Scotland,    . 

Dr.  Beale's  Study  of  Thames  Mud, 

Lortet's  Eesults  from  a  Study  of  the  Mud  of  Lake  Geneva, 
"What  the  Several  Studies  Indicate, 


92 
93 
94 
95 
96 


CHAPTER  VI. 

LEGAL  ASPECTS    OF  THE  CASE. 


Use 


How  the  Right  of  Property  in  a  Water-course  is  Derived, 
Riparian  Proprietor's  RiciUT  to  a  Stream  in  its  Natural  Condition 
Natural  and  Artificial  Uses  of  a  Stream,   . 
Actionable  Pollution,       ...... 

Distinction  between  Natural  and  Artificial  Use, 

The  Case  of  Evans  v.  Merriweather,     . 

Riparian  Proprietors  can  Abrogate  the  Right  to  the  Natural 

Right  to  the  Use  of  a  Stream  can  be  Acquired  by  Grant, 

Prescriptive  Rights  in  Streams, 

The  Case  of  Bealy  v.  Shaw,  ...... 

Popular  Views  of  Prescrii'tion,      ..... 

The  Law  op  Custom, 

The  Proper  Application  of  the  Fundamental  PRXNClPiiES, 

The  Case  of  Lake  Cochituate, 

Chancellor  Kent's  Views,         ...... 

Gould's  Definition  of  Prescription,        .... 

Engllsh  Cases, 

Original  Application  of  the  Doctrine  of  Adverse  Possession, 

The  Relation  of  Legal  Principles  to  the  Development  of  Science, 

'J'he  ^Mill  Acts, 

'J'hk  Law  op  Eminent  Domain,  .... 

Chief-.Ti^stice  Bioelow  on  Eminent  Domain, 

The  Underlying  Principle  of  the  Mill  Acts, 

The  Principle  of  Permissh'e  Pollution, 

The  Views  of  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission, 

The  Right  of  the    Legislature   to  Prescribe  Rules  for  the  Protbotion 

of  Stkeams, 

The  Important  Points, 


97 
97 
100 
100 
101 
101 
102 
102 
102 
103 
103 
104 
104 
105 
107 
107 
108 
109 
109 
110 
110 
111 
112 
113 
113 

11") 
117 


xu 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 
QUANTITY  OF  SEWAGE  AND  VARIATION  IN  EATE  OF  FLOW. 

FAOB 

Dearth  of  Accurate  Information, .119 

The  Use  of  Water  in  American  Cities, 119 

The  Use  of  Water  does  not  Follow  any  Law, 123 

Necessity  for  Considering  Future  Growth, 127 

How  TO  Determine  the  Law  of  Increase  of  Population,    ....  129 

Generalizations, 131 

Cause  of  Variations  in  Quantity  of  Sewage, 131 

The  Infiltration  of  Ground-water, 131 

Provision  for  Rainfall  in  Combined  Systems, 132 

The  Time  of  Occurrence  of  Maximum  and  Minimum  Flow,          .        .        .  137 

Results  of  Sewer  Gagings, .  140 

A  Year's  Daily  Sewage  Pumping  Record  at  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey,  .  144 


CHAPTEK  VIII. 
GENERAL  DATA  OF  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL. 


The  Constituents  of  Sewage,  .... 
Sewer  Systems — Separate  or  Combined, 
The  A\'erage  Composition  of  American  Sewage, 
The  Average  Composition  of  English  Sewage, 
Relation  of  A:«erican  to  English  Sewage,    . 
The  Composition  of  London  Sewage, 
Character  of  Drainage  from  Street  Surfaces, 
The  Data  of  Huthan  Excrements,   . 
Analyses  and  Values  op  Fertilizers, 
Theoretical  Values, 
The  Fixed  Data  of  Sewage  Disposal, 
The  Mechanical  Analysis  of  Soils, 
Classification  of  Soil  Particles, 

Quality  of  ]Material  Required  for  Intermittent  Filteation, 
Mechanical  Composition  of  Materials  Used  at  Lawrence, 
Relation  between   Quality  of  Filtering  INIaterial  and  Quantity  of  Ap 
lied  Sewage, 


150 
150 
152 
153 
153 
154 
154 
155 
160 
162 
163 
163 
163 
163 
166 

168 


CHAPTER  IX. 

DISCHARGE  INTO  TIDAL  OR  OTHER  LARGE  BODIES  OF  WATER. 

Early  American  Sewerage  Systems, .169 

Sewerage  at  Chicago, 169 

Condition  of  English  Towns  Fifty  Years  ago, 170 

Results  of  the  Early  Sewerage  Systems, •         .     171 


CONTENTS. 


XIU 


PAGE 

Mr.  Chesbrough's  Chicago  Eeport, 172 

The  Chicago  Eiver, 173 

The  Chicago  Water  Supply, «         .  176 

Contamination  of  the  Chicago  Water  Supply, 177 

The  Boston  Main  Drainage, 177 

Early  Se-wtirs  of  Boston, 177 

The  Massachusetts  Sewer  Act  of  1709, 178 

The  Limits  of  Original  Boston 179 

The  Boston  Sewerage  Commission  of  1875, 180 

Description  of  the  Boston  Main  Drainage,          ......  182 


CHAPTER  X. 
ON  NITRIFICATION  AND  THE  NITRIFYING  ORGANISM. 

1882, 


Warington's  Paper  before  the  Society  of  Arts  in 
Warington's  Paper  of  1884,       .... 
The  Massachusetts  Investigations,    . 
Disappearance  of  a  Portion  of  the  Nitrogen, 

Practical  Experiments, 

Present  Theory  of  Nitrification,     . 

DENriRinCATION, 


188 
189 
190 
194 
195 
201 
201 


CHAPTER  XI. 
CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION. 


Definition  op  the  Process, 
Re -agents,     .... 


Theory  op  Precipitation 

Conditions  Essential  for  Success, 

Classification  of  Chemical  Treatments,         .        .        . 

Capacity  of  Precipit.\tion  Tanks, 

Vektical  Tanks, 

jNIethods  of  Sludge  Disposal,  ...... 

Methods  of  Mixing  Chemicals,         ..... 

The  Massachusetts  Experiments  on  Chemical  Purification, 

Co.ST  OF  Chemicals, 

Detail  of  the  Experiments, 

IIki'euimknts  with  Lime, 

Lime  and  Copperas,  ........ 

Ferric  Sulphate, 

Aluminum  Sulphate, 

Results  with  Different  Amounts  of  Chemicals  but  of  EqU4 
Deductions,  ......... 

PcHtFi(".\TioN  of  Sewage  by  Akr.viion,       .... 

CuE.MicAL  Precipitation  hy  the  Use  of  Mang.vnate  op  Soda  and  Nitbe, 


aij  Value 


203 
203 

203 
204 
205 
205 
206 
207 
208 
209 
209 
210 
212 
214 
216 
217 
218 
219 
222 
223 


Xiv  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

BROAD   IRRIGATION. 

PAOK 

Special  Applications  of  Broad  Ikrigation  in  the  United  States,      .        .  225 

Preparation  op  Land  for  Pipe  and  Hydrant  System  of  Distribxttion,       .  225 

Ridge  and  Furrow  System, 227 

Catchwork  System, 228 

Cost  of  Distribution  Systems 229 

Underdraining, 232 

Irrigation  Practice, 234 

Sewage  Irrigation  Fallacies, 234 

Report  of  the  Sewage  of  Towns  Commission, 235 

Results  Obtained  on  the  Application  of  Sewage  to  IVIeadow  and  Italian 

Rye  Grass, 238 

Results  Obtained  with  Fattening  Oxen, 239 

Results  Obtained  with  Milch  Cows, 239 

Composition  of  the  Rugby  Sewage, 240 

Chemical  Composition  of  the  Grass, 240 

Effect  of  Sewage  on  the  Mixed  Herbage  of  Grass  Land,  .        .         .241 

Composition  of  the  Milk  from  the  Unse  waged  and  the   Sew  aged  Grass,  241 

Results  Obtained  on  the  Application  of  Sewage  to  Oats,           .        .        .  241 

General  Conclusions, 242 

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society's  Sewage  Farm  Competition,   .        .        .  243 

Exploded  Objections, 248 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

ON  SILOS  AND  THEIR  USE  IN  SEWAGE  FARMING. 

Definition  of  Terms, 254 

How  Silage  is  Produced, 254 

Early  Use  of  Silos, 255 

The  Modern  Use  of  Silos, 255 

The  Value  of  Ensilage  in  Sewage  Farming, 256 

Ensilage  in  the  United  States, 257 

Sources  of  Information, 257 

Experiments  with  Rye  Grass, 258 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

INTERMITTENT   FILTRATION. 

Origin  of  Intermittent  Filtration, 261 

Definition  of  Intermittent  Filtration, 262 

The  Theory  op  Intermittent  Filtration, 262 

The  New  Thesis  of  Intermittent  Filtration, 265 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


PAGE 

EESUiiTS  WITH  Tank  No.  1, 266 

Tank  No.  2 270 

Experiments  with  Trenches, 270 

ExPERniENTs  with  Fine  Soil, 272 

Experiments  with  Sand  Co%'ered  with  Soil, 273 

Experiments  with  Peat,  Loam,  etc., 271 

Experiments  with  Coarse  Gravel, 275 

On  the  Use  of  the  Effluents  for  Drinking  Water, 277 

Permanency  of  Filters  and  Eenewal  of  Sand, 279 

The  Effect  of  Frost  and  Snow   upon    Intermittent    Filtration   at  Law- 
rence, Massachusetts, 280 

Frost  and  Snow  at  the  South  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  Filtkb  Beds,  284 

Snow  on  the  Filter  Beds  at  Summit,  New  Jersey, 285 

Nummary, 286 


CHAPTER  XV. 
SUB-SUEFACE  ieeigation,     .       .       .       . 


.    292 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  DISPOSAL  OF  MANUFACTUEING  WASTES. 

Classification, •        .  294 

Manufacturing  Wastes — How  Purified 294 

Eelative  Danger  to  Health, 295 

Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  Purification, 295 

American  Examples, 296 

A  Study  of  Paper  Mill  Wastes, 299 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON  THE  TEIVIPEEATUEE  OF  THE  AIE  AND  OF  NATUEAL  SOILS, 
AND  ITS  EELATION  TO  SEWAGE  PUEIFICATION  BY  BEOAD 
IEEIGATION  AND  INTEEMITTENT  FILTEATION. 

Empirical  Tendency  of  English  Practice  in  Sewage  Disposal, 
Information  Still  Lacking,        .... 
Temper vTiRKS  of  Air  and  Sewage  at  Lawrence, 
Comparison  of  Air  Temper ATUitES  at  a  Number  of 
Soil  Temperature  Observations  Abroad, 

E  ELATION   OF    SPECIFIC    HeAT  TO   SeWAGE   DISPOSAL, 

How  Heated  Bodies  Cool,         .... 
Solar  and  Terrestrial  Eadiation,  . 
Amerkun  Soil  Temperature  Observations, 

Eemedies  for  Frost, 

Comparative  Estimates, 

Deductions, 


Places, 


303 
303 
304 
306 
308 
309 
312 
317 
321 
333 
334 
339 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XYIU. 

PAOK 

ON     BEGGIATOA     ALBA     AND     ITS     EELATION     TO     SEWAGE 

EFFLUENTS, 342 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

THE    EFFECT    OF    THE    POLLUTION    OF    STEEAMS    BY    MANU- 
FACTURING WASTES  UPON  THE  LIFE  OF  FISH. 

Penny  and  Adams'  Experiments, 344 

Saare  and  Schwab's  Experiments, 346 

Experiments  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission,    .       •       •       .       .    346 

CHAPTER  XX. 
CONCLUSIONS  TO  PAKT  L, 349 


PART  II. 
DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORKS. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
PAIL  SYSTEM  AT  HEMLOCK  LAKE,  NEW  YOEK,        .       .       .        .351 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE    FULLEETON    AVENUE  CONDUIT    AND    THE    BEIDGEPOET 

PUMPING  STATION,  CHICAGO, 357 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

CHEMICAL  PEECIPITATION   PLANTS  AT  CONEY  ISLAND,  BOUND 

LAKE,   WHITE  PLAINS,  AND  SHEEPSHEAD  BAY,  NEW  YOEK,     369 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

CHEMICAL  PEECIPITATION  AND  FILTRATION  AT  EAST  OEANGE, 

NEW  JEESEY 383 


CONTENTS.  XVll 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

PAGE 

CHEMICAL  PEECIPITATION  AND  IMECHANICAL  SEPAEATION  AT 

LONG  BRANCH,  NEW  JERSEY, 399 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 
THE  MYSTIC  VALLEY  CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION  WORKS,    .        ,    405 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 
CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION  AT  WORCESTER,  MASSACHUSETTS,  .    415 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

DISCHARGE  INTO  TIDE-WATER  AND  PROPOSED  CHEMICAL  PRE- 
CIPITATION AT  PROVIDENCE,  RHODE  ISLAND,  ...     441 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

BROAD  IRRIGATION  AT  THE  STATE  HOSPITAL  FOR  THE  INSANE, 

WORCESTER,  MASSACHUSETTS, 456 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

BROAD     IRRIGATION     AND     INTERMITTENT     FILTRATION    AT 

PULLMAN,  ILLINOIS, 460 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

BRO.\D  IRRIGATION  AT  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  REFORMATORY, 

CONCORD,  . 468 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 

BROAD  IRRIGATION  AT  THE  RHODE  ISLAND  STATE  INSTITU- 
TIONS,                ........    475 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AND  BROAD  IRRIGATION  AT  SOUTH 

rUAMIXGHAM,  MASSACHUSETTS, 480 


Xvill  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTEK  XXXIV. 


PAGE 


INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AT  MEDFIELD,  MASSACHUSETTS,   .    490 


CHAPTEE  XXXV. 

INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AND  BROAD  IRRIGATION  AT  THE 

LONDON,  ONTARIO,  HOSPITAL  FOR  THE  INSANE,       .         .        .494 


CHAPTEE  XXXVI. 

CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION  AND  INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AT 

THE  ROCHESTER,  MINNESOTA,  HOSPITAL  FOR  THE  INSANE,     500 


CHAPTEE  XXXVII. 

INTERMITTENT    FILTRATION    AT    MARLBOROUGH,    MASSACHU- 
SETTS,          504 


CHAPTEE  XXXVIII. 

INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AT  THE   MASSACHUSETTS  SCHOOL 

FOR  THE  FEEBLE-MINDED, 507 


CHAPTEE  XXXIX. 

SUB -SURFACE     IRRIGATION     AT     THE     LAWRENCEVILLE,    NEW 

JERSEY,   SCHOOL  FOR  BOYS, 511 


CHAPTEE  XL. 
INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AT  GARDNER,  MASSACHUSETTS,     ,    516 

CHAPTEE  XLI. 
XNTER^HTTENT  FILTRATION  AT  SUMMIT,  NEW  JERSEY,        .        .    522 

CHAPTEE  XLII. 
LAND   DISPOSAL  AT  HASTINGS,  NEBRASKA,        .        ....     528 


CONTENTS.  XIX 


CHAPTEE  XLin. 


PAGE 


SURFACE  IRRIGATION  AT  WAYNE,  PENNSYLVANIA,  ,        .        .     532 

CHAPTER  XLIV. 

THE  USE  OF  SEWAGE  FOR  IRRIGATION  IN  THE  WEST,  .         .     539 

CoLOEADO  Springs,  Col.— Trinidad,  Col. — Fresno,  Cal. — Pasadena,  Cal. — 
Redding,  Cal.  —  Los  Angeles,  Cal.  —  Santa  Rosa,  Cal.  —  Helena, 
Mont. — Cheyenne,  Wyo. — Stockton,  Cal. 

CHAPTER  XLV. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS, 560 

Sub-Surface  Disposal  at  Lenox,  Mass. — Disposal  Upon  Land  and  Sedi- 
mentation AT  Amher-st,  Mass,  —  Disposal  on  Land  at  Greenfield, 
Ma.ss.— Mechanical  Separation  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  and  Lead- 
viLLE,  Col. — Electrical  Treatment  at  Brewsters,  N.  Y. — Chemical 
Precipitation  at  Canton,  O.,  Chautauqua,  N.  Y.,  and  the  World's  Co- 
lumbian Exposition. — Purification  Works  under  Construction. 


APPENDICES. 

I.  The  English  Rivers  Pollution  Act  of  1876, 569 

n.  The  New  York  State  Act  of  1885, 574 

III.  Rur,ES  and  Regulations  for  the  S.\nitary  Protection  of  the  Waters 

of  Hemlock  Lake, 575 

IV.  The    Massachusetts   Act  for  the  Protection  of  Inland  Waters  as 

Amended  in  1888, 578 

V.  Decision  of  Chancellor.     Newark,  New  Jersey,  Aqueduct  Board  v. 

City  of  Passaic, 579 

VI.  The  Virginia  Act  to  Prex'ENT  the  Pollution  of  Potable  W.\ter  Used 

for  the  Supply  of  Cities,  Passed  in  1892, 586 

VII.  Rules  of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Health  Governing  the 
Preparation  of  Slch  Plans  for  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Disposal 
Works  as  are  Required  ry  Law  to  be  Sitbmitted  to  th.\t  Board 

FOR  Approval, 

VIII.  The    Minnesota    Act    to    PRE^•ENT   the   Pollution    of   Rivers    and 

Sources  of  Water  Sui'I'ly, 588 


586 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATES. 


TO  PACK 
PAGK 


I.  Chemical  Examinations  of  Croton  Water,  1876,  1885-86,  and  1888,  71 

II.  Daily  Sewage  Pumpage  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  for  One  Year,       .  145 

III.  Chevhcal  Precipitation  Works  at  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  .         .         .  375 

IV.  Details  of  Worce.stek  Precipitation  Tanks,        .....  434 

V.  Maps  of  Marlborough  Town  and  Plan  op  Filter  Beds,  .         .         .  504 

VI.  Details  of  Intermittent  Filtr.\tion  Plant  at  Marlborough,  Mass.,  505 

VII.  Plan  and  Details  of  Sewage  Farm,  Hastings,  Neb.,         .         .         .  529 


FIGUEES  IN  TEXT. 


1.  Water- Works  Intakes  at  Junction  of  Hudson  and  Mohawk  Rivers, 

2.  Map  of  Lausen,  Switzerland,        ....... 

3.  Decrease  of  Free  and  Albuminoid  Ammonia  in  the  Illinois  and  Mich 

IGAN  Canal  between  Bridgeport  and  Lockport, 

4.  Proposed  Multiple  Discharge  Outlet  Sewer  at  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

5.  Diagram  illustrating  the  Law  of  Gbo-\vth  of  American  Cities, 

6.  Water  Consumption  and  Sewage  Pumpage  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J., 

7.  MEf^HANicAL  Composition  of  Sand  Used  for  Filtration  at  the  Law 

rence  Experiment  Station,         ....... 

6.  Proportion  of  Sewage  and  Lake  Water  in  the  Chicago  River, 

9.  Map  showing  Original  Boston,  Old  Sewer  Outlets,  New  Intercept 

iNG  Sewers,  and  the  Outfall  Sewer  to  Moon  Island, 

10.  View  of  Moon  Island  Storage  Reservoir,  Boston  Sewerage  System 

11.  Floating  Arm  for  Decanting  Effluent  from  Tank,  . 

12.  Plan  and  Section  of  Ridge  and  Furrow  System, 

13.  Ridcje  and  Furrow  Beds  with  Cropping,      ..... 

14.  Catchwork  System  of  Irrigation,  ...... 

15.  Distribution  Sy.stem  applicable  to  Land  with  a  Uniform  Slope, 

16.  Distribution  System  applicable  to  a  Field  Intersected  by  a  Ridge 

17.  Combined  Pipe  and  Ovks  Carrier  System  of  Di.stribution, 

18.  Italian  Rye  Grass.  ......... 

19.  View  of  Sewage  Farm  at  Hkuidud,  England,     .... 


11 
16 

69 

88 

130 

147 

167 
176 

181 
185 
205 
226 
227 
228 
231 
232 
233 
246 
248 


XXii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAOK 

20.  View  of  Sewage  Fabm  at  Wimbledon,  England,          ....  249 

21.  Sewage  Filtration  Fields  at  Mitcham,  England,       ....  250 

22.  Large  Experimental  Tanks  at  Lawrence,  Mass.,       ....  266 

23.  Plan  and  Section  of  Filter  Trenches  at  Lawrence,  .         .         .  271 

24.  Snow-covered  Sewage  Filter  Bed  at  South  Framingham,  Mass.,      .  284 

25.  Suggestions  fob  Covered  Winteb  Absorption  Drains,         .        .         .  289 

26.  Cultivated  Filtration  Abea  with  Absorption  Ditches,  Luton,  England,  290 

27.  Method  of  Adapting   Intermittent  Filtration  Area  to  Cultivation 

BY  Means  of  Absorption  Ditches,              291 

28.  Section  of  High  Grade  Intermittent  Filtration  Beds,     .         .         .  291 

29.  Settling  Basins  at  Woollen  Mills,  Hyde  Park,  Mass.,     .         .         .  298 

30.  Mechanical  Filter  at  Tannery,  Winchester,  Mass.,  .         •         .  298 

31.  fullerton  avenue  conduit  pumping  station,  chicago,      .        .        .  358 

32.  Sections  through  Fullertox  Avenue  Conduit,     .....  359 

33.  Plan  showing  Location  of  Bridgeport  Canal  Pumping  Station,       .  363 

34.  Plan  of  Bridgeport  Pumping  Station, 364 

35.  Cross-section  of  Bridgeport  Pumping  Station,  ....  365 

36.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Set  of  Bridgeport  Pumping  Engines,         .  366 

37.  Sections  op  Centrifugal  Pumps,  Bridgeport, 367 

38.  Sketch  Plan  of  Sewage  Purification  Works  at  Coney  Island,  N.  Y.,  370 

39.  Longitudinal  Section  through  Coney  Island  Tanks  and  Pump  Well,  370 

40.  Sectional  Plan  of  Sewage  Purification  Works  at  Round  Lake,  N.  Y.,  373 

41.  Vertical  Sections  through  Round  Lake  Works,          ....  373 

42.  HiNGFJD  Screen  in  Seavage  Tank  at  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  .        .         .  377 

43.  Automatic  Feed  Cock  from  Lime  Tank, 377 

44.  Automatic  Three-way  Cock  for  Perchloride  of  Iron  Tank,     .         .  378 

45.  Map  of  East  Orange,  N.  J.,  and  Vicinity, 384 

46.  General  View  of  Sewage  Disposal  Works,  East  Orange,  N.  J.,       .  387 

47.  View  of  East  Orange  Works,  showing  Filtration  Area,  .         .  389 

48.  General  Plan  op  East  Orange  Disposal  Works,        ....  391 

49.  Sections  through  East  Orange  Disposal  Area,  .....  391 

50.  Plans  and  Sections  of  East  Orange  Chemical  Precipitation  Works,  392 

51.  East  Orange  Sludge  and  Sludge  Forcing  Receivers,         .         .         .  393 

52.  Johnson  Filter  Press  in  Operation  at  East  Orange,         .         .        .  395 

53.  Plan  and  Section  of  Sewage  Purification  Works  at  Long  Branch, 

N.  J.,  AND  Sections  through  Tidal  Chamber, 400 

54.  Plan  of  Sludss  Compressing  Appar.vtus,  Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  .         .  401 

55.  Details  op  Sludge  Compressing  Apparatus,  Long  Branch,  N.  J.,      .  402 

56.  Det.uls  of  Slud(4E  Compressing  Apparatus,  Long  Branch,  N.  J.,      .  403 

57.  General  View  op  Mystic  Valley  Sewage  Disposal  Works,        .         .  411 

58.  General  Plvn  of  the  Mystic  Valley  Sewage  D.sposal  Works,        .  412 

59.  Cross-section  through  Mystic  Valley  Sewage  Disposal  Works,      .  413 

60.  Plan  of  Sewage  Disposal  Tanks  at  Worcester,  Mass.,     .        .         .  432 

61.  General  View  of  Worcester  Disposal   Works,   .....  433 

62.  View  of  Central  Channel.  Worcester  Precipitating  Tanks,       .         .  434 

63.  Cross-section  of  New  Lime   Agitator,  Worcester,  Mass.,          .         .  435 

64.  Plan  of  Outlet  Sewer  at  Fields  Point,  Providence,  R.  I.,       .         .  451 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.  XXlii 

PAGE 

65.  Sections  of  OdtijET  Sewek,  Providence,  R.  I., 452 

66.  Sections  of  Outlet  Sewer,  Providence,  R.  I., 453 

67.  View  in  Storm   OutllEt  of   Providence  Intercepting  Sewers,    .         .  454 

68.  Plan  of  Disposal  Area,  Hospital  for  the  Insas-e,  Worcester,  Mass.,  457 

69.  Settling  Tank  at  the  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Worcester,  Mass.,  458 

70.  Plan  of  Sewage  Farm  at  Pullman,  III.,  as  Laid  Out  in  1880,       .  462 

71.  Screening  Tank  and  Pressure  Regulating  Valve  at  Pullman,  III.,  464 

72.  Plan  of  Disposal  Works,  Massachusetts  Reformatory,  Concord,      .  469 

73.  Receiving  and  Separating  Tanivs,  Massachusetts  Reformatory,         .  470 

74.  Plan  of  Dlsposal  Area,  Rhode  Island  State  Institutions,  Cranston,  476 

75.  Screening  Basket,  Rhode  Island  State  Institutions,  .         .         .  477 

76.  Details  of  Carrier  and  Drain,  Rhode  Island  State  Institutions,  .  478 

77.  Map  of  South  Framingham,  Mass.,  and  Vicinity 481 

78.  Plan  of  Reservoirs  and  Pumping  Station,  South  Frasiingham,  Mass.,  485 

79.  Sections  through  Settijng  and  Filtering  Tanks,  Medfield,  Mass.,  .  491 

80.  Plan   and   Section  through    Sewage   Outlets   and   Cesspool,  Med- 

field, Mass., 492 

8L  Disposal  Area,  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Lont>on,  Ont.,  .        .         .  495 

82.  Section  of  Arsorption  Ditches, 496 

83.  Collecting  Tank  ant)  Pumping  Station,    Hospital  for  the  Insane, 

London,  Ont., 497 

84.  Section  of  Carrier  Ditches, 498 

85  Details  of  Distributing  Well,  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  London,  Ont.,  498 

86.  Section  of  Dlstributing  Ditches, 499 

87.  Plan  of  Disposal  Works,    Second  Minnesota   Hospital  for  the  In- 

sane, Rochester,  Minn.,     .........  500 

88.  Precipit.\tion  Tank,  Second  Minnesota   Hospital  for  the  Insane,     .  501 

89.  Detaining  Tank,  Massachusetts  School  for  the  Feeble-minded,        .  508 

90.  Plan  of  Disposal   Works,    School  for  the  Feeble-minded,      .         .  509 

91.  Receiving  and  Settling   Tank,  Lawtrenceville,  N.  J.,  School,    .        .  512 

92.  Pl.\n  of  Disposal  Worls,  Lawrenckst:lle  School,  ....  513 

93.  Pl.\n  and  Section  of  Settling  Tank,  Gardner,  Mass.,         .         .         .  517 

94.  Inlet  to  Settling  Tanks, 518 

95.  Gates  on  Outlet-pipe  from  Tank, 518 

96.  Plan  of  Filter  Areas,  Gardn-er,  Mass., 519 

97.  Plan  of  Filter  Areas,   Summit,  N.  J., 523 

98.  View  of  Summit  Filter  Areas  from  Road  near  Northwest  Corner,  524 

99.  Details  of  Sewage  Carrier, 525 

100.  Plan  and  Elev.\tion  of  Plug  for  Carrier, 526 

101.  Plan  and  SEcnoN  through  Tile  Chamber, 526 

102.  SErTioNs  through  Tile   Chambers  .\nd  Underdrains  at  Changes  of 

Gr^de  at  Embankments,  Summit,  N.  J., 527 

103.  Plan  op  Disposal  Works,  Wayne,  Pa., 533 

104.  Screening  Chamber, 534 

105.  RECEmNO  Tank  and  Pump  House, 534 

106.  Distributing  Well, 535 

107.  Cross-section  through  Cinder  Bank 535 


XXIV 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

108.  Genebaij  View  of  Disposal  Works  from  North  Side  of  Cbeee,        .  536 

109.  GENERAii  View  of  Works  from  South  Side  of  Creek,        .        .        .  537 

110.  PiiAN  OF  Sewage  Farm  at  Colorado  Springs,  Col.,      ....  541 

111.  Pii.\N  of  Sewage  Farm  at  Trinidad,  Col., 544 

112.  Sketch  of  Sewage  Outlet  Gate,  Pasadena,  Cal.,        ....  547 

113.  Plan  of  Sewage  Farm,  Bedding,  Cal., 550 

114.  Plan  of  Chemical  Precipitation  Plant,  Canton,  O 564 

115.  Sections  of  Canton  PREcrpiTATiNG  Tanks 564 

116.  Elevation    and    Section    of   Eeceiving    and   PBEOiPiTATiNa   Tanks, 

World's  Columbian  Exposition,        .        • 566 


LIST  OF  TABLES  IN  PART  L 


KUMBEB 
07  TABLB 

1. 

2. 
3. 

4. 
4  A. 
4B. 
4C. 

5. 

6. 

7. 
8. 
9. 

10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 

13  A. 
13  B. 

13  C. 

14. 

14  A. 
15. 

16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 

26. 
27. 


FAGB 

Statistics  of  Typhoid  Fever  in  Lowell  and  Lawrence,  Mass.,  1890-91,  9 
Deaths  from  Typhoid  Fever  in  13  Cities  of  Massachusetts  before  and 

after  the  Introduction  of  Public  Water  Supplies,     ....  18 
Statistics   of  Tvphoid   Fever  and  Deaths  from   all  Causes  in  New 

York,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago,  1870  to  1891,        ....  19 

Typhoid  Fever  at  Eochester,  N.  Y.,  from  1870  to  1891,        ...  20 

Analyses  of  Water  of  Blackstone  River,  made  in  1887,  1888,  and  1889,  43 

Analyses  of  Waters  of  Blackstone  River,  made  in  1889  and  1890,        .  44 

Analyses  of  Connecticut  River  Water,  made  in  1890  and  1891,    .         .  57 

Analyses  of  Passaic  River  Water  above  the  Great  Falls  at  Paterson,    .  60 
Analvses  of  Passaic  River  Water  between  the  Great  Falls  and  Dundee 

Lake, 60 

Analyses  of  Dundee  Canal  Water  at  and  near  Passaic,  N.  J.,         .         .  61 

Chemical  Changes  in  Passaic  River  Water  at  Six  Points,     ...  62 
Chemical  Changes  in  the  Water  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal 

while  flowing  29  miles  from  Bridgeport  to  Lockport,      ...  67 

Analyses  of  Water  from  South  Framingham  Underdrain,    ...  80 

Results  of  Microscopical  Examination  of  Framingham  Samples,          .  81 

Constituents  of  Sewage,        .........  83 

Daily  Consumption  of  Water  in  Cities  of  the  United  States  with  a 

Population  of  over  10,000  in  1890, .120 

Daily  Consumption  of  Water,  classified  by  Amounts  and  Size  of  City,  123 

Population  per  Water-Tap,  classified  by  Numbers  and  Size  of  City,  .  124 
Consumption  of  Water  and  Use  of  Meters  in  the  50  Largest  Cities  of 

the  United  States, 125 

Increase  in  per  Capita  Consumption  of  Water,     .....  126 

Water  Pumiced  per  Family  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  1853  to  1892,  inclusive,  126 
Inci'ease  in  Population  in  10  Years  in  a  Number  of  Cities  and  Towns 

of  the  United  States  with  from  8,000  to  50,000  Inhabitants  in  1890,  127 
Increase  in  Population  in  10  Years  in  Cities  of  the  United  States  of 

over  50,000  Inhabitants  in  1890, 128 

Population  of  a  Number  of  the  Smaller  Cities  and  Towns  of  the 

United  States  at  each  10-Year  Period  from  1800  to  1890,          .         .  129 
Population  of  a  Number  of  the  Largest  Cities  of  the  United  States  at. 

each  10-Year  Period  from  1800  to  1890,, 130 

Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hours  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1871  to  1892,        .  134 

Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hours  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  1871  to  1892,   .         .  134 

Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hours  at  Cleveland,  O.,  1871  to  1892,     .         .  135 

Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hours  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  1872  to  1892,      .  135 

Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hours  at  Cincinnati,  O.,  1871  to  1892,   .         .  136 

Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hours  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1879  to  1892,       .         .  136 
Rainfalls  in  Excess  of  2.5  Inches  in  24  Hours  at  Vicksburg,  Miss., 

1872  to  1H92, 136 

Heaviest  Rainfalls,  with  Duration,  at  Shreveport,  La.,  1872  to  1891,  .  137 

Total  Average  Daily  Use  of  Water  at  Rochester,  N.  Y 138 


XXVI 


LIST    OF   TABLES    IN    PART   I. 


StJMBER 
OF   TABIJC 

28. 

29. 
30. 

31. 
31  A. 
31  B. 
31  C. 
31  D. 

31  E. 

32. 

33. 
33  A. 

34. 

35. 

36. 
36  A. 
36  B. 
36  C. 

37. 

38. 

39. 
40. 


41. 

41  A. 
41  B. 

42. 


44. 
45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 

50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 

53  A 
54. 
55. 

56. 
57, 

58. 


Approximate  Use  of  Water  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  from  the  Hemlock 

Lake  System  by  Hours  on  Three  Different  Days  in  1890, 
Flow  of  a  Number  of  Outfall  Sewers  in  Providence,  li.  I.,  in  1884, 
Flow  of   the   Main  Outfall  Sewer  of    the  State  Insane  Hos^jital  at 

Weston,  W.  Va.,  in  January,  1891, 

Hourly  Flow  in  the  Main  Sewer  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y., 

Sewer  Gagings  at  Toronto,  Ont.,  in  1891, 

A  Year's  Daily  Sewage  Pumpage  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J., 

Water  Consumi)tion  and  Sewage  Pumpage  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J., 

Maximum  and  Minimum  Daily  Pumpage  of  Sewage,  by  Months,  at 

Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  for  the  Year  ending  with  November,  1892, 
Monthly  Temperatures  and  Precipitation  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J., 
Average  Composition  of  the  Sewage  Experimented  with  at  Lawrence, 
Average  Composition  of  Sewage  of  English  Towns, 
Means  of  Analyses  of  London  Sewage,  made  by  W.  J.  Dibdin  in  1883, 
Weight  of  the'Excrements  of  100,000  Persons  for  a  Year,    . 
Weight  of  Excrements  per  Person  per  Day  and  the  Organic  Nitrogen 

and  Phosphates  contained  therein,  ..... 

Weight  of  Excrements  per  Person  per  Year,         .... 
Average  Composition  of  Human  Excrements,        .... 

Analyses  of  Night  Soil  from  Vaults, 

Manurial  Constituents  of  the  Excrements  of  Domestic  Animals  and 

Human  Beings,  ......... 

Analyses  of  Soils  from  the  South  Carolina  Experiment  Farms,   . 
Approximate  Number  and  Average  Diameter  of  Particles  in  One  Gram 

of  Soil  from  the  Farms  of  the  South  Carolina  Experiment  Stations, 
Surface  Area  of  Particles  in  One  Gram  of  Soil  from  the  Farms  of  the 

South  Carolina  Experiment  Stations, 

Per  Cent,  of  Empty  Space  in  a  Number  of  Soils  in  Comparison  with 

Average  Size  of  Particles,  Approximate  Niimber  of  Particles,  and 

Surface  Area,  per  Gram,    ......... 

Mechanical  Composition  of  the  Materials  used  in  a  Number  of  the 

Experimental  Filter  Tanks  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station, 
Size  and  Uniformity  Coefficient  of  Lawrence  Filtering  Materials, 
Quantity  of  Sewage  applied  to  Different  Filtering  Materials  at  Law- 
rence,        ............ 

Amount  of  Sewage  iiussing  through  the  Deposit  Sewers  of  the  Boston 

Main  Drainage  in  1887,  and  the  Amount  of  Sludge  removed,  . 
Tank  Capacity  in  Relation  to  Population  and  Quantity  of  Sewage  at 

Three  English  Towns,       ......... 

Results  of  Chemical  Treatment  in  Large  Tank  at  Lawrence, 
Summary  of  Second  Experiments  on  Chemical  Treatment  at  Lawrence, 
Results  of  Precipitation  with  Large  Excess  of  Lime,   .... 

Results  of  Precipitation  with  Lime  about  Equal  to  the  Carbonic  Acid, 
Results  of  Treatment  of  Sewage  with  about  500   Pounds  of  Copperas 

per  1,000,000  Gallons,  and  Lime  adjusted  to  the  Cop])eras, 
Results  of  Treatment  of  Sewage  with  1,000  Pounds  of  Copperas  per 

1,000,000  Gallons,  and  Lime  adjusted  to  the  Copperas, 
Results  of  Treatment  of  Sewage  with  Ferric  Sulphate, 
Results  of  Treatment  of  Sewage  with  Alum,         ..... 
Results  of  Treatment  with  Equal  Values  of  Different  Chemicals, 
Per  Cent,  of  Soluble  Organic  Matter  removed  by  Chemicals  of  Equal 

Valne, 

Treatment  with  Lime  and  Copperas,  followed  by  Aeration  of  Effluent, 
Three  Years'  Experiments  at  the  Sewage  Farm  in  Rugby,  England,  . 
Per  Cent,  of  Dry  Substance  in  Crops  raised  on  Experimental  Fields, 
Results  of  Feeding  Unsewaged  and  Sewaged  Grass  to  Milch  Cows,  . 
Statistics  of  Foreign  Sewage  Irrigation  and  Filtration, 
Per  Cent,  of  applied  Nitrogen  that  appears  in  the  Effluent  as  Nitrates, 


139 
141 

142 
143 
144 
145 
146 

148 
148 
152 
153 
155 
155 

156 
156 
157 
157 

158 
164 

164 

165 


165 

166 

167 

168 

184 

206 
211 
212 
213 
214 

215 

216 
217 
217 

218 


219 
222 
237 
237 
238 
247 
267 


LIST   OF   TABLKS    IN    PART   I.  XXvii 


NUMBEE 
OF    TABLE 


59.  Number  of  Bacteria  in  Sewage  applied  to  Coarse  Sand  Filter  No.  1, 

in  the  Effluent  tlierefroni ;    together   with   the   Amount   aj^plied, 
Amount  of  Effluent,  and  Temperature  of  Sewage  and  Effluent,       .     2G7 

60.  Mineral  Analyses  of  Sewage  applied  to  Tank  No.  1,  and  of  its  Effluent,     2G8 
Gl.     Per  Cent,   of  the  Ammonias   in  the  Sewage  applied   to  Tank  No.   1, 

which  appeared  in  the  Effluent  in  Comparison  with  the  Percentage 

of  tlie  Total  Nitrogen  in  the  Effluent, 268 

62.  Total  Nitrogen  applied  to  Tank  No.  1,  Amount  appearing  in  the  Efflu- 

ent, Amount  stored  in  the  Tank,  and  the  Unaccounted-for  Balance,     269 

63.  Daily  Quantity  of  Effluent  in  Gallons  per  Acre,  the  Average  Amounts 

of  Ammonia,  Nitiates,  and  Bacteria  in  the  Effluent,  and  the  Time  of 
passing  through  One  Foot  in  Tank  No.  2,  Clean,  Fine  Sand,  .         .     275 

61.  Average  Quality  of  the  Effluent  from  a  Fine  Gravel  Filter  in  Compari- 

son with  the  Original  Sewage  when  filtering  at  the  Bate  of  108,500 
Gallons  |)er  Acre  ]ier  Day,  ........     276 

65.  Average  Qnulity  of  the  Effluent  from  a  Fine  Gravel  Filter  in  Compari- 

son with  the  Original  Sewage,  after  Filtering  at  Rate  of  70,000 
Gallons  per  Acre  per  Day  foi'  Seven  Months,  .....     276 

66.  Comparison  of  the  Effluent  from  Several  of  the  Experimental  Filters 

with  Water  from  Wells  in  the  City  of  Lawrence  in  Common  Use,  278 
66  A.  Per  Cent,  of  Organic  Matter  remaining  in  Filters  in  Winter,  .  .  282 
66  B.  Bacteria  in  Effluent  from  Ex])erimentui  Filters  in  Winter,  .         .         .     283 

67.  Examination  of  Various  Saniples  of  Eefuse  from  Crehore's  Paj^er  Mill,     301 

68.  Examination  of  Various  Samples  of  Refuse  from  Crehore's  Paper  Mill,     302 

69.  Mean  INIaximum,  Mean  Minimum,  and  Mean  Temperatures  of  Air  at 

Lawrence  during  the  Winters  of  1887-88  and  1888-89,    .  .         .304 

70.  Maximum,  Minimum,  and  Mean  Tenii)eratures  of  Aiii:)lied  Sewage  and 

Effluent  at  Lawrence,  from  January,  1888,  to  Ajnil,  1889,  inclusive,     305 

71.  Winter  Temperatures  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,       .         .         .     306 

72.  Winter  Temperatures  of  1886  and  1887  in  Michigan,    .         .         .         .307 

73.  Winter  Temperatures  for  a  Series  of  Years  in  Alabama,        .         .         .     307 

74.  Soil  Temperatures  at  the  Berlin  Sewage  Farms  in  1884  and  1885,        .     309 

75.  Heat  Retaining  Power  of  Different  Soils, 311 

76.  Time  Sewage  remained  on  Surface  when  applied  to  Sand  Filters,        .     312 

77.  Heating  Effect  of  the  Sun  on  Wet  and  Dry  Soils  of  Different  Colors,     319 

78.  Tomi)eratui-es  of  the  Air  and  of  tlie  Soil  at  Various  De])tlis,  Novem- 

ber, 1890,  to  April,  1891,  inclusive,  at  State  College,  Pennsylvania,     322 

79.  Temperatui-es  of  the  Air  and  of  the  Soil  at  Various  Depths,  Terres- 

trial and  Solar  Radiation,  Mav  to  October,  1889,  inclusive,  at  Maine 
State  College,  Orono,  Me.,      " 323 

80.  Temperatures  of  the  Air  and  of  the  Soil  of  Various  Dejjths,  January 

to  Ai)ril,  1889,  inclusive,  at  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minnesota,      .        '.     324 

81.  Tem])eratures  of  the  Air  and  Soil  at  Lincoln,  N(»l).,     ....     325 

82.  Tempeiatures  of  the  Air,  Januarv  to  A]n'il,   inclusive,  1889  and  1890, 

at  Fort  Collins,  Col..         .        ' 327 

83.  Weeklv  Means  of  Soil  'I'lMnjicatnies  at  Various  Dejiths,  Januarv  to 

May,  1889  and  1890.  Fort  Collins,  Col., '      .     327 

84.  Teni])ei'atutes  of  .Air  and  Soil  and  Terrestrial  Radiation,  for  1890,  at 

Fort  Collins,  Col., 327 

85.  DitFeicnce  in  Temi>eratur('  of  the  Soil  at  Various  Dejitlis  in  Div  and 

Wet  Giound  at  F(M-t  Collins,  Col.,  in  1890,        .  .  .  ."  .328 

8('>.     :\ronthlv  Evu))oration  at  Fort  Collins,  Col..  1887  to  1890.  inclusive,     .     329 

87.  Solar  and  Terrestrial  Radiation  at  Fort  Collins,  Col.,  .  .         .  .     329 

88.  Teni])pratnies  of  Air  and  Soil  at  Vaiious  Depths,  Auburn,  Ala.,  .     331 

89.  Mean  of  .\ii-,  Teircstrial,  and  Soil  'i'hermometers  at  Auburn.  Ala.,        .     332 

90.  Maximum  and  'Minimum  Tempeiaturi^s  of  T<'rrestrial  Radiation,  Air 

and  Soil  Thermometers,  for  1889,  at  .\uburn,  Ala.,  .         .         .     332 

91.  General  Re-sults  of  Penny  and  Adams'  Experiments  on  Fish,  .     345 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL 
IN"    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


PART  I. 
DISCUSSION   OF  PRINCIPLES. 


CHAPTEE    I. 

PRELIMINAEY  DISCUSSION. 

Definition  of  Terms. 

One  occasionally  meets  a  misuse  of  the  terms  sewerage  and  sewage, 
and  by  way  of  giving  a  clear  idea  of  the  thing  discussed  we  may 
properly  begin  a  treatise  on  sewage  disposal  with  a  definition  of  the 
leading  terms.  By  sewerage,  as  here  used,  we  refer  to  the  general 
process  of  removing  the  liquid  and  solid  wastes  of  the  human  economy 
by  water-carriage,  while  a  seicer  is  the  conduit  through  which,  by  the 
medium  of  water,  such  removal  is  eftected  ;  sewage,  on  the  other  hand, 
will  be  used  as  the  generic  term  not  only  for  the  combined  water  and 
waste  matters  flowing  in  sewers,  but  for  the  mixed  solid  and  liquid 
matters  handled  by  a  pail  or  pneumatic  system  as  well. 

Sewjige  disposal  in  its  broadest  sense  may  be  taken,  then,  as  refer- 
ring to  any  disposal  or  treatment  of  sewage  which  renders  it  innocuous 
to  human  beings ;  it  may  include  disposal  by  discharge  into  tidal 
or  other  large  l)odies  of  water,  utilization  in  sewage  farming,  or 
by  burying,  as  is  sometimes  practised  with  jDail  systems. 

Classification. 

AVith  this  definition,  methods  of  sewage  disposal  may  be  classified 
under  the  following  heads  : 

T.     The  use  of  privies  and  cesspools. 
II.     Collection  by  pail  systems. 


2  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITP:D    STATES. 

III.  The  pneumatic  systems  of  Liernur,  Berlier,  Shone,  and  others. 

IV.  Simple  subsidence  or  sedimentation. 

V.     Simple  filtration  through  some  artificial  substance,  as  coke, 
excelsior,  or  ashes. 
VI.     Discharge  of  crude  sewage  into  tidal  or  other  large  bodies  of 
water. 
VII.     Chemical  precipitation. 
VIII.     Broad  irrigation. 
IX.     Intermittent  filtration. 
X.     And  finally  electrolysis;  although  this  method,  while  promis- 
ing good  results,  must  still  be  considered  as  in  the  experi- 
mental state.* 
The  first  three  methods  will  not  be  considered  at  all  in  this  treatise, 

*  Mechanical  filtration  may  be  also  possibly  regarded  as  another  method  of  sewage  disposal,  and 
the  Farquhar-Oldham  filter  is  cited  as  a  device  of  this  character,  which  apparently  has  limited 
application  to  small  quantities  of  sewage,  as,  for  instance,  to  the  sewage  of  detached  houses.  So 
far  as  the  writer  knows,  it  has  never  been  successfully  nsed  on  a  large  scale  in  the  United  States. 
An  unsuccessful  trial  was  made  at  the  Mystic  Valley  Sewage  Disposal  Works  a  few  years  ago. 
(See  reference  to  same  in  Part  II.) 

The  Lortzing  sy.stem  of  combined  mechanical  and  chemical  purification  may  be  referred  to. 

According  to  the  Inventor's  Circular  the  following  combinations  of  advantages  have  been 
successfully  incorporated  in  this  filter  : 

1.  The  mechanical  and  chemical  treatments  are  strictly  separated,  all  impurities  capable  of 
being  eliminated  mechanically  being  first  extracted  before  recourse  is  had  to  chemicals. 

2.  By  thus  reducing  the  quantity  of  chemicals  used,  not  only  their  cost  is  saved,  but  the 
quantity  of  the  final  jtroducts  is  diminished,  and  thetefore  the  expense  of  dealmg  with  them 
reduced  to  a  proportionate  degree. 

3.  By  the  provision  of  means  for  circulating  the  same  chemicals  repeatedly,  it  is  possible  to 
employ  certain  diflicultly  soluble  chemicals,  which  at  present  cannot  be  used  at  all,  and  the  cost  of 
which  is  merely  nommal.  The  small  cost  of  these  materials  is,  however,  only  part  of  the 
advantage  gained  by  their  use  ;  a  further  great  advantage  is,  that  being  difficultly  and  slowly 
soluble,  they  act  at  first  as  mechanical  precipitants  ;  and  afterwards,  as  they  slowly  dissolve  in 
their  course  of  circulation,  their  chemical  action  comes  into  play. 

4.  The  working  of  the  apparatus  is  almost  automatic,  and  requires  very  little  manual  labor. 

5.  Owing  to  its  special  mechanical  principles  of  construction  and  its  contmuous  working,  no 
interruption  being  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  out  the  sediment,  the  space  taken  up  by 
the  apparatus  and  buildings,  as  compared  to  the  quantity  of  work  done,  is  reduced  to  a  small 
fraction  of  what  is  now  necessary. 

6.  Owing  to  the  provision  of  natural  filter-beds  within  the  apparatus,  which  are  formed  by  the 
sedimentary  matter  itself,  the  prime  cost  of  additions,  as  well  as  the  disadvantage  of  their  unduly 
increasing  the  bulk  of  the  by-products,  is  saved. 

7.  Such  filters  act  automatically,  and  can  be  continuously  and  expeditiously  cleaned  out  without 
any  stoppage  of  the  working.  Owing  to  the  sediments  being  thus  removed  from  day  to  day,  no 
time  is  given  for  decomposition  and  its  iniurions  consequences. 

8.  It  will  be  clear  that,  as  the  quantity  of  mechanical  and  chemical  admixtures  during  the 
process  is  very  greatly  reduced,  the  really  valuable  mgredients  of  the  sewage  are  contained  in  the 
final  by-products  in  a  concentrated  form,  which  transforms  these  products  into  a  valuable 
marketable  commodity,  whilst  for  the  converse  reason  the  products  attained  by  the  present 
method  are  rarely  worth  the  cost  of  transport,  and  often  absolutely  valueless. 

For  further  details  of  the  Lortzing  system  see  (1)  the  inventor's  circular,  "  Improvements  in  the 
Method  of,  and  Apparatus  for.  Purifying  the  Water-Carried  Sewage  of  Towns,"  etc.;  (2)  an  abstract 
of  this  circular,  with  the  illustrations,  may  be  found  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxii.  (188'.)),  p.  3G2. 

The  Lortzing  system  appears  to  be,  so  far  as  the  actual  purification  process  is  concerned,  essen- 
tially a  chemical  treatment,  to  which  a  certain  amount  of  mechanical  detail  has  been  added.*  It 
also  illustrates  the  recent  development  of  chemical  treatment  in  vertical  tanks,  for  further  infor- 
mation regarding  which  see  Chapter  XI.,  on  Chemical  Precipitation. 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    A    NEW   SUBJECT    IX   THE    UNITED    STATES.       d 

except  that  a  short  chapter  is  iuclucled  in  Part  II.  descriptive  of  the 
pail  system  at  Hemlock  lake,  N.  Y.* 

Sedimentation  and  simple  filtration  will  not  be  considered  any  fur- 
ther than  as,  at  times,  useful  adjuncts  to  the  more  positive  systems  of 
purification.  Experience  in  England  has  amply  demonstrated  that 
they  have  little  claim  to  be  considered  systems  of  purification  by 
themselves. 

In  the  case  of  disposal  into  tidal  or  other  larg-e  bodies  of  water  the 
problem  to  be  solved  is,  in  its  engineering-  features,  purely  one  of 
physics,  while  that  involved  in  disposal  by  chemical  precipitation, 
broad  irrigation,  or  intermittent  filtration,  may  be  considered  as  also 
including,  in  addition  to  the  physical  features,  problems  in  chemistry 
and  biology.  With  this  understanding  it  may  be  premised  that  the 
chief  object  of  the  present  work  is  to  treat  of  sewage  disposal  by 
chemical  precipitation,  broad  irrigation,  and  intermittent  filtration,  and 
that  only  a  relatively  small  amount  of  space  will  be  devoted  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  disposal  into  tidal  or  other  large  bodies  of  water. 

Again,  electrolysis  will  not  be  discussed  in  this  work.f 

Sewage  Disposal  a  New  Subject  in  the  United  States. 

I  Sewage  disposal,  in  its  practical  application,  is  comparatively  a 
new  subject  in  the  United  States;  but  the  rapid  growth  of  population, 
with  its  movement  into  cities  and  towns,  has  led  to  a  large  number 
of  cases  throughout  the  country  in  which  sewage  is  discharged  into 
streams,  ponds,  or  lakes  which  are  also  the  sources  of  public  water 

*  The  pneumatic  systems  have  been  thoroughly  described  elsewhere,  and  inasmuch  as  it  is  im- 
possible, at  the  present  time,  to  either  add  anything  to  what  has  already  been  said  in  regard  to  such 
systems,  or  give  any  examples  of  their  use  in  American  practice,  it  is  sufficient  to  merely  refer 
the  reader  to  some  of  the  sources  of  information  which  are  accessible  in  American  sanitary  litera- 
ture, namely  : 

(1)  The  Sanitation  of  Cities  and  Towns,  an<l  the  Agricultural  Utilization  of  Excreted  Matters. 
A  Report  on  Improved  Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal  and  Water  Supplies.  By  C.  W.  Chancellor, 
M.I).,  Sec.  .VM.  St.  Hd.  Health,  ISST.      Pamphlet,  1  TO  pages. 

(2)  Proposed  Plan  for  a  Sewerage  System,  and  for  the  Disposal  of  the  Sewage  of  the  City  of 
Providence.    By  Samuel  M.  Gray,  City  "Engineer.     1884,  pp.  22-30. 

(;i)   Berber  System,  &c.,  Eng.  and  Bldg.  Record,  vol.  vi.,  p.  :^7f) ;   vol.  x.,  p.  411. 

(4)  Col.  <ieo.  E.  VV'aring's  Sanitary  Drainage  of  Hou.se.s  and  Towns,  wliere  may  be  also  found 
the  main  facts  a))out  dry  earth  systems,  vaults  ami  privies,  and  pail  systems. 

Wm.  Paul  Gerhard's  'I'he  Disposal  of  House  hold  Wastes  (No.  (»7  Van  Nostrand's  Sci.  Ser.)  may 
be  also  consulted. 

+  The  available  information  in  regard  to  the  electrolysis  of  sewage  may  be  found  in  (1)  Kug. 
News,  vol.  xxi.,  p.  :;;J9,  and  vol.  xxil,  p.  o87  ;  (2)  Eng.  and  Bldg.  Record,  vol.  xiii.  (18'.KI),  p.  114; 
(3)  Sci.  Am.  Sup.,  May  4,  1889,  Nov.  23,  188<),  and  Apr.  2.5,  18'tl. 

See  also  description  of  the  Hardy  system  of  sewage  purification,  in  which  electrical  treatment  is 
proposed  as  an  adjunct,  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxi.  (18S',(),  p.  88. 

J  A  portion  of  tlie  following  discussion  originally  ai)i)earcd  (1)  in  a  paper  on  Sewage  Disposal  in 
the  United  Stat.s,  in  The  Eng.  Mag.,  vol.  ii.,  No.  4  (Jan.  18'.>2)  ;  and  (2)  in  a  Report  to  the  Trus- 
tees of  the  Weston,  W.  Va.,  State  Insane  Hospital.  In  Jour.  W.  Va.  House  of  Delegates  for  Feb. 
18,  1891.     Both  by  .Mr.  Rafter. 


4  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

supplies.  The  driuking-  of  water  containing-  human  excrement  is  a 
disgusting-  and  dangerous  practice,  and  we  cannot  hope  for  immunity 
from  communicable  diseases  until  the  custom  is  entirely  discontinued. 
The  fact  that  there  are  a  number  of  places  where  this  condition  exists 
has  enforced  the  necessity  for  sewag-e  purification,  and  made  it  a  vital 
question  demanding  immediate  solution. 

As  always  happens  when  new  conditions  arise,  numerous  remedies 
are  proposed,  many  of  them  bearing  little  or  no  relation  to  the  case  to 
be  treated  ;  and  by  way  of  assisting  to  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
present  state  of  the  whole  question,  it  is  proposed  to  give  herein  a 
presentation  of  (1)  some  of  the  main  reasons  why  sewage  purification 
may  be  considered  in  many  cases  an  imperative  necessity  ;  (2)  a  brief 
statement  of  the  approved  methods  of  effecting  sewage  purification  ; 
and  (3)  an  account  of  the  principal  sewage  purification  works,  already 
in  operation  in  this  country,  together  with  a  description  of  a  few 
notable  disposal  works  designed  to  remove  sewage  without  purifica- 
tion. 

In  the  beginning,  then,  we  need  to  understand  clearly  Avhy  sewage 
purification  is,  in  many  cases,  an  imperative  necessity  ;  and  by  way 
of  assisting  to  such  understanding,  we  will  present  a  short  statement 
of  the  leading  facts,  as  now  understood,  in  relation  to  the  causation 
of  communicable  diseases,  and  the  bearing  of  such  facts  on  sewage 
disposal. 

The  Germ  Theory  op  Disease. 

Certain  diseases  of  men  and  animals  are  communicable  from  one  in- 
dividual to  another,  and  the  modern  studies  in  bacteriology  show  that 
some  of  them  are  not  only  communicable  between  individuals  of  the 
same  species,  but  are  interchangeable  between  animals  and  men,  and 
between  men  and  animals. 

The  germ  theory  of  disease  as  announced  in  the  last  few  years  is  the 
most  rational  explanation  of  the  causation  of  communicable  diseases 
that  has  yet  been  advanced,  and,  without  asserting  its  absolute  cor- 
rectness, it  may  be  still  said  that  at  the  present  time  all  advanced 
sanitarians  assume  its  correctness,  and  the  best  sanitar}^  work  is  exe- 
cuted on  the  supposition  that  the  said  theory  is  essentially  correct. 
It  is  important  that  this  be  thoroughly  understood,  because  the  as- 
sumption of  essential  correctness  of  the  germ  theory  forces  upon  sani- 
tary authorities  the  responsibility  of  not  only  taking  certain  precautions 
and  providing  ]ireventive  measures  always,  but  leaves  upon  them  the 
responsibility  of  possibly  imperilling  human  life  in  case  of  neglect. 

The  germ  theory  assumes  that  the  active  causes  of  communicable  or 
contagious  diseases  are  minute,  living  organisms,  for  the  most  part 
capable  of  independent  life  both  within  and  without  the  animal  body. 


TYPHOID   FEVER.  5 

They  belong-  among  the  Schizomycetes,  or  fission-fimg-i,  embracing  the 
lowest  and  least  developed  forms  of  life  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and 
they  may  hence  be  considered  the  very  simplest  forms  of  plants. 
Some  of  the  forms  are  bacilli,  micrococci,  spirilla,  vibrios,  all  of  which 
may  be  referred  to  as  bacteria. 

Many  forms  of  bacteria  are  harmless  and  must  be  looked  upon  as  the 
beneficent  friends  of  man,  doing  him  many  a  good  turn  which  other- 
wise he  would  find  it  difiicult  to  accomplish.  Others  are  the  morbific 
causes,  when  they  gain  access  to  the  human  economy,  of  the  various 
infectious  or  communicable  diseases.  Attention  may  be  here  directed 
to  the  fact  that  the  bacteria,  although  microscopic  in  size,  are  still,  so 
far  as  the  evidence  g"oes,  divided  into  distinct  species,  and  by  conse- 
quence each  contagious  disease  has  its  own  specific  germ,  which  must 
be  present  in  every  case  before  that  particular  disease  can  be  de- 
veloped. 

Once  introduced  into  the  animal  body,  however,  the  specific  g-erm, 
after  a  period  of  incubation,  finally  grows  and  multiplies  enormously; 
so  that  while  a  single  germ,  or  the  least  atom  of  infectious  material, 
serves  to  inoculate  a  disease  in  a  susceptible  person,  the  contagious 
matter  produced  in  the  course  of  the  disease  may  be  sufficient  to  inocu- 
late many  thousands.  In  each  special  disease,  the  contagion  multi- 
plies chiefly  in  the  particular  tissues  which  are  especially  subject  to  its 
action,  and  the  infective  germs  are  cast  off  from  the  body  wdtli  the 
secretions  of  those  tissues.  Thus,  in  typhoid  fever,  the  seat  of  the 
disease  is  such  that  the  infectious  matter  passes  away  in  large  quanti- 
ties in  the  dejections  from  the  boAvels. 

Typhoid  Fever. 

The  period  of  incubation  in  typhoid  is  a  long  one,  of  from  14  to  20 
days,  while  the  course  of  the  disease  after  full  development  is  usually 
as  many  more.  Frequently  this  disease  is  of  so  mild  a  character,  that 
the  person  having  it  is  unaware  of  its  jiresence.  This  constitutes  a 
walking  case,  but  the  dejections  from  such  are  quite  as  dangerous  as 
from  the  severest  cases.  A  walking  case  of  typhoid  may  go  about  for 
a  number  of  weeks,  sowing  the  germs  of  the  disease  broadcast  with 
every  dejection,  absolutely  without  knowledge  of  the  fact,  and  with  no 
unpleasant  sensation  other  than  that  which  accompanies  being  slightly 
unwell. 

How  Typhoid  Germs  Gain  Access  to  the  Human  Economy. 

The  germs  of  tvi)hoid  usn.-illy  gain  access  to  tlio  animal  ocouomy 
through  the  medium  of  drinking-water,  although  the  germs  may  be 


6  SEWAGK    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

present  in  the  air  of  sewers  receiving-  the  dejections  of  typhoid 
patients,  as  has  been  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Victor  C.  Vaughan,  of  the 
University  of  Michigan.  When  this  is  the  case,  breathing-  the  sewer 
air  will  lead  to  the  production  of  the  disease,  as  happened  at  the  Jack- 
son prison,  in  a  case  studied  by  Dr.  Vaughau.* 

Usually,  however,  the  germ  of  typhoid,  by  reason  of  passing  from 
the  body  of  the  patient  in  the  dejections,  is  liable  to  be  present  in  the 
water  we  drink  rather  than  in  the  air  we  breathe,  and  the  length  of 
time  the  germs  will  survive,  after  passing  from  the  human  body  into  a 
stream  of  water  as  a  constituent  of  sewage,  becomes  a  practical  ques- 
tion of  considerable  importance  in  connection  with  sewage  disposal, 
especially  where  a  stream  of  moderate  size  receives  sewage  at  a  given 
point,  and  is  at  the  same  time,  lower  down,  the  source  of  a  public 
water  supply. 

Kesponsibility  of  Purification. 

The  question,  Upon  whom  does  the  resi^onsibility  of  purification  rest? 
has  been  raised  in  a  number  of  cases,  and  from  the  foregoing  considera- 
tions it  may  be  concluded  that  it  rests  upon  every  community,  manu- 
facturing establishment,  public  institution,  or  individual  Avhose  sewage 
outfall  is  into  a  stream,  pond,  lake,  or  other  bod}"  of  water,  which  either 
is  or  may  be  the  source  of  a  public  water  supply  at  any  point  fairly 
within  the  influence  of  the  inflowing  sewage.  In  this  view,  the  further 
question  at  once  arises  as  to  what  may  be  considered  the  legitimate 
limit  of  influence ;  to  this  a  definite  answer  is  afforded,  in  one  case,  by 
some  experiments  on  the  vitality  of  the  germ  of  typhoid  fever,  as 
detailed  by  Hiram  F.  Mills,  A.M.,  C.E.f 

Typhoid  Fever  at  Lawrence  and  Lowell. 

In  the  month  of  November,  1890,  the  Massachusetts  health  returns 
indicated  that  the  number  of  deaths  by  typhoid  fever  in  Lowell  far 
exceeded  that  of  the  whole  city  of  Boston.  The  returns  also  showed  a 
rapid  increase  at  the  same  time  in  Lawrence,  and,  as  no  similar  in- 
crease appeared  in  the  other  cities  of  the  State,  the  State  Board  of 
Health  made  the  matter  the  subject  of  special  investigation  in  these 
two  cities.  Lowell  has  a  population  of  77,696,  Lawrence  44,654,  and 
Boston  448,477,  all  in  1890.  Lawrence  and  Lowell  are  on  the  Merrimac 
river,  Lawrence  being  nine  miles  down  the  river  from  Lowell.  Both 
cities  take  their  water  supply  from  the  Merrimac,  and  the  crude  sewage 
of  Lowell  is  discharged  into  the  same  stream  a  short  distance  below 

*  16th  An.  Rept.  Mich.  St.  Bd.  of  Health,  pp.  180-104  (1888). 

t22nd  An.  Rept.  of  the  Mass.  St.  Bd.  of  Health  (1890).  Typhoid  Fever  in  its  Relation  to- 
Water  Supplies,  by  Hiram  P.  Mills,  A.M.,  G.E.,  pp.  535-543. 


TYPHOID    FEVKi:    A    PEEVENTABLE   DISEASE.  7 

the  Lowell  water  supply  intake.  A  probable  cause  of  the  contamiua- 
tioii  of  the  Lowell  water  supply  at  this  time  was  found  in  the  discovery 
of  the  discharge  of  the  dejections  of  typhoid  patients  into  Stony  brook, 
a  tributary  of  the  Merriniac,  three  miles  up  stream  from  the  Lowell 
water  works  intake.* 

The  Bacillus  of  Typhoid  Fever. 

It  was  also  found  that  such  discharge  was,  in  proper  sequence  of 
time,  follow^ed  by  a  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  deaths  from 
typhoid  in  Lowell ;  the  increase  there  being  further  followed  by 
an  alarming  increase  in  the  number  of  deaths  from  typhoid  in  Law- 
rence. In  December,  bacteriological  examinations  of  water  drawn 
from  the  service  pipes  in  Lawrence  resulted  in  tinding  the  bacillus  of 
typhoid  in  the  Lawrence  supply.  The  bacillus  of  typhoid,  or,  as  it  is 
freqiiently  called,  El)erth's  bacillus,  is  a  rod-like  bacillus  with  rounded 
ends.  It  is  a  plant  with  normal  specimens  tfuoo  iii-  i^  length  and 
about  ^fTTTTro  i^i-  in  diameter.  At  the  ends  are  hair-like  appendages, 
technically  called  cilia.  In  cases  of  typhoid  these  bacilli  multiply  in 
enormous  numbers,  the  seat  of  their  greatest  activity  being  in  the 
Payers'  glands,  although  they  have  also  been  found  in  the  mesenteric 
glands,  larynx,  and  lungs  of  patients  dead  of  typhoid.  The  typhoid 
germs  are  propagated  either  by  fission  or  from  spores.  In  propaga- 
tion by  fission  each  rod  divides  into  two,  each  of  which,  after  attaining 
maturity,  again  divides,  and  so  on.  Multiplication  by  spores  is  not  yet 
f  ulh'  understood,  though  in  a  general  way  it  may  be  stated  that  spores 
form  in  the  interior  of  bacilli,  after  the  manner  of  spore  multiplication 
in  other  cryptogams.  The  spores  are  much  smaller  than  bacilli,  and 
can  only  be  seen  with  the  most  powerful  objectives  known  to  modern 
microscopists.  It  is  probable  that  spores,  when  once  formed,  jiossess 
the  power  of  survival  under  very  adverse  conditions,  while  the  bacilli, 
by  reason  of  possessing  less  vitality,  more  easily  succumb. f 

Typhoid  Fever  a  Preventable  Disease. 

The  statement  may  be  made  that  typhoid  fever  is,  in  the  fullest 
sense,  a  preventable  disease.  Keeping  it  out  of  the  food  we  eat,  the 
air  we  breathe,  or  the  water  we  drink,  is  an  absolute  preventive  ;  or,  if 

*  Nashua  and  Manchester,  New  Hampshire,  and  a  number  of  other  towns  on  the  river  above 
Lowell  also  discharge  crude  sewage  into  the  Merrimac. 

+  For  discussion  of  formation  of  typhoid  spores,  with  references  to  th*?  literature  and  history  of 
the  subject,  see  papsr,  F^xpfriment  il  i^tudio^  on  the  C  lusation  of  Typhoid  Fever,  with  Special  Ref- 
erence to  the  Outbreik  at,  Iron  Mountan,  Michi;,^an.  by  Vaughan  and  Novy  ;  1.5th  An.  Rept.  Mich. 
St.  Bd.  Health  (18^7),  pp  i-ll  ;  aho.  The  Specific  Organism  of  Typhoid  Fever,  by  C,>-a.  \V. 
Fuller,  S.B.,  Technology  Quarterly  (Boston)    vol.  iv..  No.  2,  .July,  IS'Jl. 

.\n  extended  biVdiography  <if  the  bacillus  of  typhoid  fever  is  given  in  Sternberg's  Manual  of 
Bacteriology  (1892),  pp.  8()S-11,  which  indludes  8i  references  to  different  papers,  etc. 


S  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

present  in  either,  its  destruction  before  allowing'  it  to  enter  the  human 
body  is  equally  a  preventive.  AVater,  milk,  or  other  drink  or  food  sus- 
pected of  containing-  it,  should  undergo  a  degree  of  heat  equivalent 
to  the  boiling  point  of  water  for  at  least  30  minutes,  as  experience  has 
shown  that  this  will  more  than  kill  the  most  refractory  spores.* 

Returning  to  the  Massachusetts  Board's  investigation  of  the 
epidemics  of  typhoid  at  Lowell  and  Lawrence,  the  ijractical  ques- 
tion is  at  once  raised  as  to  whether  (1)  the  numerous  cases  in  Lowell 
may  be  justly  ascribed  to  the  known  contamination  of  Stony  brook 
above  the  Lowell  water  works  intake ;  and  (2)  whether  the  cases 
at  Lawrence  are  also  due  either  to  the  same  cause,  or,  further,  to  an 
accession  of  typhoid  germs  in  the  water  of  the  Merrimac  river  from 
the  sewers  of  Lowell,  which  presumably  received  the  dejections 
of  many  p3rsons  suifering  from  the  disease  in  that  town  ?  The  an- 
swer to  both  questions,  as  given  in  the  report,  is  a  decided  yes,  and 
we  may  now  inquire  whether  typhoid  germs,  wliicli  grow  in  the  human 
body  at  blood-heat,  will  survive  in  water  only  a  few  degrees  above 
freezing  long  enough  to  pass,  in  the  ordinary  flow  of  the  river,  from 
the  Lowell  sewers  to  the  Lawrence  intake,  thence  through  the 
distribution  pipes  to  the  services,  thence  into  the  houses,  and  finally 
into  the  bodies  of  the  citizens  of  Lawrence.  The  temperature  of  the 
river  water  in  November,  1890,  was  from  45°  to  35°. 

Taking  the  maan  velocity  of  the  river,  it  is  found  that  the  time  from 
the  Lowell  sewer  outfall  to  the  Lawrence  water-works  intake  is  eight 
hours.  Entering  the  reservoir  the  same  day,  the  water  would  certainly 
go  to  the  consumers  through  the  service  pipes  in  from  a  week  to  ten 
days ;  and  the  inquiry  is  narrowed  to  finding  out  whether  the  tyjjhoid 
germ  would  live  from  seven  to  ten  days  in  the  Merrimac  river  water 
when  at  a  temperature  of  from  45°  to  35°. 

Vitality  of  the  Typhoid  Bacillus. 

To  settle  this  interesting  question,  the  Massachusetts  Board  made  a 
series  of  experiments  by  inoculating  water  from  the  Lawrence  service 
pipes  with  typhoid  germs,  and  keeping  it  in  a  bottle  surrounded  by  ice 
at  near  the  freezing  point  for  a  month.  Each  day  one  cubic  centimetre 
was  taken  out,  and  the  number  of  typhoid  germs  therein  determined 
by  the  usual  culture  methods.  The  number  was  found  to  decrease 
from  day  to  day,  although  some  survived  24  days  as  follows : 

Germs. 

On  the  JBrst  day  there  were 6, 120 

On  the  fifth  day  there  were 3, 100 

*  Disinfection  ani  Disinfectants  :  Their  .\pplication  and  Use  in  the  Prevention  and  Treatment 
of  Disease  and  in  P.ihlic  and  Privat'  Sinitati^on.  By  the  Committee  on  Disinfectants  appointed 
by  the  American  Public  Health  Association. 


LIMIT   OF    INFLUENCE    IN    LAKES    AND    PONDS. 

On  the  tenth  day  there  were 490 

On  the  fifteenth  day  there  were 100 

On  the  twentieth  day  there  were 17 

On  the  twenty-fifth  day  there  were 0 


Limit  of  Influence  in  tete  Merrimac  Ert:r. 

It  appears,  then,  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  subject,  we  may  say 
that  in  the  Merrimac  river  the  limit  of  influence  of  the  sewage  of  the  city 
of  Lowell  is  fairly  the  point  reached  by  the  flowing  water  in  25  days 
after  passing  Lowell,  the  possible  effect  of  dilution  and  sedimentation, 
the  antagonism  of  the  non-pathogenic  bacteria,  and  the  purifying  effect 
of  minute  plants  and  animals  in  reducing  the  danger,  not  being  here 
taken  into  account.  The  Merrimac  river  flows  the  nine  miles  from 
Lowell  to  Lawrence  in  eight  hours,  or  at  the  rate  of  1^  miles  per  hour. 
Twenty-five  days  is  600  hours,  and  it  is  accordingly  found,  with  the 
limitations  noted,  that  a  flow  of  675  miles  may  occur  before  the  Merri- 
mac river  can  be  considered  perfectly  free  from  the  typhoid  germ,  if 
once  inoculated,  in  the  month  of  November.  Enough  is  known  of  the 
persistency  of  vitality  of  the  typhoid  spore  to  justify  assuming  that 
the  legitimate  safe  limit  of  influence  in  this  stream  will  bo  quite  as 
great  as  indicated  in  the  foregoing,  although  there  are  modifying  cir- 
cumstances which  will  be  referred  to  in  some  of  the  following  chap- 
ters. 

Table  No.  1  gives  the  statistics  of  this  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  at 
Lowell  and  Lawrence.* 

Table  No.  1.— Statistics  op  Typhoid  Fever  in  the  Cities  of  Loweix  and  L.vw- 
RENXE,  Mass.,  Septe.mbeu,  1890,  to  January,  1891,  inclusive. 


Lowell. 
Pop.,  77,605. 

1             Lawrence. 
'           Pop.,  44.559. 

Month. 

Deaths. 

Deaths  per 

100.000 
population. 

Cases. 

Cases  to 
one  death. 

Deaths. 

3 

3 

7 
19 
19 

Deaths  per 

100,000 
population. 

Septei'.oer,  1890 

8 
10 
28 
26 
19 

91 

10.31 
12.88 
30.08 

47 
95 
171 

5.6 

n.5 

6.1 
61 
4.3 

6.73 

O<!tot»^r 

6.73 
fxTl 

33.51        ;         159 
24.48       1          78 

42.64 

January,  1801 

42.64 

Totals 

117.26       1        550 

.... 

51 

Limit  of  Influence  in  Laki:s  and  Ponds. 

In  the  case  of  a  lake  or  pond  the  limit  of  influence  will  be  more  re- 
stricted than  in  a  running  stream,  though  it  must  be  stated  in  this  con- 

*  Derived  from  (I)  Mr.  Mills'  paper  in  'J'Jml  An.  Rcpt.  Mass.  St.  Board  of  Health  ;  ('J)  from  a 
Report  upon  thf  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Water  Supply  of  Lowell,  Mass,  presented  to  tho 
Water  Board  of  Lowell,  April  10,  1891,  by  Wm.  T.  Sedgwick,  Professor  of  Biology,  etc. 


10  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

nection  that  the  usual  hydrographic  observations  of  direction  of  water 
currents,  as  indicated  by  floats  for  a  few  days  only,  are  utterly  without 
significance  so  far  as  a  rational  solution  of  the  problem  of  legitimate 
influence  in  any  given  case  is  concerned.  ■  Such  observations  must  be 
carried  on  in  conjunction  with  biological  and  chemical  studies  for  a 
considerable  period  of  time,  and  when  so  carried  on  will  undoubtedly 
result  in  showing  that  the  limit  of  influence  in  large  lakes  is  much 
greater  than  has  thus  far  been  generally  assumed. 

The  Case  of  Schenectady,  Cohoes,  West  Troy,  and  Albany. 

Professor  William  P.  Mason  has  given  in  a  recent  paper  an  account, 
pertinent  to  the  present  discussion,  of  a  series  of  epidemics  of  ty- 
phoid fever  in  a  number  of  towns  supplied  with  water  from  a  sewage- 
contaminated  stream.* 

The  stream  hi  question  is  the  Mohawk  river,  which  receives  the 
sewage  of  nearly  every  large  town  on  its  banks,  several  of  them,  as  for 
instance  Rome,  Utica,  Little  Falls,  Amsterdam,  and  Schenectady,  hav- 
ing complete  sewerage  systems  which  discharge  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  crude  sewage  directly  into  the  stream. 

In  July,  1890,  a  marked  increase  in  the  amount  of  typhoid  fever  was 
noted  at  Schenectady,  and  from  that  time  to  the  middle  of  April,  1891, 
about  300  cases  were  reported,  of  which  70  were  fatal.  The  health 
officer  of  the  town  is  of  the  opinion  that  many  of  the  milder  cases  were 
never  reported,  so  that  in  reality  the  total  number  of  cases  was  consid- 
erably in  excess  of  300.  The  population  of  Schenectady  is,  according 
to  the  census  of  1890,  19,902. 

The  entire  water  supply  of  the  city,  amounting  to  2,200,000  gallons, 
is  now  derived  from  the  Mohawk  river  by  direct  pumping.  Previous 
to  1887  the  supply  had  been  taken  from  a  filter  gallery  near  the  river, 
but  in  that  year  extensions  were  made  and  the  supply  drawn  from  a 
crib  in  the  middle  of  the  river. 

The  water  supplies  of  the  towns  of  Cohoes  and  West  Troy  are  also 
derived  from  the  Mohawk  river,  while  that  of  Albany  is  partly  from 
the  Hudson  river,  the  balance  being  from  inland  lakes.  Waterford, 
Lansing]>urgh  and  Troy,  which  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  draw 
their  public  supplies  from  the  Hudson  above  the  mouth  of  the  Mo- 
hawk ;  a  portion  of  the  public  supply  of  Troy  is  from  lakes  to  the  back 
of  the  town  by  gravity.  The  approximate  locations  of  the  several  in- 
takes are  shown  by  the  squares  on  the  map,  Fig.  1. 

The  populations  of  these  towns  are :  Waterford,  5,400 ;  Lansingburgh, 

*  Notes  on  some  Cases  of  Drinking-Water  and  Disease.  By  William  P.  Mason.  Jour.  Frank.  Inst., 
Nov.  1891.     Reprint,  pp.  6-9. 


SCHEXECTADY,    COHOES,    WEST   TROY,    AND   ALBANY. 


11 


10,550  ;  Cohoes,  22,509  ;  AVest  Troy,  12,967 ;  Tro}^  60,956  ;  Albany,  94,- 
923 :  total,  207,305. 

There  is  also  a  town  of  a  population  of  4,463  on  Green  Island,  which 
derives  its  water  supply  from  a  filter  gallery. 

In  October,  1890,  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  began  in  Cohoes,  and  con- 
tinued until  the  middle  of  March,  1891.  Altogether  there  were  abo^^t 
1,000  cases  (1  in  every  22.5  of  the  population);  fortunately  they  were 
mostly  mild  in  character,  resulting  in  very  few  deaths. 

In  West  Troy  an  epidemic  of  typhoid  began  in  the  latter  part  of 
November,  1890.  On  about  December  15,  50  cases  were  reported.  Of 
these  42  used  Mohawk  river  water,  the  remainder  well  water.  On 
December  20,  the  Mohawk  supply  was  discontinued,  and  arrangements 
made  for  a  suppl}'  of  filtered  water  from  Green  Island,  which  had  no 


LANSIN6BUR6H 


Schenectady  to  Cohoes  ....  /7mi/es 
Cohoes  .  Wei t  Troy  .    i     ■■ 

West  Troy        •     Albany, —  6      . 


/5ifl/)/VV 


Fig.  1.— Towns  and  Water-Works  Intakes  at  and  near  Junction  op  Hudson 

AND  Mohawk  Rivers. 

typhoid.  In  one  week  the  n^port  of  new  cases  showed  15,  while  in  two 
weeks  but  1  was  reported.  On  returning  to  the  Mohawk  supply,  in  the 
middle  of  January,  a  slight  increase  was  observed.  The  total  number 
of  cases  in  West  Troy  excetnled  100. 

An  epidemic  of  typhoid  l:)egan  at  Albany  in  the  latter  part  of  De- 
cember, 1890,  and  continued  during  January,  February,  and  March, 
1801.  A  total  of  411  cas(^s  were  reported,  but  this  figure  is  stated  to  be 
far  below  the  real  fact.  Of  the  411,  only  18  are  reported  as  occurring  in 
the  district  supplied  with  water  by  gravity  from  the  inland  lakes. 

Wat«!if(jrd,  Laiisingburgh,  and  Troy,  whose  entire  water  su])plies  are 
from  fairly  i^ncoiit.iiniiiatcd  sources,  were  ordinarily  free  from  tyi)lioid 
during  this  period.  The  same  is  true  of  Green  Island,  the  water  sup- 
1)1  y  of  which  is  filtered  from  the  Hudson  river  by  means  of  a  filter 
gallery. 

The  statistics  of  this  e]iid(Mnic,  while  not  very  couiplete,  are  of  the 
greatest  interest.     Tliey  show  that  in  a  total  pojinlation  of  150,000  liv- 


12  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

ing-  in  several  towns,  all  of  which  are  supplied  with  a  grossly  contami- 
nated water,  the  number  of  cases  of  typhoid  occurring  in  a  few  months 
was  over  1,800,  or  about  1  in  every  84  persons.  At  the  same  time,  in 
a  similarly  situated  adjacent  population  of  about  77,000,  with  an  un- 
contaminated  water  supply,  very  few  or  no  cases  at  all  occurred. 

It  will  be  understood  that  the  upper  Hudson  is  only  slightly  con- 
taminated with  sewage. 

Why  Crude  Sewage  should  be  Kept  Out  of  Streams. 

Facts  and  discussions  of  the  character  of  the  foregoing  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that,  as  a  mere  matter  of  ordinary  prudence,  it  is  unsafe  to 
allow  raw  sewage  to  flow  into  streams  which  are,  at  any  point  bt^low 
where  the  sewage  flows  in,  the  source  of  a  public  water  supply. 
The  question  of  production  of  a  nuisance  by  causing  bad  odors  along 
the  stream  is  the  least  important  part,  and  in  many  cases  it  is  certain 
that  no  material  effluvium  nuisance  is  ever  created.  Usually  a  mini- 
mum volume  of  flow  in  a  stream  of  about  ten  times  the  volume  of  sew- 
age will  be  sufficient  to  prevent  this.* 

List  of  Water-borne  Communicable  Diseases. 

Returning  to  the  general  question  of  infectious  diseases,  we  may 
note  that  the  most  important  diseases  which  are  usually  water-borne, 
but  of  which  the  germs  may  be  present  in  the  air  of  sewers  receiving 
the  dejections  of  patients,  are : 

Typhoid  fever,  Cholera, 

Diarrhoea,  Dysentery. 

In  the  case  of  these  infectious  water-borne  diseases,  it  may  be  laid 
down  as  a  fundamental  proposition  that  the  dejections  of  patients  sick 
with  them  should  never  be  allowed  to  pass  into  the  sewers  until  they 
have  been  thoroughly  sterilized  by  treatment  with  a  proper  disinfect- 
ant. Such  treatment  should  be  used  as  an  additional  precaution,  as  a 
mere  matter  of  justice  to  any  human  being  wishing  to  use  the  water 
of  a  sewage-contaminated  stream  for  drinking,  and  it  should  be  further 
used  absolutely  without  reference  to  whether  or  not  the  sewage  into 
which  the  dejections  are  discharged  is  to  be  treated  at  disposal  works. 
The  only  exception  to  this  rule  may  be  found  in  the  case  of  discharge 
directly  into  tide  water. 

Disinfection  of  Dejecta. 

The  American  Public  Health  Association  in  1884  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  investigate  the  subject  of  disinfectants ;  a  series  of  experi- 

*  Notes  on  the  Pollution  of  Streams.  By  Rudolph  Hering,  C.E.,  Trans.  Am.  Pub.  Health 
Assoc,  1887.     Also  Eng.  and  Bldg.  Record,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  228. 


IMPOirrANCK    OF    DISINFECTION".  13 

ments  were  iustituted  and  a  valuable  report  was  made.  Among-  many 
other  recommendations,  the  committee  say,  that  for  disinfecting-  ex- 
creta in  the  sick  room  there  may  be  used — (1)  chloride  of  lime  in  four 
per  cent,  solution  (five  ounces  to  one  gallon  of  water) ;  (2)  mercuric 
chloride  in  solution,  1  to  500  (two  drachms  of  mercuric  chloride  to  one 
gallon  of  water).  In  order  to  give  the  mercuric  chloride  solution  a 
distinct  color  as  a  g-uard  ag-ainst  mistakes,  two  drachms  of  permanga- 
nate of  potash  may  be  added  to  each  g-allon  when  it  is  mixed  in  stock. 
The  label  should  bear  the  word  "  poison  "  as  an  additional  precaution 
against  mistakes. 

The  dejections  having-  been  received  in  a  vessel,  an  amount  of  either 
(1)  or  (2)  equal  to  the  quantity  of  dejections  should  be  added,  and  after 
thorovigh  stirring  the  whole  allowed  to  stand  for  at  least  one  hour. 
The  mixture  may  then  be  safely  permitted  to  go  into  the  sewer,* 

Of  these  two  disinfectants  the  chloride  of  lime  solution  is  the  more 
certain  in  its  application  to  excrement,  i^rovided  fresh  chloride  of 
standard  strength  is  used.  It  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  dry  chlor- 
ide loses  its  strength  quickly  on  exposure,  and  when  there  is  doubt 
on  this  score  the  quantity  of  chloride  jier  gallon  of  water  may  be  in- 
creased. 

The  mercuric  chloride  solution  is,  however,  certain  in  its  effects,  pro- 
vided the  precaution  is  always  taken  to  thoroughly  stir  the  excrement 
until  every  minute  particle  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  mercuric 
chloride  solution.  When  not  thoroughly  stirred  there  is  a  tendenc}^ 
to  the  formation  of  an  insoluble  coating,  by  the  action  of  the  mercuric 
chloride  on  the  albuminous  constituents  of  the  excrement,  with  the 
result  that  the  germ  material  in  the  interior  of  the  masses  may  re- 
main entirely  unaffected,  and  still  capable,  when  liberated,  of  propa- 
gating disease  the  same  as  before  disinfection.  The  chloride  of  lime, 
on  the  contrary,  has  a  tendency  to  disintegrate  the  masses  of  fecal 
matter,  thus  bringing  every  particle  in  contact  with  the  germ-destroy- 
ing material. 

Efficient  disinfection  of  the  dejections  of  typhoid  and  other  patients 
may  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  either  of  these  formuhr,  due  re- 
gard being  given  always  to  the  precautions  indicated  in  the  fore- 
going. 

iMrORTANCE    OF    DISINFECTION. 

In  illustration  of  the  importance  of  disinfection  of  dejecta  frtmi 
patients  suffering  from  ty]ihoid  fever  and  other  water-borne  commu- 
nicable diseases  before  allowing  them  to  pass  into  sewers,  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  most  efficient  means  of  purifying  sewage  yet  knoAvn, 
intermittent  sand  filtration,  cannot  be  de]iondedupon  to  absolutely  re- 

*  Report  of  Committee  on  Disinfectants,  loc.  €44. 


14  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

move  all  the  bacteria.  Such  means  of  purification  will,  however,  ordina- 
rily remove  at  least  99  i)er  cent.,  and  among-  those  removed  are  presum- 
ably a  large  proportion  of  the  disease  germs,  if  any  are  present,  thereby 
reducing  greatly  the  chance  of  infection  in  any  given  case ;  but  we 
cannot  j^et  assume  complete  removal  of  all  disease  germs,  especially  of 
the  more  hardy  varieties,  as  for  instance  the  spore  of  typhoid  fever. 
An  experiment  at  the  Lawrence  Station  aptly  illustrates  this  point. 
Bacillus  j)rodiglosus  is  a  hardy,  harmless  variety  of  bacteria  which  is 
said  not  to  occur  naturally  in  this  country.*  It  has  a  bright  blood-red 
color,  and  grows  luxuriantly  in  many  situations.  In  order  to  test 
whether  sand  filters  would  fully  destroy  a  hardy  variety,  this  bacillus 
was  added  to  the  sewage  applied  to  some  of  the  experimental  tanks, 
and  the  effluent  examined  with  reference  to  its  appearance  therein.  The 
result  was  that  with  coarse  sand  filters  a  few  might  be  expected  under 
ordinary  conditions  to  pass  through  ;  while  with  fine  sand  filters,  to 
which  comparatively  small  quantities  of  sewage  were  applied,  the  re- 
moval of  Bacillus  prodigiosus  appeared  complete.  In  a  practical  way, 
therefore,  we  may  conclude  that,  under  the  ordinary  conditions  of  work- 
ing, a  few  of  the  more  hardy  bacteria  may  pass  through  sand  filters 
and  ajjpear  in  the  effluent.  On  this  point  there  is  still  some  uncer- 
tainty, as  will  be  shown  further  on  in  the  discussion. f 

*See  Crookshank's  Manual  of  Bacteriology,  orcl  ed.,  p.  27.5,  for  morphology  oi  Bacillus  livoili- 
giosns. 

+  The  following  is  the  general  account  of  the  experiment  with  Bacillus  prodigiosus,  as  given  by 
Professor  William  T.  Sedgwick  in  Part  II.  of  the  Mass.  Spec.  Report : 

From  what  has  been  said  *  *  *  it  is  clear  that  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  organisms  of 
the  sewage  perish  in  the  filters  during  intermittent  filtration.  The  question  naturally  arises,  Uo 
any  of  the  sewage  organisms  live  to  pass  through,  or  are  they  all  de.stroyed  within,  the  filters  ? 
those  that  are  found  in  the  effluent  being  accounted  for  as  having  come  from  the  discharge  pipes, 
under-drains,  tank  floors,  etc.,  or  from  the  air.  The  hygienic  importance  of  this  question  is  obvi- 
ous, when  we  consider  the  extreme  desirability  of  removing  all  pathogenic  germs  from  the  sew- 
age. At  the  same  time  the  difficulty  of  solving  the  problem  was  great  in  some  cases,  inasmuch  as 
the  kinds  of  bacteiia  likely  to  occur  in  the  air,  in  sewage,  in  pipes  and  drains,  are  very  similar,  or 
perhaps  even  identical ;  and  consequently  the  comparison  of  tiie  species  in  the  sewage  and  the  efHu- 
ents,  apart  from  its  inherent  difficulty,  was  not  likely  to  yield  immediate  results.  It  was,  therefore, 
decided  to  experiment  directly  with  rich  cultures  of  a  species  of  the  bacteria  foreign  to  the  station, 
which  could  be  applied  in  the  sewage,  and  detected,  if  present,  in  the  effluents. 

For  this  purpose  Bacillus  2)ro(/igiosus  was  chosen.  This  species  has  never  been  observed  in  the 
sewage  or  effluents,  and  is  said  not  to  exist  native  in  this  country.  It  is  tolerably  hardy,  and 
owing  to  its  exceedingly  rapid  growth  upon  gelatine,  iind  its  production  of  a  bright-red  color  in  well- 
developed  colonies,  is  comparatively  easy  to  recognize  Luxuriant  vegetations  of  this  species 
were  prepared  either  in  the  usual  "  gelatine  tubes  '"  or  in  the  ordinary  •"  bouillon,"  and  after  at- 
taining the  extraordinary  development  of  which  it  is  capable,  so  that  a  single  cubic  centimeter  of 
the  fluid  contained  millions  of  the  individual  germs,  it  was  ready  to  be  applied  to  the  tanks. 
One  or  two  liters  of  this  fluid,  swarming  with  the  germs  of  Bacilhis  2'>rndi(iiosiis,  were  then  added 
to  the  ordinary  charge  of  sewage,  for  the  larger  tanks,  and  thirty  cubic  centimeters,  or  there- 
abouts, to  that  for  the  smaller  tanks,  after  which  the  mixture  was  poured  upon  the  sur- 
face. The  smaller  tanks  of  coarse  mortar  sand  were  first  experimented  with,  and  samples 
of  the  efflntnt  were  collected,  beginning  several  hours  after  the  application.  From  data  obtained 
since  that  time  it  appears  likely  that  these  collections  did  not  begin  early  enougii  to  secure  the 
largest  discharge  of  germs. 

The  results  proved  conclusively,  however,  that  Bacillus  prodigiosus  parses  through  these  tanks 
of  coarser  sand.  The  number  of  germs  discharged,  as  compared  with  the  number  applied,  was 
extremely  small,  which  indicated,  so  far  as  it  went,  that  most  of  those  applied  had  perished  in  the 
sand,  precisely  as  those  from  the  sewage  mostly  perish,  during  the  ordinary  operations  of  inter- 
mittent filtration.  In  the  first  experiment  Tank  No.  14  was  used,  and  three  tuljes  of  gelatine  al- 
ready liquefied  by  the  culture,  in  all  some  thirty  cubic  centimeters,  were  added  to  the  sewage 


TYPHOID    FEVEll    AT    LAU8EX,    SWITZERLAND.  15 

By  way  of  enforcing-  the  statement  that  dejections  of  typhoid  patients 
should  not  be  allowed  to  pass  into  streams,  or  to  be  even  cast  on  to  the 
ground  before  thoroug-h  sterilization,  and  also  to  farther  indicate  the 
probable  vitality  of  the  typhoid  germ,  we  may  refer  to  another  illus- 
trative case,  which,  while  often  referred  to  in  sanitary  literature,  may 
still  be  once  more  profitably  reproduced  by  reason  of  the  many  useful 
deductions  to  be  drawn  from  it.  The  case  referred  to  is  that  of  the 
outbreak  of  typhoid  at  Lausen,  Switzerland,  in  1872,  the  facts  in  reg-ard 
to  which  are  as  follows  : 

Typhoid  Fever  at  Lausen,  Switzerland, 

The  house  at  A,  Fig-,  2,  contained  a  number  of  cases  of  typhoid 
fever,  during-  the  summer  of  1872,  the  first  occurring  on  June  10,  fol- 
lowed by  recovery  in  September  ;  the  second  on  July  10,  with  recovery 
in  October  ;  there  were  also  two  mild  cases  of  short  duration  in  August, 
The  dejections  of  all  these  cases  passed  into  the  Furlen  brook,  flowing 
near. 

At  about  the  point  C  there  is  an  area  of  land  which  it  was  custom- 
ary to  irrigate  each  year,  from  the  middle  to  the  latter  part  of  July. 
"While  the  irrigation  was  in  process  this  year,  the  public  well  of  Lau- 
sen, at  D,  became  so  turbid  and  foul-tasting  that  many  people  gave 
Tip  using  it.  This  well  distributes  water  through  a  wooden  pipe  to 
four  public  pumps,  marked  on  Fig.  2  by  dots. 

At  that  time  Lausen  was  a  village  of  780  inhabitants,  living  in  90 
houses.  Its  location  is  on  gravelly  soil  from  35  to  G5  feet  above  the 
Ergholz  brook,  the  elevation  of  which  is  about  the  elevation  of  the 
ground-water  under  the  village.  The  last  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever 
was  in  1814,  when  the  village  was  occupied  by  soldiers ;  so  free  had  it 

charge.  This  tank  had  previously  been  fitted  with  side  taps  at  diffeient  levels,  in  order  to  test  the 
bacterial  composition  of  the  descendins^  fluid,  step  bv  step.  Whenever  it  wa.s  desired  to  use  these 
tans,  they  wer^  first  sterilized  \>y  directing  against  them  the  flame  of  a  plumber's  naphtha  burner. 
In  the  present  experiment  the  fluid  collected  from  such  a  tap,  one  foot  from  the  surface,  seven 
minutes  after  the  application,  contained  litirilhis  pr(><li(/ii>!<>tn.  The  outflow  from  the  same  tap, 
three  minutes  later,  also  contained  this  species,  as  did  that  from  a  tap  thirty  inches  from  the  sur- 
face, twelve  minutes  after  aj)plication.  It  was  not  looked  for  in  tlie  effluent  on  this  day  (Nov.  '21, 
18.SH),  but  was  found  in  the  effluent  of  the  '.l'2n(]  on  three  separate  trials,  as  well  as  in  that  from 
the  thirty-inch  side  tap.  It  was  also  found  in  the  effluent  of  the  same  tank  three  days  after  the 
application  (November  'J4).  and  seventeen  days  after  ( F^ecember  S).  It  was  not  found  at  any  later 
time,  and  although  hundreds  of  examinations  of  the  effluent  of  this  tank,  and  of  the  sand  compos- 
ing it,  have  been  made,  it  has  never  Iieen  found  since.  The  conclusion  is  inevitable  th.at  it  speed- 
ily died  out. 

The  next  experiment  was  upon  a  tank  of  similar  material.  Tank  No.  13,  on  Dec.  .5,  18SS.  As 
before,  three  tubes,  or  thirty  cubic  centimeters  of  a  rich  culture  of  />.  proiIifjiDsiis,  were  ap- 
plied in  the  sewage  charge.  On  the  7th  this  species  was  found  in  the  effluent,  and  also  on  the  8th, 
aft-r  which  it  disappeared  completely.  Apparently  it  died  out  even  more  speedily  than  in  the 
first  experiment. 

Further  experiments,  made  at  the  Lawrence  Eixperiment  Station  in  ISitl  and  ISO'i,  and  given 
in  2:?d  llcpt.  Mass.  Bd.  Hlth.  (1890-01),  pp.  604-7,  show  several  instances  of  complete  and  nearly 
complete  removal  of  the  BnciUi  ty/ifiosiis.  protlii/insus,  roll  rotinniDiU,  and  the  bacillus  of  canal 
water.     An  account  of  these  experiments  was  given  in  Eiig.  News,  vol.  xxix.  p.  19  (189.'J). 


16 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


been  from  typhoid  that  not  a  single  case  had  occurred  since  1865,  when 
a  few  were  imported  from  Basle. 

The  first  case  occurring-  in  the  house  A,  in  1872,  was  thought  to  have 
been  impoi-ted,  as  the  patient  had  been  away  from  Lausen  during  the 
period  of  infection. 

On  August  7,  1872,  10  j^ersons  in  Lausen  were  attacked  with  typhoid 
fever ;  from  the  7th  to  the  16th,  57 ;  from  the  7th  to  the  28th,  100 ;  and 
in  September  and  October,  30,  after  which  the  epidemic  ceased ;  8 
cases  were  fatal. 

Of  the  130  cases,  every  one  had  used  the  public  water  supply  from 


Fig.  2. — Map  of  Lausen,  Switzerland. 

the  well  at  D.  Not  one  case  occurred  among  those  who  drank  other 
water  only.  Thus  the  6  houses  marked  S  are  supplied  from  their  own 
private  wells  ;  in  them  only  two  persons  were  taken  sick  with  the 
fever,  and  it  was  found  that  they  had  drunk  the  public  water  when 
away  from  home. 

On  looking  into  the  matter  it  was  found  that  in  1862  a  hole  in  the 
earth  had  appeared  at  the  point  B,  8  feet  deep  and  3  feet  wide,  which 
disclosed  at  its  bottom  a  running  stream,  apparently  fed  by  the  Furlen 
brook  from  a  point  higher  up.  At  that  time  the  brook  was  led  into 
this  hole,  with  the  result  that  the  water  all  disappeared  and  in  an  hour 
or  two  streamed  out  at  the  well  D,  showing  a  connection  which  had 


TYPHOID    FEVER    IX    MASSACHUSETTS    CITIES.  17 

been  suspected  for  years.  On  refilling-  the  hole  the  brook  returned  to 
its  bed. 

At  the  investig-ation  in  1872,  after  the  epidemic  had  ceased,  the  hole 
B  was  reopened  and  a  large  quantity  of  salt  thrown  in ;  its  presence 
at  D  was  soon  ascei-tained  by  chemical  examination.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  fiour  was  also  added  at  B,  but  its  presence  could  not  be  de- 
tected at  D. 

As  a  result  of  the  investigation  it  was  found  that : 

(1)  The  Furleu  brook  was  contaminated  with  typhoid  dejections  in 
June,  July,  and  August,  1872. 

(2)  The  contaminated  water  was  used  for  irrigation  at  C  in  July  for 
about  two  to  three  weeks  before  the  outbreak  of  the  epidemic. 

(3)  This  irrig-ation  water  could  not  have  been  filtered  in  any  proper 
sense  of  the  word  as  it  was  turbid  and  foul  enough  to  cause  many  peo- 
ple  to  discontinue  the  use  of  water  from  the  well ;  hence  : 

(1)  It  seems  fair  to  conclude  that  the  g'erm  of  tyi^hoid  passed 
throug-h  the  g-round  from  C  to  D,  a  distance  of  nearh'  a  mile  without 
losing-  its  vitality.* 

It  may  be  remarked  that  the  non-appearance  of  the  flour  at  D 
althoug-h  frequently  cited  as  proof  of  the  indestructibilit}'  of  the  g-erm 
of  typhoid  fever  by  filtration  is  in  reality  no  special  proof  on  that 
point,  for  two  reasons :  (1)  because  the  i^asty  nature  of  the  flour 
would  of  itself  conduce  to  its  quick  retention  even  in  coarse  gravel ; 
(2)  in  the  case  cited  the  t3"phoid  germ  was  present  in  a  comparatively 
rapid  flowing-  stream  which,  apparently,  entirely  filled  all  the  voids  of 
the  gravel  for  a  considerable  space,  producing  a  case  of  rapid  continu- 
ous filtration  in  which  the  only  filtering  action  would  be  that  due  to  a 
retention  of  suspended  material ;  hence  before  it  can  be  assumed  that 
the  typhoid  germ  would  not  under  any  circumstances  be  filtered  out, 
it  must  be  shown  that  all  the  voids  in  the  filtering  material  are  of  less 
size  than  the  germs. 

In  considering  questions  of  this  character  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in 
mind  the  distinction  between  continuous  filtration  and  intermittent. 

Typhoid  Fevei?  in  ^lAssAcnusETTS  Cities. 

In  Table  No.  2  we  have  the  statistics  of  typhoid  fever  in  13  cities  in 
Massachusetts,  for  a  series  of  years,  both  before  and  after  the  intro- 
duction of  public  water  supplies  from  sources  nearly   all  of  which 

*  For  more  complete  accounts  of  the  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  at  Lausen,  8e« 

(I)  The  Lancft  (London),  .Tulv  1.5,  1S7(». 
Vl)  Jour.  Chem.  Soc  .  June.  187»>. 

(3)  f.th  Rept.  Riv.  Pol.  Com.,  p.  W,. 

(4)  Rept.  for  1873,  Armv  M.-d.  Dept.  (English). 
(.5)  8th  An.  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Health,  p.  I'i4. 


18 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX     IIIK    r.MTED    STATES. 


Table  No.  2. — The  Yearly  Ndmber  of  Deaths  from  Typhoid  Fever  per  10,00ft 
OF  the  Population  in  Thirteen  Cities  of  Massachusetts  before  and  after 
THE  Introduction  of  Public  Water  Suppues. 


Name. 


Fall  River  . . , 
Springfield... 

Taunton 

Northampton 

Lynn 

New  Bedford. 

Newton 

Maiden 

Fitchburg 

Wobum 

Somerville  . . . 

Chelsea 

Waltham  . . . . 


Yearly 
deaths    by 

typhoid 

fever  per 

10,000 

people, 

1859  to  1868. 


Public 

water 

supply 

introduced. 


1874 
187.5 
1876 
1871 
1871 
1869 
]87(> 
1870 
1872 
1873 
1867 
]8fi7 
1873 


I       Yearly 

deaths    by 

typhoid 

fever  per 

10,000 

I      people, 

1878  to  1889. 


Percentage 
deaths  in 
the  latter 
period  to 
those  in  the 
former, 


6.32 
5.29 
5.02 
4.04 
3  87 
3.80 
3.65 
3.54 
3.16 
2.95 
2.95 
2.89 
2.42 


81 
55 
82 
37 
43 
49 
56 
44 
30 
36 
69 
48 
30 


Population. 


1870. 


26,766 
26,703 
18,629 
10,160 
28,233 
21, .320 
12,825 

7.  .367 
11,260 

8,560 
14,685 
18.547 

9,065 


1890. 


74.398 
44,179 
25,448 
14.990 
55.727 
40.733 
24.37!> 
2:^,031 
22,(  37 
13,499 
40.152 
27,!)09 
18,707 


are  reasonably  free  from  sewage  contamination.  If  we  take  into  ac- 
count the  development  of  i^opulation  in  that  state  as  illustrated  by 
the  increase  in  these  13  cities  for  the  20  years  from  1870  to  1890 
we  cannot  but  admit  that  the  showing-  in  favor  of  pure  water  supplies^ 
as  a  preventive  for  typhoid  fever  is  a  very  strong  one.  In  Lowell 
and  Lawrence,  the  jDublic  water- works  of  which  were  constructed  at 
about  the  same  time  as  those  tabulated  (1872  and  1875,  respectivel,\> 
we  find  that  the  Merrimac  river,  a  stream  known  to  be  badly  contami- 
nated by  sewage,  was  selected  and  that  the  typhoid  rate  has  not 
decreased  in  either  town.  In  Lawrence  it  has  remained  the  same  as. 
previous  to  the  introduction  of  the  public  water  supply,  Avhile  in 
Lowell  the  rate  is  considerably  greater  for  the  period  following  the 
introduction  of  the  Merrimac  river  water  than  before. 

Of  the  several  preventable  diseases,  typhoid  is  the  best  known  both 
in  its  etiological  and  pathological  aspects  ;  and  in  order  to  show  its- 
relation  to  public  health,  Table  No.  .3,  which  has  been  compiled  from 
the  health  reports  of  the  cities  of  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Chi- 
cago, is  included.* 


Typhoid  Fever  at  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  Chicago. 

From  Table  No.  3  we  learn  that  the  deaths  from  typhoid,  in  both 
Philadelphia  and  Chicago,  are  on  an  average  double  what  they  are  iu 
New  York.     The  reason  for  this  is  found,  it  is  believed,  entirely  in  the 

*  This  table  is  derived  from  data  given  in  a  paper,  Typhoid  Fever  in  Chicago.  By  Prof.  Wm.  T. 
Sedgwick  and  Allen  Hazen.  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxvii.,  pp.  399,  400  (April  21,  1892)  ;  also  reprinted 
in  pamphlet  form.  Reference  to  this  paper  may  be  made  for  a  lar;,'e  amount  of  statistical  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  typhoid  fever  in  its  relation  to  polluted  water  supplies. 


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20 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


relative  degree  of  pollution  in  the  water  supplies  of  these  cities.  On 
this  point  a  considerable  amount  of  evidence  is  submitted  in  the  chap- 
ters following-. 

The  effect  of  introducing  into  a  city  a  public  water  supply  uncon- 
taminated  by  sewage  has  been  almost  universally  to  materially  reduce 
the  death  rate  from  typhoid.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  point  we  may 
refer  to  Tables  Nos.  2  and  4. 

Typhoid  Fever  at  Kochester,  N.  Y. 

Table  No.  4  presents  the  deaths  from  typhoid  in  the  city  of  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  by  months,  from  1870  to  1891,  inclusive.  Previous  to  the  year 
1873  this  city,  which  then  had  a  population  of  nearly  74,000,  was  en- 
tirely without  a  public  water  supply.  Water  for  domestic  purposes 
was  drawn  from  shallow  wells,  which  in  the  course  of  time  had  become 
badly  jjolluted  through  the  operation  of  soil  saturation.  The  extent 
of  the  pollution  may  be  apf)reciated  by  considering  the  results  of  a 
series  of  analyses  of  the  water  of  40  wells  made  in  1877,  when  it  was 
found  that  the  average  amount  of  sodium  chloride  per  IT.  S.  gallon  of 
the  well  water  was  16.78  grains.  The  normal  sodium  chloride  of  the 
region,  as  determined  from  an  unijolluted  well,  was  1.36  grains  per 


Table  No.  4.— Statistics  op  Typhoid  Fever  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  from  1870  to 

1891,  inclusive. 


Months. 

Population. 

».2 

Year. 

a 

3 

1^ 

p. 

0) 

c 

3 
1-3 

3 

1-3 

1 

3 

B 

o 

B 

§; 

o 

1 

1 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 

1874 

1875 

1876  .... 

1877 

1878  .... 
1879.    ... 

1380 

1881 

1S82 

1883.... 

iSM 

1885 

18,S6 

1887 

188S.... 

1889 

1890.    ... 
1891 

2 

3 
6 
5 
1 
5 
3 
2 
1 
1 
1 
3 
3 
8 
3 
8 
1 
3 
5 
1 
3 
1 

3 
2 

1 
6 
1 
4 
3 
0 
1 

0 
1 
0 
2 
1 
0 
2 
1 
2 
4 
3 
2 
3 

3 
2 
2 
4 
0 
2 
3 
0 
0 
1 
1 
4 
0 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
3 
2 

1 
1 
2 

1 
1 
2 
2 
2 
1 
3 
1 
1 
3 
1 
3 
2 
3 
1 
2 
0 
2 
3 

0 

6 
1 

4 
1 
3 
•i 
1 
4 
1 
0 
0 
3 
4 
1 
0 
2 
0 
3 
0 
2 
5 

1 

3 

1 
2 
2 
2 

1 
0 
1 
1 

0 

1 
1 

1 
1 

0 
2 
0 

1 
1 
1 
3 

5 
3 
4 

I 
3 

1 

0 
1 
0 

1 

0 
0 
0 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
5 
6 
5 

2 
2 

8 
5 
5 
2 

2 
4 
3 
2 
5 
2 
0 
4 
2 
2 
3 

0 

10 
4 
3 
2 

12 
2 

10 
5 
4 
3 
2 
5 
4 

0 
5 
4 
4 
4 
5 
7 
9 
14 
6 
6 
8 

14 
7 
17 
12 
11 
11 
6 
5 
0 
1 
7 
6 
5 
6 
7 
8 
5 
9 
9 
8 
7 
6 

6 
2 
8 
6 
5 
4 
4 
6 
0 
4 
3 
4 
4 
5 
9 
2 
3 
5 
2 
3 
3 
4 

3 
3 
10 
10 
6 
3 
2 
2 
1 
2 
1 
1 
5 
3 
9 

I 
3 
2 

7 
5 
9 

54 
3U 
70 
61 
41 
44 
31 
27 
17 
17 
21 
26 
30 
39 
43 
32 
.33 
38 
54 
39 
43 
51 

62.386* 
66.253 
70,120 
73.987 
77,854 
81,782* 
83,250 
84,7,^0 
86,310 
87,840 
89,366* 
91.860 
94,6511 
97.960 
101,710 
105,950 
110,450 
115,150 
120,150 
126,400 
133.896* 
142,500 

8.65 
4.53 
9  99 
8.24 
5.27 
5.39 
3  72 
3.19 
1.97 
1.93 
2.35 
2.82 
3.17 
3.98 
4.93 
3.02 
2.99 
3.30 
4.49 
3.09 
3.21 
3.58 

Totals. 

68 

42 

37 

38 

39         26 

46 

74 

120 

167         92 

92 

841 

Official  population. 


TYPHOID    FEVER   AT   ROCHESTER,  N.  Y.  21 

g-allon.  At  the  same  time  the  averag-e  amount  of  sodium  chloride  in 
samples  of  sewage  collected  from  nine  of  the  principal  sewers  of  the 
city  was  found  to  be  5.26  grains  per  gallon.  In  some  of  the  badly 
polluted  wells  free  ammonia  was  found  to  the  amount  of  1.5  grains  per 
gallon,  and  albuminoid  ammonia  0.5  grain  per  gallon.* 

"With  a  water  supply  of  this  character  it  was  inevitable  that  sickness 
of  all  kinds  would  rapidly  increase  and  we  accordingly  find  the  typhoid 
rate  10  per  10,000  inhabitants  in  1872. 

In  January,  187-4,  a  partial  water  supiDly  was  introduced  from  the 
Genesee  river,  which,  while  not  suitable  for  domestic  purposes,  was  still 
of  value  by  reason  of  furnishing  a  means  of  Hushing  sewers  and  assist- 
ing in  maintaining  the  general  cleanliness  of  the  town. 

In  January,  1876,  a  domestic  supply  from  Hemlock  lake  was  intro- 
duced. Its  use  rapidly  extended  among  all  classes  of  citizens,  until  in 
1892  at  least  95  per  cent,  of  the  total  population  used  the  water  from 
Hemlock  lake  for  all  domestic  purposes.  From  such  general  use  of  an 
uncontaminated  water  resulted  a  permanent  material  lowering  of  the 
typhoid  rate,  as  indicated  in  Table  No.  4. 

The  detailed  statistics  of  typhoid  at  Rochester  show  that  in  1878  to 
1880,  the  death  rate  from  the  disease  was  only  2.05  per  10,000  of  the 
population.  During  these  years  the  use  of  Hemlock  lake  water  was 
extending  very  rapidly,  and  by  the  end  of  1880  the  use  of  the  uncon- 
taminatod  water  liad  become  nearly  universal  in  the  localities  most 
affected  by  tyi^hoid  fever.  A  marked  rise  in  the  typhoid  death  rate 
began  in  1881,  which  has  continued  permanent  to  the  present  time, 
averaging  3.51  per  10,000  for  the  period  1882  to  1891.  The  reason  for 
this  increase  is  apjjarently  as  follows : 

The  city  of  Rochester  is  situated  upon  the  Genesee  river,  a  few  miles 
south  from  the  point  where  the  river  empties  into  Lake  Ontario.  The 
river  now  receives  the  crude  sewage  of  over  one-half  the  population, 
and  in  the  near  future,  when  constructions  now  under  way  are  com- 
pleted, will  receive  it  all,  or  the  sewage  of  a  p()]iulation  of  say  140,000. 
The  total  fall  in  the  river  in  its  course  through  the  city  is  about  266 
feet,  the  major  portion  of  this  being  included  in  the  three  falls  known 
as  the  Upper,  Lower,  and  Middle  falls  of  the  Genesee.  The  balance 
of  the  total  is  included  in  several  reaches  of  rapids.  A  short  distance 
below  the  Lower  fall  the  river  has  found  the  approximate  level  of 
Lake  Ontario,  and  there  clianges  its  character  from  that  of  a  shallow 
stream  with  alternating  falls  and  rajiids  to  that  of  a  stream  with  slug- 
gish flow  in  a  deep,  wide  channel.  From  this  point  to  tlie  lake,  a  dis- 
tance of  a  tritle  less  than  6  miles,  the  channel  is  from  about  300  to  500 

♦Report  to  the  Board  of  Health  and  the  Executive  Board  of  the  city  of  Rochester.  N.  Y. ,  in 
regard  to  the  chemical  examination  of  samples  of  water  from  suspected  wells.  By  Professor  S.  A. 
Lattimore.     In  An.  Rept.  Ex.  Bd.,  City  of  Rochester  for  1S77. 


22  sewagp:  disposal  ix  the  united  states. 

feet  in  width,  Avitli  an  averag-e  depth  for  the  greater  portion  of  the  dis- 
tance of  about  24  to  25  feet. 

The  river  rises  in  Potter  county,  Penns3dvania,  and  flows  north 
across  the  state  of  New  York.  A  considerable  portion  of  its  drainag-e 
area  is  characterized  by  steep  slopes,  and  the  stream,  in  consequence, 
responds  quickly  to  a  rainfall.  The  ordinary  flood  flow  is  perhaps 
35,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  while  its  minimum  flow  is  as  low  as  130 
cubic  feet  per  second.  Hence  during  the  time  of  minimum  flow  the 
velocity  in  the  deejD  water  below  the  Lower  fall  is  very  slight ;  at 
times  it  does  not  exceed  1  mile  in  24  hours.  Into  such  a  body  of  at 
times  nearly  still  water  the  sewage  of  over  one-half  of  the  population 
is  now  discharged,  although  before  reaching  the  deep  water  it  has 
passed  over  the  Middle  and  Lower  falls  and  the  intervening-  rapids. 
(A  small  portion  has  further  passed  over  the  Upper  fall.) 

The  river  carries  a  considerable  amount  of  silt  in  susj^ension,  and  in 
times  of  low  water  a  very  thoroug-h  sedimentation  takes  place  in  the 
upper  reaches  of  the  still  water.  During  high  water  the  velocity  is 
sufficient  to  sweep  the  precipitated  matter  out  into  the  lake,  as  is 
proven  (1)  by  the  channel  maintaining  a  nearly  uniform  depth  from 
year  to  year ;  and  (2)  by  the  formation  of  a  bar  off  the  mouth  at  the 
lake. 

About  1880  a  number  of  large  hotels  were  constructed  on  the  lake 
beach  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Genesee  river.  Numerous  cottages 
were  erected  and  there  soon  gathered  about  and  near  the  river's  mouth 
a  considerable  summer  population,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  citi- 
zens of  Rochester.  On  Sundays  and  holidays  it  is  no  uncommon  thing 
for  from  25,000  to  30,000  people  to  visit  the  lake  beach.  Drinking 
water  is  supplied  through  j^ipes  which  lead  a  short  distance  into  the 
lake,  and  through  which  at  times  the  sewage  polluted  water  of  the 
Genesee  river,  mixed  with  lake  water,  is  drawn. 

With  the  information  at  hand  there  seems  reason  to  infer  that  the 
growth  of  the  summer  resorts  at  Lake  Ontario  and  the  consequent 
drinking  by  a  large  number  of  citizens  of  a  seriously  polluted  water, 
has  directly  contributed  to  nearly  double  the  tj'phoid  rate  in  the  city 
of  Rochester.  The  influence  of  the  out-go  of  population  to  the  lake 
is  forcibly  shown  by  the  increase  in  number  of  deaths  from  typhoid 
fever  in  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July  in  1889, 1890,  and  1891,  these 
months  being  usually  free  from  that  disease.  As  the  matter  stands  a 
warm  May  is  followed  by  an  increase  in  the  typhoid  death  rate,  either 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  month  or  in  the  following  month  of  June. 

We  have  here  the  case  of  a  city  which,  properly  enough,  has  spent 
several  million  dollars  in  procuring  an  uncontaminated  water  supply 
but  in  which  a  lack  of  clear  views  on  sanitary  questions  has  led  to  a 
condition  of  affairs  which  in  a  considerable  degree  negatives  the  result 


THE    FUNDAMENTAL    PROPOSITION.  23 

of  tlie  large  expenditure.  The  conditions  at  tlie  present  time,  while 
the  Genesee  river  receives  only  one-half  the  sewage  of  the  city,  are 
alarming  enough,  in  view  of  the  statistics  here  presented;  when  the 
river  receives  the  entire  sewage  of  the  city,  a  still  further  increase  in 
the  typhoid  rate  in  summer  may  be  expected. 

The  Fundamental  Proposition. 

From  the  consideration  of  a  large  number  of  cases  similar  to  the  fore- 
going we  derive  the  conclusion  that  crude  sewage  should  never  be  dis- 
charged into  any  body  of  water  used  as  a  water  supply  at  any  point 
within  the  influence  of  the  sewage.  This  statement  may  be  considered 
the  fundamental  proposition  of  modern  sewage  disposal. 

In  the  following  chapters  we  shall  discuss  the  various  cognate  ques- 
tions requiring  consideration  in  order  to  determine  how  the  indis- 
pensable purification  may  be  best  attained  in  any  given  case. 


CHAPTEK    II. 

THE  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  ANIMALS. 

The  subject  of  water-borne  communicable  diseases  of  human  beings 
may  be  considered  as  standing  closely  allied  to  that  of  the  communi- 
cable infectious  diseases  of  animals  ;  and  while  this  important  branch 
of  the  general  subject  has  not,  as  a  whole,  received  the  attention  which 
it  deserves,  we  still  have  accumulated  in  the  last  two  or  three  decades 
a  considerable  body  of  information,  some  of  which  will  be  referred  to 
here. 

Definition  of  Terms. 

In  this  discussion  the  word  infection  will  be  taken  as  opposed  to 
contagion  in  the  sense  that  contagious  diseases  are  only  communi- 
cated by  immediate  personal  contact,  as  by  touching  or  by  breathing 
the  breath.  Infectious  diseases  will  be  considered  as  those  Avhich  may 
be  communicated  through  considerable  space,  as  tyi^hoid  fever,  the 
germ  of  which  may  be,  as  already  pointed  out,  borne  long  distances  in 
water.  Under  these  definitions  it  is  apparent  that  some  diseases  are 
both  infectious  and  contagious  (tuberculosis,  for  example),  though 
such  are  for  convenience  here  referred  to  as  infectious  only,  the 
present  discussion  having  no  reference  to  their  communicability  from 
the  contagious  point  of  view. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  some  of  the  infectious  diseases  are 
communicable  from  men  to  animals,  and  from  animals  to  men  ;  and 
the  oi3inion  is  rapidly  gaining  ground  that  the  animal  diseases  com- 
municable to  human  beings  have  a  greater  influence  over  health  and 
life  than  has  been  generally  supposed.* 

Important  Inter-communicable  Diseases. 

Among  the  water-borne  communicable  diseases  of  animals  which 
have  either  been  proven  also  common  to  man,  or  are  strongly  suspected 
of  being  so,  may  be  mentioned,  as  of  great  importance,  glanders,  hog 
cholera,  Texas  fever,  anthrax,  tuberculosis,  and  actinomycosis.  All  of 
these  have  been  widely  prevalent  among  animals  in  this  country  in 
recent  years,  and  if  in  any  way  communicable  to  man,  every  opportunity 
for  their  dissemination  by  running  water  has  been  offered.     There  are 

*  1st  Rept.  Beau.  An.  Ind.  (Ib84).  p.  68. 


HOG    CHOLERA.  25 

a  uumber  of  other  infectious  diseases  of  animals,  probably  a  score  in 
all,  but  with  the  exception  of  Texas  fever,  none  of  such  diseases  are 
regarded  as  having  originated  in  this  country.* 

Glanders. 

The  tirst  of  the  important  diseases,  glanders,  is  a  sjDecific  infectious 
disease  especially  peculiar  to  horses,  but  also  capable  of  transmis- 
sion to  men,  sheep,  dogs,  cats,  and  some  of  the  rodents ;  whether  hogs 
are  susceptible  to  it  is  yet  uncertain,  but  horned  cattle  and  domes- 
tic fowls  are  stated  to  be  proof  against  it. 

The  seat  of  the  disease  is  either  (1)  the  lymphatic  glands,  (2)  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal  and  respiratory  tract,  or  (3)  the  lungs 
and  spleen.  The  definite  germ  causing  it  is  Bacillus  mallei,-\  discov- 
ered by  Loffler  and  Schutz  in  1882.  It  classifies  with  the  specific 
diseases  caused  by  a  germ  (Saprophj'tes),  w^liich  when  planted  in 
the  tissues  of  an  animal  body,  developes  therein,  but  which  exists, 
naturally,  as  a  spore  outside  the  animal  body. 

Although  in  one  form  of  glanders  the  discharge  from  certain  ulcers 
may  be  a  source  of  infection,  the  germs  are  transmitted  chiefly  by  the 
nasal  discharge,  by  scattering  the  germs  promiscuously  in  feed-boxes, 
watering-troughs  and  the  like.  They  may  gain  access  to  the  system 
by  way  of  the  digestive  tract,  when  the  discharge  is  present  in 
drinking-water  or  food.  So  far  as  is  known,  this  disease  is  never 
air-borne.l 

Hog  Cholera. 

Hog  cholera,  or  swine  plague,  is  an  infectious  disease  of  hogs, 
resembling  in  many  particulars  both  typhoid  fever  and  dysentery  in 
man.  The  disease  is  apparently  distinct  from  typhoid  fever  as 
indicated  by  generic  differences  in  the  micro-organisms  producing  the 
two  diseases,  though  they  have  the  common  characteristic  of  each, 
being  the  cause  of  ulceration  of  the  region  in  and  about  the  intestine, 
tvphoid  fever  appearing  in  the  lower  part  of  the  small  intestine,  and 
hog  cholera  chiefly  in  the  upper  part  of  the  large  intestine. 

Hog  choler.i  is  perliaps  more  closely  allied  to  dysentery  in  man, 
than  to  typhoid  fever;  but  our  knowledge  of  hog  cholera  is  still  too 
limited  to  enable  us  to  say  definitely  tliat  its  bacilli  can  produce  dysen- 
tery in  uian. 

The  transmission  of  the  bacillus  of  hog  cholera  by  water  is,  how- 
ever, a  matter  of  more  certainty,  and  it  may  be  taken  as  settled  tliat  it 

*  Contagious  ,\ninial  Discasps,  Dr.  Kzra  M.  Hunt.    1st  llept.  Beau.  An.  Ind.  (1884),  pp.  437-443. 

+  Crookshank.  Manual  of  Bacteriology,  '•'.A  eil.,  p.  .S'J.'i. 

:  Glanders,  C.  A.  Gary,  Bui.  No.  -'.5  (June,  18'.tl),  .S.  Dak.  Ag.  Col.  and  Ex.  Sta. 


26  SKWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

is  a  water-borne  disease,  and  it  is  in  this  connection  that  we  are  cliiefl> 
interested  in  considering  it  here.  On  this  point  a  large  amount  of 
evidence  is  presented  by  the  recent  writers,*  who  conclude  that 
streams  are  perhaps  the  most  jjotent  agents  in  its  distribution.  Labo- 
ratory experiments  show  that  the. bacilli  may  not  only  remain  alive  in 
water  for  four  months,  but  they  may  even  multiply  when  in  water  con- 
taminated with  sewage  or  other  organic  matter.  Assuming  that  they 
will  survive  the  various  adverse  inHuences  likely  to  be  met  with  in 
natural  water  only  two  months,  and  it  still  appears  possible  that  an 
original  planting  at  the  head  of  the  longest  river  in  the  country  might 
infect  herds  throughout  its  whole  course. 

Experiments  have  been  made  by  the  biologists  of  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  upon  the  vitality  of  the  bacilli  of  hog  cholera  and 
their  resistance  to  various  germicides  determined.  The  general 
conclusion  may  be  drawn  from  the  experiments  that  they  are  some- 
what tenacious  of  life,  although  certain  reagents  properly  applied 
easily  destroy  them.f 

Texas  Fever. 

Exact  information  relative  to  the  etiology  of  Texas  fever  is  difficult 
to  obtain.  The  biologists  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  affirm  on 
the  one  hand  that  it  is  essentially  a  blood  disease  in  which  all  the 
symptoms  and  lesions  are  referable  to  the  destruction  of  red  corpus- 
cles ;  X  while  on  the  other  hand,  according  to  Paul  Paquin,  the  biol 
ogist  of  the  Missouri  Agricultural  College  Experiment  Station,  the 
germs  are  found  outside  of  the  blood  corpuscles  in  the  liver  and 
spleen,  under  conditions  apparently  indicating  their  presence  in  the 
blood  as  an  incident  of  the  disease  and  not  its  chief  cause.  Paquin 
considers  that  the  ordinary  source  of  infection  is  by  ingestion,  the 
same  as  for  glanders  and  hog  cholera,  and  water  contaminated  by  the 
excrements  of  infected  cattle  is  mentioned  as  a  prolific  method  of 
dissemination. §  The  biologists  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  in 
their  last  report  have  affirmed  that  cattle  ticks  are  chiefly  concerned 
in  spreading  the  disease  from  one  animal  to  another.  For  the  present 
we  may  look  upon  Texas  fever  as  probably  one  of  the  water-borne  com- 
municable diseases  of  cattle,  although  the  evidence,  so  fully  establish- 
ing it,  is  not  yet  at  hand. 

*  Swine  Plague,  its  Causes.  Nature  and  Prevention.  By  Frank  S.  Billings.  Bui.  of  Ag.  E.k.  Sta. 
of  Neb.,  vol.  ii.,  No.  4  (June  30,  1888).  The  Influence  of  Running  Streams  upon  the  Extension 
of  Swinp  Plague,  pp.  31-3^. 

Hog  Cholera,  its  History,  Nature  and  Treatment  Rep  Beau.  An.  Ind.  (1889).  Relation  of  Hog 
Cholera  to  tlip  Public  H'-alrh.  pp.  I'3n-1'22.      Prevention  of  Hog  Cholera  pp.  123-1S3. 

+  Ho<T  Cholera  (lor.  rit.)  pp.  7V10:i 

t  1st  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  (18S9),  p.  91.     2d  Report  (1890),  pp.  105-110. 

§  Texas  Fever,  by  Paul  Paquin.     Bui.  No.  11,  Mo.  Ag.  Col.  Ex.  Sta.  (May,  1890). 


TUBERCULOSIS.  27 

Dr.  Billing-s  asserts  positively  that  Texas  fever  "  is  an  infectious 
disease  of  a  very  malig-nant  type."  He  points  out  that  it  is  indigenous, 
or  at  any  rate  apparently  confined  to  the  moist,  hot  regions  of  the 
South,  and  corresponds  closely  with  yellow  fever  in  man  which  is 
found  in  the  same  localities.* 

Anthkax. 

Anthrax  is  the  best  known  of  all  the  infectious  diseases  which  are 
intercommunicable  between  animals  and  man.  Its  specific  germ,  Bacil- 
lus anthrax,  presents  in  its  life-history  nearly  every  phase  of  bacterial 
development.  It  presents  distinctive  features  which  prevent  its  con- 
fusion with  other  forms,  and  inasmuch  as  its  morjihological  and  bio- 
logical characteristics  have  been  completely  worked  out,  it  serves  as 
an  excellent  type  for  gaining  acquaintance  with  the  methods  emplo\'ed 
in  studying  micro-organisms.f  When  occurring  in  animals  the  disease 
is  known  as  Charbon,  splenic  fever,  or  simply  as  anthrax,  while  in  man 
it  has  been  variously  denominated  wool-sorters'  disease  and  malignant 
pustule.  In  both  man  and  animals  ingestion  is  considered  a  chief 
source  of  infection,  although  there  are  other  sources,  as  with  most  of 
these  intercommunicable  infectious  diseases.  Flowing  water  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  methods  of  dissemination. 

A  number  of  years  ago  there  was  an  outbreak  of  wool-sorters'  disease 
among  the  operatives  of  a  large  woollen  factory  at  Bradford,  England. 
At  the  same  time  the  disease  appeared  among  cattle  feeding  in  a 
meadow  through  which  fiowed  the  stream  receiving  the  washings  from 
the  factory  where  tlie  wool  sorters  were  suftering  from  the  disease. | 

There  is  a  modified  variety  of  the  disease  among  cattle,  known  as 
black-leg.§ 

Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis  has  also  received  a  large  amount  of  attention  since  the 
new  views  in  relation  to  germs,  as  the  specific  cause  of  infectious  dis- 
eases, gnnv  up.  Its  existence  in  cattle  as  well  as  human  beings  has 
been  known  for  many  years,  but  it  is  only  in  the  last  decade  that  the 
evidence  has  been  accumulated  which  enal)les  the  positive  assertion 
to  be  made,  not  only  that  bovine  tuberculosis  is  communicable  to  man, 
hut  that  linmaji  tuberculosis  is  communicable  to  a  number  of  the  lower 
uiiinals,  as  cattle,  dogs,  cats,  and  fowls. 

*  Frank  S.  Hillinjrs,  The  Relations  of  Animal  Diseases  to  the  Public  Health  (1884),  p.  130. 
+  Crookshank,  Manual  of  Ractrriology,  3ifl  ed.,  pp.  :'>1 .5-3:2.5. 

X  For  some  of  the  more  imi)(>rtant  points  in  relation  to  Anthrax,  see  Report  on  Anthrax  in  fith 
An.  Rept.  Prov.  \\A.  Health  of  Ontario  (ISSS). 

S  Black-leg.  liy  Paul  Paquin,  Rul.  No.  \2,  Mo.  Ag.  Col.  Ex.  Sta.  (June,  IS'JO). 


28  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Actinomycosis. 

Actinomycosis  has  during-  several  years  past  been  observed  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country,  especially  at  the  Chicag-o  stock  yards, 
where  a  large  number  of  cattle  are  assembled.  The  disease  has  long" 
been  known  in  England  under  various  local  designations,  but  it  is  only 
since  the  comprehensive  studies  of  Crookshank  (1887)  that  the  inter- 
correlation  of  the  various  forms  has  been  fully  pointed  out.- 

In  cattle  the  disease  ajjijears  first  as  a  swelling  in  the  lower  jaw, 
subsequently  spreading  to  the  upper  jaw  and  neighboring  parts.  In 
man  the  symptoms  are  sometimes  those  of  chronic  bronchitis,  accom- 
panied by  fetid  expectorations.  It  also  invades  the  bones,  causing 
caries. 

Paquin  states*  that  some  cases  of  actinomycosis  in  man,  like  cases 
of  glanders,  are  not  recognized  as  such.  A  case  in  Southern  Missouri, 
which  local  physicians  designated  by  various  names,  was  probably 
contracted  by  drinking  at  the  same  trough  with  an  ox  which  was  suf- 
fering from  actinomycosis  at  the  lower  maxillary.  The  lesions  in  the 
man  were  in  one  of  the  maxillary  articulations. 

The  cause  of  actinomycosis  is  a  fungus  closely  resembling  CJadofJirix, 
which  may  be  detected,  in  the  fresh  discharge  of  a  bovine  tumor,  \\  ith 
the  naked  eye.  In  man  the  appearance  of  the  fungus  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent, but  inoculation  experiments  have  proven  the  interrelation.f 

In  discussing  the  preceding  communicable  diseases  they  have  been 
considered  as  communicable  chietly  by  ingestion,  that  is,  by  passing 
into  the  digestive  tract  in  food  or  drink,  and  gaining  access  to  the 
physical  economy  through  some  of  the  delicate  membranes  with  which 
they  come  in  contact.  Tuberculosis  is  frequently  communicable  in 
this  way,  but  it  is  further  conveyed  from  one  animal  to  another,  from 
one  person  to  another,  or  from  persons  to  animals  and  vice  verso,  by 
breathing  the  breath^!  The  method  by  which  actinomycosis  is  trans- 
mitted is,  like  Texas  fever,  not  yet  well  settled,  although  drinking-water 
and  food  appear  as  the  more  usual  sources  of  infection. 

Typhoid  Fever  in  Animals. 

The  foregoing  six  diseases  include  the  leading  diseases  of  animals 
which,  by  reason  of  prevailing  extensively  in  recent  years  in  this  coun- 
try, are  of  most  importance  in  the  present  connection.  They,  however, 
do  not  exhaust  the  list  of  diseases  common  to  animals  which  may  he 

*  Actinomycosis.  Tlie  Bacteriological  World,  vol.  i. ,  No.  1  (.June,  1891). 

+  Actinomyces,  Crookshank,  Manual  of  Bacteriology,  3rd  ed. ,  p.  379,  and  following.  Also  see- 
recent  reports  of  several  of  the  State  Boards  of  Health. 

X  Tuberculosis,  Chas.  H.  Pernald,  Bui.  No.  3  (Jan.,  1889),  Hatch  Ex.  Sta  of  the  Mass.  Ag.  CoL 


blyth's  theory  of  typhoid.  29 

considered  as  water-borne,  and  which  are  possibly  in  some  degree 
intercommuuicable.  Investigations  have  been  made  abroad  by  Klein 
and  other  bacteriologists  in  reference  to  the  possibility  of  infecting 
animals  with  true  typhoid,  and  in  this  country  Dr.  Yictor  C.  Yaughan, 
of  the  University  of  Michigan,  has  succeeded  in  producing  typhoid 
in  dogs  and  cats  by  inoculation.*  There  are  in  addition  to  the  fore- 
going some  reasons  for  sui^posing  that  typhoid  fever  is  common 
among  animals,  in  so  modified  a  form  as  to  be  generally  unnoticed,  al- 
though the  germs  from  their  dejecta  may  produce  the  true  typhoid  in 
human  subjects.  A  few  words  about  the  theory  of  the  propagation  of 
the  disease,  in  addition  to  what  has  been  said  in  Chapter  I.,  will  make 
this  plain. 

The  specific  microbe  of  typhoid  is  a  bacillus  which  forms  spores 
within  itself,  as  already  referred  to  on  page  7  ;  these  spore-holding 
bacilli  may  be  expelled  in  myriads  in  the  faeces.  The  resistant  power 
of  the  spores  has  been  also  referred  to  on  page  7,  and  the  further 
statement  may  be  made,  that  under  favorable  circumstances  the  spores 
are  preserved  for  an  unknown  period.  There  can  be  no  typhoid  fever 
without  either  the  bacillus  or  the  spore,  and  the  fact  that  this  disease 
has  many  a  time  attacked  travellers  in  regions  uninhabitable  by  hu- 
man beings,  but  in  which  various  wild  animals  abound,  may  be  fairly 
taken  as  indicating  the  prevalence  of  the  disease  among  the  animals 
there,  with  the  existence  of  the  spore  in  their  dejecta  the  same  as  in 
the  stools  of  human  beings.  In  a  number  of  well-attested  cases  trav- 
ellers have  been  attacked  after  drinking  from  water-holes  to  which 
wild  animals  also  came  for  drinking-water  in  times  of  drought.  Again 
cases  have  occurred  in  civilized  regions  where  the  most  exhaustive 
inquiry  failed  to  reveal  a  pre-existent  case.  If  we  admit  the  agency 
of  animals  as  carriers  of  the  germs,  the  explanation  of  very  many 
such  cases  is  greatly  simplified. 


Blyth's  Theory  of  Typhoh). 

According  to  Blyth,  however,  the  most  reasonable  theory  is  that 
the  cause  of  typhoid  fever  is  a  vegetable  parasite  capable  of  existing, 
propagating  its  kind,  and  completing  its  cycle  of  existence  indepen- 
dent of  an  animal  body ;  i^robably  its  normal  existence  is,  like  glan- 
ders, that  of  a  Saprophyte,  or  plant  living  upon  dead  organic  matter. 
Hence  its  endemic  pr(!valence  in  places  where  its  presence  cannot  be 
traced  to  a  pre-existing  case,  and  hence  the  mysterious  isolated  out- 
breaks which  from  time  to  time  occur.f 

*  16th  An.  Rept.  Mich.  St.  Bd.  Health  (1889),  p.  xlvi 
t  Blyth,  A  Manual  of  Public  Health  (1890),  p.  504. 


30  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


The  Entozoic  Diseases. 

The  entozoic  diseases,  while  invasive  rather  than  infectious,  are  also 
common  to  men  and  animals ;  they  are  of  interest  in  a  discussion  of 
sewag-e  disposal  because  the  advocates  of  the  numerous  precipitation 
processes  have  at  one  time  somewhat  vigorously  insisted  that  sewage 
farms  must  inevitably  become  centres  of  distribution  for  entozoic 
germs.* 

At  present  the  argument  against  irrigation  derived  from  the  as- 
sumed distribution  of  entozoic  germs  has  little  weight,  and  Mr.  Slater, 
whose  book  is  the  recent  authoritative  exposition  of  the  views  of  the 
English  precipitationists,  in  his  chajater  on  irrigation  does  not  mention 
it  at  all.f 

The  Tape  oe  Intestinal  Worms. 

The  entozoa  are  of  interest  in  the  present  connection,  not  only  from 
their  parasitic  life  in  men  and  animals,  but  because  a  common  method 
by  which  they  gain  access  to  the  human  economy  is  from  drinking- 
water.  They  are  characterized  by  a  remarkable  development  of  the  re- 
j)roductive  system.  A  common  form,  2\enia  solium,  the  tape  worm, 
has  neither  mouth  nor  stomach,  the  so-called  head  being  merely  an 
organ  for  attachment,  the  numerous  segments  of  the  body  each  con- 
taining within  itself  the  necessary  generative  apparatus  to  enable  it 
fertilize  and  mature  its  own  numerous  eggs.  The  relations  of  Tcenia 
to  cystic  entozoa  which  inhabit  the  muscles  and  glands  of  hogs  and 
sheep  has  been  shown  to  be  very  close ;  they  are  in  fact  the  same  form 
modified  by  the  environment.  Other  forms  of  entozoa,  among  which 
Ascarus  lumhricoides,  the  common  intestinal  worm,  may  be  considered 
typical,  infest  the  intestines  of  almost  every  vertebrated  animal,  their 
eggs  passing  readily  from  one  to  the  other  through  the  medium  of 
drinking-water.^ 

An  Iowa  Case. 

M.  Stalker  gives  an  interesting  account  of  a  severe  outbreak  of 
disease,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  of  1890,  among  the  domestic 
animals  on  a  farm  in  Iowa,  in  wdiich  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep  were  all 
affected  in  the  same  way.§  The  local  symptoms,  largely  confined  to  the 
throat,  were  a  swelling  and  partial  paralysis  of  the  w^alls  of  the  upper 

*  Tidy,  The  Treatment  of  Sewage,  No.  94,  Van  NoBtranrFs  Sci.  Series,  pp.  101-103. 
t  J.  W.  Slater,  Sewage  Treatment,  Purification,  and  Utilization  (1888). 
X  Carpenter,  The  Microscope  and  its  Revelations,  6th  ed.  (1881),  p.  693. 

§  Some  Observations  on  Contaminated  Water  Supply  for  Live  Stock,  M.  Stalker,  Buf.  No.  13, 
(May,  1891),  Iowa  Ag.  Ex.  Station. 


NEED    FOR    MORE    DEFIXTTE    TXFORMATIOX.  31 

air-passag-es,  accompanied  by  painful  and  difficult  breathing-.  The 
animals  attacked  uniformly  died  after  an  illness  of  about  two  days. 
The  extraordinary  nature  of  the  case,  animals  of  so  many  different 
species  all  suffering-  from  the  same  disease  and  all  dying  of  it,  led  to  a 
somewhat  close  stud}^  of  the  surroundings,  with  the  result  of  ascertain- 
ing that  the  animals  affected  had  all  obtained  drinking-water  from  a 
small  creek  which  ran  in  a  ravine  through  the  farm.  The  dry  weather 
for  several  months  previous  to  the  attack  had  so  reduced  the  flow  of 
the  stream  that  water  was  found  only  in  pools  along  its  bed.  A  few 
animals  on  the  same  farm  which  did  not  have  access  to  the  creek,  but 
which  were  watered  from  a  well  were,  although  in  contact  with  the 
sick,  entirely  unaffected.  On  inquiry  it  appeared  that  earlier  in  the 
summer  chicken  cholera  had  prevailed  among  the  fowls  and  hog 
cholera  among  the  swine,  and  that  a  considerable  number  of  dead 
chickens  and  hogs  were  thrown  down  the  steep  bluffs  of  the  ravine 
into  the  bed  of  the  stream.  On  other  farms  in  the  neighborhood  it 
was  customary  to  dispose  of  dead  animals  in  the  same  waj',  and  inquiry 
further  showed  that  on  no  less  than  four  other  farms  situated  on  the 
banks  of  this  stream,  animals  had  died  showing  symptoms  identical 
with  those  on  the  farm  first  investigated. 

Mr.  Stalker  also  states  another  case  where  contaminated  water  was 
distinctly  proven  as  the  cause  of  large  mortality  among  cattle  running 
on  the  open  prairie.  An  animal  dead  from  anthrax  had  been  drawn 
into  a  basin  which  later  filled  with  rain-water  and  furnished  a  drink- 
ing-place  for  about  1,000  cattle  on  the  adjacent  range.  The  result 
was  that  about  ten  per  cent,  of  all  the  animals  having  access  died 
from  anthrax.     In  tln^  language  of  Mr.  Stalker : 

The  teachings  of  these  object  lessons  are  sufficiently  obvious.  These  animals  are 
endowed  with  organizations  not  unlike  our  own,  and  the  manifest  laws  of  being 
and  of  health  can  no  more  be  violated  with  impunity  by  them,  than  by  ourselves. 


Need  fok  Mor.E  DEFixrrE  Ixformatiox. 

The  foregoing  remarks  on  th(>  infectious  diseases  of  animals  are  a 
very  inadequate  presentation  of  the  subject  as  it  stands  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  In  Europt^  the  literature  has  already  become  exceedingly 
voluminous,  while  in  this  country  there  is  also  too  much  of  it  to  en- 
sibh'  one  to  present  other  than  a  skeleton  in  a  brief  chapter  like  the 
]ires('nt.  It  is  hoj^ed  enough  has  been  said  to  indicate  that  the  sub- 
j<'('t  is  of  importance  in  connection  with  the  general  question  of  pol- 
lution of  streams,  and  the  purification  of  the  sewage  of  any  large  town 
where  extensive  stock  yards  are  located.  Certainly  the  allowing  of 
the   drainage  from  stock  yards  and  abattoirs  to  contaminate  stream  i 


32  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

which  are  the  sources  of  public  water  supplies  cannot  be  considered 
in  touch  with  the  best  recent  thought  on  public  sanitation.* 

This  discussion  must  be  further  taken  as  indicating  that  a  sewage- 
polluted  stream  is  not  a  safe  source  of  drinking  water  for  horses,  cat- 
tle, and  other  domestic  animals. 

Per  contra  we  may  say  that  a  stream  to  which  animals  suffering 
from  any  of  the  intercommunicable  diseases  have  access  is  not  a  safe 
source  of  drinking-water  for  human  beings,  though  the  fact  pointed 
out  by  Dr.  Billings,  that  "  man  has  far  greater  receptivity  to  the  con- 
tagious (infectious)  diseases  of  animals  than  they  have  to  those  of 
man  "  may  be  considered  as  indicating  less  danger  to  animals  than  to 
human  beings  from  the  use  of  drinking-water  polluted  by  the  excre- 
ments of  either. 

*  Professor  J.  H.  Long  states  in  his  report  on  Chemical  Investigations  of  the  Water  Supplies 
of  Illinois,  1S88-S9,  that,  in  the  summer  of  1886,  the  sewage  of  the  Chicago  Stock  Yards  amounted 
to  about  7,000,000  gallons  daily,  and  gave  then  b^'  several  analyses  in  parts  per  100,000  the 
following : 

Free  ammonia, 4.20 

Albuminoid  ammonia, 0.64 

Oxygen  consumed, 20.80 

It  is  also  stated  that  later  tests  show  a  great  improvement  in  the  character  of  the  Stock  Yard 
effluent,  due  to  the  fact  that  it  has  been  found  commercially  profitable  to  remove  many  of  the 
contaminating  matters  for  use  as  fertilizers  and  for  other  purposes.  (Professor  Long's  report, 
page  9.) 


CHAPTEE  in. 

ON  THE  POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS. 

The   State   of  Massachusetts  Leads   m  the    Study   of   Steeam 

Pollution. 

The  liistory  of  stream  pollution  and  the  discussion  of  measures  for 
its  abatement  have  been  confined  in  this  country,  until  recentlj^,  al- 
most entirely  to  the  Reports  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Health.  Something-  has  indeed  been  done  in  several  of  the  other 
states,  but  to  Massachusetts  must  be  assigned  the  credit  of  not  only 
first  taking-  up  the  subject  systematically  but  of  materially  advancing 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

In  making  the  preceding  statement  the  authors  have  not  overlooked 
the  work  done  in  several  of  the  other  states,  as  for  instance,  Maine, 
Connecticut,  Xew  York,  Xew  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Minnesota,  and 
Illinois.  A  large  proportion  of  the  work  in  the  other  states  is,  how- 
ever, considerably  later  in  point  of  time  than  that  in  Massachusetts, 
and  some  of  it  has  been  modelled  after  the  Massachusetts  work  as 
published  from  year  to  year  in  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health.  The  credit  of  a  systematic  beginning  therefore  properly 
belongs  to  Massachusetts. 

Amount  of  Stream  Pollution  In\t:stigation. 

The  amount  of  systematic  work  and  discussion  of  the  same  have  now 
grown  to  such  proportions  as  to  render  any  adequate  presentation  of 
the  tabulated  results  imjiossible  in  the  limits  of  a  single  chapter  in  a 
book  of  this  character,  and  about  all  that  will  be  attempted  here  is  to 
give  a  brief  account  of  the  work  actually  accomplished,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  whic-li  the  various  reports  will  l)o  used  in  some  sort  as  a  syl- 
labus. A  comi)lete  knowledge  of  stream  jiollution  as  it  stands  in  this 
country  to-day  can  only  be  obtained  by  a  study  of  the  original 
reports. 

AVe  will  begin  by   reviewing  the  work  done  in   Massachusetts,  in 

regard  to  which  it  may  be  remarked  that  a  portion  of  the  information 

in  the  earlier  reports,  by  reason  of  tlie  recent  develo]unents,  is  sonn^- 

what  out  of  date  ;  it  has  nevertheless  been  deemed  proper,  in  view  of 

8 


34  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UXITED    STATES. 

the  historical  impoi'tance  of  the  Massachusetts  work,  to  give  a  brief 
synopsis  of  all  that  has  been  clone  in  that  state  in  the  way  of  studies 
of  stream  pollution  and  cognate  questions. 

The  Massachusetts  Wokk. 

On  April  6,  1872,  the  Massachusetts  legislature  directed  the  State 
Board  of  Health  to  "consider  the  general  subject  of  the  disposition  of 
the  sewage  of  towns  and  cities  "  and  "  report  to  the  next  legislature 
their  views,  with  such  information  as  they  can  obtain  upon  the  subject 
from  our  own  or  other  lands."  This  order  of  the  Massachusetts  legis- 
ture  may  be  fixed  u^Don  as  the  beginning  of  accurate  information  in 
reference  to  sewerage,  sewage  disposal,  and  the  pollution  of  streams 
in  this  country.*  In  compliance  with  the  order  the  Board  employed 
Professor  Wm.  Ripley  Nichols,  who,  in  conjunction  Avitli  Dr.  George 
Derby,  Secretary  of  the  Board,  i^resented  a  report  of  112  pages,  which 
may  be  found  in  the  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board. 

After  defining  the  terms  sewer,  sewerage,  and  sewage,  the  Report 
discusses  at  some  length  the  following  questions : 

(1)  The  Dry  Earth  System. 

(2)  The  Water  Carriage  System. 

(3)  The  Ventilation  of  House  Drains. 

(4)  Sewage  from  other  sources  {i.e.,  other  than  human  wastes,  kitchen 
drainage,  etc.). 

(5)  Other  forms  of  Refuse  not  Removable  by  Sewers  (as,  for  instance, 
swill,  ashes,  meat  and  vegetable  refuse,  etc.). 

(6)  Sewage. 

(7)  Sewers. 

(8)  Sewers  now  in  Use  in  Massachusetts. 

(9)  Outlets  of  Sewers  in  Massachusetts. 

(10)  On  the  Treatment  of  Sewage  (including  value  of  the  sewage, 
lime  process,  phosphate  process,  intermittent  filtration,  and  sewage 
irrigation). 

(11)  On  the  Treatment  and  Utilization  of  Sewage  in  Massachusetts, 
(including  tabulated  statements  of  the  results  of  anal^'ses  of  sewag-e 
of  Boston  and  Worcester). 

(12)  The  Effect  of  Sewage  and  Manufacturing  Refuse  on  Running 
Streams  (including  examinations  of  a  number  of  streams,  namely.  Mill 
brook,  Blackstone  river,  and  Merrimac  river).  Also  condition  of 
certain  English  rivers. 

(13)  Alleged  Self-Purification  of  Running  Streams. 

*  This  may  be  considered  a  broad  statement  in  view  of  the  systematic  design  of  several  large 
sewerage  systems,  notably  that  of  Chicago  several  years  previous  to  1872.  The  statement  is 
intended  more  especially  in  reference  to  the  design  of  sewerage  systems  with  regard  to  systematic 
disposal  other  than  into  large  bodies  of  water. 


THE   MASSACHUSETTS    WORK.  35 

(14)  The  Water  Supply  of  Towns. 

(15)  Lakes  and  "  Great  Ponds." 

(16)  Great  Ponds  are  Public  Property. 

Under  beads  (2)  and  (4)  the  report  states  that  while  drains  have 
been  in  use  for  thousands  of  years  it  is  only  in  the  present  century 
that  they  have  been  used  as  carriers  of  human  excrement.  The  other 
waste  substances  passing  into  sewers  are  the  liquid  slops  from  wash- 
ing- and  cooking,  the  washings  and  scrapings  of  hides,  the  washings 
of  slaughter-houses  and  stables,  chemicals  used  in  the  preparati<ni 
of  leather  and  morocco,  chemicals  used  in  cotton  factories  and  print 
works,  the  fluid  wastes  of  rendering  establishments  and  of  soap 
factories,  and  the  liquid  wastes  of  other  manufacturing  establishments 
of  every  description. 

Under  (7)  the  report  states  that  "  Sewers  may  be  used  (1)  for  the 
exclusive  removal  of  excremental  and  waste  fluids  ;  (2)  for  the  removal  of 
rainfall ;  (3)  for  the  removal  of  superfluous  water  in  the  soil."  "  There 
are  those  who  strongly  advocate  the  separation  of  the  first  two  from 
each  other.  The  rainfall  to  the  river,  the  sewage  to  the  soil  is  an 
alliterative  saying  which  has  had  great  currency  in  England.  It 
however  involves  the  construction  of  a  complete  double  set  of  sewers 
in  every  case,  and  it  sacrifices  the  advantage  of  occasional  flushing 
and  the  complete  washing  out  of  these  conduits  by  occasional  storms. 
Our  best  engineers  do  not  advise  this  separation,  except  to  provide 
storm-water  overflows  as  a  measure  of  economy." 

Under  (9)  the  report  states :  "We  believe  that,  in  the  present  state  of 
human  knowledge  and  experience,  no  better  receptacle  than  the  ocean 
can  be  found,  provided  the  sewage  is  delivered  where  deep  currents  can 
disperse  it  so  that  it  can  be  no  more  seen,  and  can  prevent  its  deposit 
in  the  settling-basins  of  docks  and  the  mud  flats  of  estuaries." 

Under  (11)  the  report  discusses  the  manurial  value  of  excrement  and 
deduces  a  value  for  the  sewage  of  Boston  of  perhaps  one  cent  per 
net  ton. 

Under  (12)  tabulated  analyses  of  the  waters  of  the  streams  studied  is 
given,  together  with  brief  statement  of  some  of  the  difiiculties  in  the  way 
of  maintaining  the  purity  of  streams  receiving  manufacturing  refuse. 

In  the  Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  the  discussion  is  continued 
by  Professor  Nichols  with  special  reference  to  the  condition  of  certain 
rivers  in  the  state,  the  inquiry  being  prosecuted  more  especially  in 
reference  to  "  the  increasing  joint  use  of  watercourses  for  sewers  and 
as  a  source  of  supply  for  domestic  use."  The  rivers  selected  for  ex- 
tended examination  were  the  Merrimac,  Blackstone,  Sudbury,  Con- 
cord, and  Charles. 

TIk'  re])()rt  Ix'gins  with  a  discussion  of  the  sources  of  i)()llutiou  of 
the  Merrimac  river  and  presents  in  detail  statements  of  population 


36  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITKD    STATES. 

and  number  of  operatives  of  some  of  the  manufacturing-  towns,  with 
statistics  of  the  annual  use  of  polluting-  substances,  such  as  oil,  starch, 
flour,  madder,  copperas,  alum,  sumac,  sulphuric  acid,  bark,  soda  ash, 
and  soap.  The  character  of  the  river  bed  and  the  condition  of  the 
river  are  also  considered.  Extended  tables  of  analyses  are  g-iven  and 
the  relative  effect  of  oxidation,  deposition,  and  dilution  in  assisting 
purification  discussed. 

The  studies  of  the  Blackstone  river,  beg-un  in  the  previous  year,  are 
continued  and  tables  given  of  analyses  of  series  of  samples  of  water 
taken  at  different  points.  These  together  with  the  tables  of  analyses 
of  the  waters  of  the  Charles,  Sudbury,  and  Concord  rivers,  and  a  sin- 
g-le  examination  of  water  from  the  Neponset  river  conclude  the  exam- 
ination of  river  waters  in  the  Fifth  Report. 

Professor  Nichols  then  takes  up  the  discussion  of  (1)  rivers  as  a 
source  of  supply,  in  which  chapter  the  various  arg-uments  pro  and  con. 
are  clearly  stated ;  (2)  the  present  condition  of  the  water-supply  of 
certain  cities  in  Massachusetts,  the  water-supplies  discussed  being  the 
Cochituate  and  Mystic  of  Boston,  the  Merrimac  river  at  Lowell  and 
Lawrence — the  water-works  of  which  latter  was  at  that  time  in  pro- 
cess of  construction — and  the  Charles  river,  which  was  already  in  use 
at  Waltham  and  had  been  at  various  times  proposed  for  a  number  of 
other  towns.  Tables  of  analyses  of  the  various  water-supplies  are  pre- 
sented. 

These  two  reports  in  the  Fovirth  and  Fifth  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  are  thus  noted  somewhat  in  de- 
tail, not  only  because  of  the  valuable  discussions  of  the  several  sub- 
jects considered,  but  because  of  their  historical  value  as  the  starting- 
point  of  a  definite  knowledg-e  of  river  pollution  and  the  cognate  ques- 
tions in  this  country.  The  task  of  making  a  beginning  could  hardly 
have  fallen  into  more  capable  hands  than  those  of  the  late  Professor 
Wm.  RijDley  Nichols. 

Lq  continuation  of  the  work  thus  begun  we  find  in  chapter  192  of  the 
Acts  and  Resolves  passed  by  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  in 
1875  an  act  to  provide  for  an  investigation  of  the  question  of  the  use 
of  running  streams  as  common  sewers  in  relation  to  the  public  health. 
By  its  terms  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  directed  to  investigate  by 
themselves,  or  by  agents  employed  by  them,  the  correct  method  of 
drainage  and  sewerage  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  commonwealth, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  pollution  of  rivers,  estuaries,  and  ponds 
by  such  drainage  or  sewerage. 

The  investigations  undertaken  under  this  act  were  divided  into 
three  heads  and  each  assigned  to  a  specialist  for  study  and  discussion 
as  follows : 

(1)  The  pollution  of  rivers,  with  general  observations  on  water  sup- 


THE   MASSACHUSETTS   WORK.  37 

plies  and  sewerage,  James  P.  Kirkwood,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  the  nec- 
essary chemical  analyses  being  made  by  Professor  Nichols. 

(2)  The  water  supply,  drainage,  and  sewerage  of  the  state  from  a 
sanitary  point  of  view,  Frederick  Winsor,  M.  D. 

(3)  The  disposal  of  sewage,  Chas.  F.  Folsom,  M.  D.,  Secretary  of 
the  Board. 

These  several  reports,  which  appear  in  the  Seventh  Annual  Keport 
of  the  Board,  make  385  octavo  pages  of  printed  matter  and  present 
nearly  every  phase  of  the  subject,  and  may  at  the  present  day  be 
taken  with  slight  modilieations  as  a  pertinent  treatise  with  special 
reference  to  the  conditions  obtaining  in  this  country. 

In  Part  II.  of  Mr.  Kirkwood's  report  is  given  a  brief  account  of  the 
kinds  of  chemicals  used  in  the  various  manufacturing  processes,  as 
prepared  by  L.  B.  Ward,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  chiefly  from  the  English 
reports,  with  reference  to  the  differences  in  practice  in  this  country. 
This  part  of  the  report  includes  notices  of  the  processes  of  the  follow- 
ing :  The  manufacture  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods  ;  bleaching  opera- 
tions; linen  and  jute  manufacture  with  the  bleaching  of  the  same; 
jute  dyeing :  silk  manufacture  ;  paper  manufacture ;  metal  manufac- 
tures, including  iron  works  and  rolling  mills,  and  iron  and  steel  wire 
and  galvanizing  works,  together  with  brass  foundries  and  electro-plate 
works.  The  report  also  includes  a  chapter  on  poisoned  water  and  its 
limits,  with  experiments  upon  fish  with  acids,  metallic  salts,  special 
chemicals,  and  furnace  ashes,  this  latter  information  adapted  entirely 
from  the  English  reports. 

Detailed  statistics  of  all  existing  sources  of  pollution  on  the  several 
rivers  examined  are  given  in  this  portion  of  the  report. 

In  a  report  of  100  pages  Dr.  Frederick  Winsor  discusses  the  ques- 
tions relating  to  water-supply,  drainage,  and  sewerage  in  Massachusetts 
from  the  sanitary  point  of  view. 

In  the  section  devoted  to  the  Disposal  of  Sewage,  by  Dr.  C.  F.  Fol- 
som, the  following  are  the  several  heads  discussed: 

(1)  The  effect  of  filth  on  health. 

(2)  The  influence  of  sewer-gases  on  health. 

(3)  AVater  contaminated  by  sewage. 

(4)  Experience  in  England. 

(5)  The  sewage  question  in  England. 

(G)  Substitutes  for  the  water-carriage  system. 

(7)  Experience  in  France. 

(8)  Experience  in  Germany. 
(!))  Experience  in  Holland. 

(10)  Experience  in  other  countries. 

(11)  Processes  for  ])urifyiiig  scnvage — including  filtration,  intormittont 
downward  filtration,  precipitation  by  lime,  aluminia,  superphosphate, 


88  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

sulphite  of  lime  aud  mag-nesia,  tlie  A.  B.  C.  process,  metallic  salts,  Su- 
veru's  system,  aud  Lenk's  i)rocess. 

(12)  Irrigation,  including  sub-soil  irrigation,  surface  irrigation,  the 
mode  of  distributing  sewage,  location  of  sewage  farms,  amount  of  land 
necessary,  the  effect  of  climate,  theory  of  the  i^urilication  of  sewage, 
the  effluent  from  sewage  farms,  alleged  ill  effects  and  the  cost  of  irriga- 
tion. 

(13)  Methods  of  disposing  of  sewage  in  the  various  English  and  Con- 
tinental towns,  including  Manchester,  Leeds,  Birmingham,  Coventry^ 
Edinburgh,  West  Derby,  Crewe,  Komford,  Croydon,  Bedford,  Tun- 
bridge  Wells,  Leamington,  Merthyr  Tydfil,  Paris  (sewage  farm  at 
Gennevilliers),  and  Danzig. 

(14)  The  waste  of  sewage. 

(15)  The  conditions  of  sewage  farming. 

In  the  summary  following  the  several  reports  the  Board  makes  the 
following  recommendations : 

(T. )  That  no  tiity  ov  town  shall  be  allowed  to  discharge  sewage  into  any  water- 
course or  pond  without  first  purifyiiig  it  according  to  the  best  process  at  present 
known,  which  is  irrigation  ;  provided  that  this  regulation  does  not  ajjply  to  the 
discharge  from  sewers  already  built,  unless  water-supplies  be  thereby  polluted  ; 
and  provided  also  that  any  intended  discharge  of  sewage  can  be  shown  to  be  at 
such  a  point  that  no  nuisance  will  arise  from  it. 

(II.)  That  no  sewage  of  any  kind,  whether  purified  or  not,  be  allowed  to  enter 
anv  pond  or  stream  used  for  domestic  purposes. 

(III. )  That  eacli  water-basin  should  be  regarded  by  itself  in  the  preparations  of 
plans  of  sewerage  aud  water-supplies. 

(lY.)  That  accurate  topographical  surveys  always  be  made  of  all  towns  before 
introducing  water-sujjplies  or  sewers 

(V.)  That  steps  should  be  taken,  by  special  legislation,  based  upon  investigations 
and  recommendations  of  experts,  to  meet  cases  of  serious  annoyance  arising  from 
defective  arrangements  for  the  disposal  of  sewage. 

(VI.)  That  irrigation  be  adopted,  at  first  experimentally,  in  those  places  where 
some  process  of  purification  of  sewage  is  necessary  ;  and  that  cities  and  towns  be 
authorized  by  law  to  take  such  land  as  may  be  necessary  for  that  purpose. 

(VII.)  That  everv  city  or  town  of  over  4,000  inhabitants  be  required  by  law  to 
appoint  a  Board  of' Health,  the  members  of  which  shall  be  required  not  to  hold 
any  other  offices  in  the  government  of  their  city  or  town. 

In  the  Eighth  Annual  Report  (1877)  the  discussion  of  stream  ])()llu- 
tion  and  sewage  disposal  is  continued  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Board. 
The  stream  selected  for  this  year's  work  was  the  Nashua  river,  which 
was  not  only  polluted  at  many  points,  but  from  being  situated  in  two 
States  was  considered  to  illustrate  most  of  the  important  features  of 
such  an  investigation. 

The  topics  discussed  under  this  head  are  :  Area  and  population  of 
the  river  basin  ;  water  supply  and  sewerage  of  the  toAvus  in  the  basin  ; 
statistics  of  the  sources  of  pollution,  in  detail ;  including  the  specific 
kinds  of  pollution  from  woollen  mills,  paper  mills,  cotton  mills,  comb 
manufactories,  tanneries,  etc. ;  the  purification  of  polluted  streams ,- 


THE    MASSACHUSETTS    WOEK.  39 

pollution  of  tlie  Nashua  river;  some  pollution  unavoidable;  and  dis- 
posal of  sewage  in  the  Nashua  basin. 

From  the  lieport  it  appears  that  the  area  drained  by  the  Nashua 
river  in  Massachusetts  is  457  square  miles ;  in  New  Hampshire  87 
miles.  The  average  population  for  the  portion  in  Massachusetts  was 
found  to  be  103.5  per  square  mile. 

None  of  the  towns  in  the  Nashua  basin  had  sewerage  systems  at  the 
date  of  the  Report,  although  a  few  surface-water  drains  had  been  built 
in  Fitchburg,  Clinton,  and  Leominster,  the  three  chief  towns  in  the 
portion  of  the  river  basin  in  Massachusetts.  The  chief  sources  of  pol- 
lution were  therefore  found  to  be  the  wastes  from  manufactories.  The 
following  included  all  in  this  basin  in  Massachusetts  at  that  time : 

Number  of  Hands 

maiiufactoiies.         employed. 

AYoollen  mills 14  1,265 

Shoddy  mills 2  6 

Cotton  mills 22  2,478 

Paper  mills 20  437 

Edge-tool  and  machine  works G  350 

Comb  manufactories 9  330 

Tanneries 4  180 

Chair  and  tub  shops 3  245 

Leather-board  mills 5  94 

Flour  mills 2  14 

Gas  works 2  6 

Linen  mill 1  22 

Wood-pulp  mill   1  6 

Cotton  and  Shoddy  mill 1  10 

Totals 92  5,443 

The  Nashua  river  Mows  from  Massachusetts  into  New  Hampshire, 
joining  the  Merrimac  river  at  the  city  of  Nashua  in  the  latter  State ; 
the  Merrimac  itself  passes  into  Massachusetts  in  a  few  miles  How. 

The  result  of  the  examination  was  to  lead  to  the  conclusion,  as  stated 
in  the  Report,  that  the  pollution  of  the  Nashua  river,  while  mostly 
from  manufacturing  wastes,  was  still  altogether  too  serious  to  jiermit 
of  the  use  of  the  stream  at  any  point,  except  at  its  extreme  head-Avaters, 
as  the  source  of  public  water  supplies. 

In  the  portion  of  the  Eighth  Re]iort  referring  to  the  disposal  of 
sewage,  the  following  are  the  lieads  discusseel  :  Experiments  in  Mas- 
sachusetts ;  progress  elsewhere ;  sewage  dis]>osal  at  Glasgow  ;  the 
Liernur  system ;  Imef  rof(>rences  to  disposal  at  Coventry,  Leeds, 
Hille's  process,  and  sewage  preci]iitates  generally;  dry  removal:  opin- 
ions of  experts  as  deduced  fi-om  results  of  sanitary  conference  held  iji 


40  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

1876  under  the  auspices  of  the  Society  of  Arts ;  English  government 
statistics  published  in  March,  1876,  including  purification  b}^  overflow 
of  sewage  on  land ;  filtration,  precipitation  and  filtration,  cost  of  pre- 
cipitation, cost  of  irrigation,  cost  of  Barking  farm,  cost  of  Cheltenham 
farm,  cost  of  Bedford  farm,  cost  of  dry  removal,  cost  of  no  removal  of 
sewage,  and  conclusion  of  the  English  Local  Government  Board  ;  expe- 
rience in  Germany,  Austria,  and  France  ;  objections  to  irrigation  below 
Paris ;  sewage  of  Paris ;  irrigation  with  sewage  of  Paris ;  proposed 
intercepting  sewer  for  Paris  and  deep  sea  outlet ;  experiments  on  pre- 
cipitation at  Paris  ;  present  condition  of  the  question  at  Paris,  objec- 
tions, etc. ;  some  objections  to  sewage  irrigation  considered ;  effects  on 
health  of  bad  drainage ;  contaminated  water ;  the  purist  theory ;  con- 
taminated air  and  soil  ;  oxidation  of  sewage  ;  filth  not  safe  and  specific 
poison  theory ;  illustrative  cases  of  disease  from  poisoned  air  at  Croy- 
don, Fort  Cumberland,  and  Uppingham  school ;  illustrative  cases  of 
disease  from  iiolluted  water  at  Eagley  and  Bolton,  England,  and 
Lausen,  Switzerland  ;  *  yellow  fever  and  filth :  dysentery  and  fever  from 
filth  ;  earth-closets ;  and  the  prevention  of  filth  diseases. 

E.  S.  Chesbrough,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  also  discusses  in  the  Eighth 
Annual  Eeport  the  subject  of  Sewerage,  its  Advantages  and  Disad- 
vantages, Construction  and  Maintenance. 

In  the  Ninth  Annual  Pteport,  Sewerage  and  the  Pollution  of  Streams 
is  further  discussed  by  the  Board,  the  investigations  for  the  year  having 
"been  made  with  special  reference  to  the  basins  of  the  Hoosac  and 
Housatonic  rivers.  Statistics  in  detail  of  the  sources  of  pollution  in 
the  river  basins  examined  are  given,  same  as  in  the  previous  reports, 
iind  at  the  conclusion  the  Board  presents  a  draft  of  A  Bill  to  Prevent 
the  Pollution  of  Streams,  and  for  Other  Purposes.  In  concluding  this 
portion  of  the  report  the  Board  submit  the  following  : 

Eecommexdations, 

There  are  a  few  points  to  be  borue  in  mind  with  reference  to  water- supply, 
drainage  of  houses,  and  sewerage,  which  have  been  suggested  by  the  examinations 
of  the  13oard  in  tliis  State,  and  may  properly  be  summarized  here  :-  - 

1.  The  privy  system,  so  common  tliroughout  the  State,  by  which  filth  is  stored 
up  to  pollute  the  air,  soil,  and  water,  near  dwellings,  should  be  in  all  cases 
abolished. 

2  Cesspools,  unless  with  extraordinary  precautions  as  to  ventilation  and  pre- 
vention of  pollution  of  soil  and  air,  are  little  better,  and  should  be  given  up  for 
something  less  objectionable  as  soon  as  practicable. 

3.  Wells  cannot  be  de])ended  on  for  supplies  of  wholesome  water,  unless  they  are 
thoroughly  guarded  from  sources  of  surface  and  subsoil  pollution.  Some  of  the 
foulest  well-water  examined  by  the  Board  has  been  cleai-,  sparkling,  and  of  not  un- 
pleasant taste. 

4    "Where  wells  have  already  been  polluted,  and  it  is  not  practicable  to  dig  new 

*  This  is  a  good  account  of  the  famous  case  where  typhoid  germs  are  proven  to  have  passed 
through  a  mile  of  gravel.     Account  illustrated  by  map.     Also  see  Chapter  I. 


THE    MASSACHUSETTS    WORK.  41 

deep  wells  remote  from  sources  of  contamination,  or  to  introduce  pure  public  water 
supplies,  the  storage  of  rain-water,  properly  tiltered,  is  a  satisfactory  method  of 
procedure. 

5.  In  small  towns  where  public  water  supplies  have  not  been  introduced,  and,  in- 
deed, wherever  water-closets  are  not  used,  some  method  of  frequent  removal  and 
disinfection  with  earth  or  ashes,  should  be  adojjted  in  place  of  privies,  by  which  it 
should  be  impossible  for  the  tilth  to  soak  into  the  soil  or  escape  into  the  air.  Ce- 
mented vaults  are  not  always  to  be  depended  upon,  as  their  walls  crack  from  frost 
or  through  settling  of  the  ground ;  and  they  thus  sometimes  become  sources  of 
pollution  of  wells,  besides  contaminating  the  air.  Nor  is  the  fact  of  a  privy  being 
on  a  downward  slope  from  the  well  a  sufficient  safeguard;  for  even  then  the  direc- 
tion of  the  subsoil  drainage  may  be  toward  the  well. 

6.  Earth-closets,  u^ith  proper  care,  may  be  satisfactorily  adopted.  But  the  earth, 
after  having  been  once  used,  should  be  placed  upon  the  land,  not  stored  within 
doors  and  dried,  to  be  again  used  ;  for,  in  the  process  of  drying,  there  are  emuua- 
tions  from  it  which  are,  i^erhaps,  not  less  dangerous  from  the  fact  of  their  being 
imjierceptible  by  the  unaided  senses,  or  through  chemical  examination.  With 
earth-closets,  a  plan  similar  to  that  in  use  at  the  Pittstield  Hospital*  may  be  well 
used  for  the  chamber  slops  ;  and  the  kitchen  waste  may  be  utilized  (with  the  cham- 
ber slops,  too,  if  tlesired)  in  the  manner  u.sed  by  Mr.  Field  and  Col.  Waring.  .  .  . 
Less  intricate  methods  are  used  in  scattered  dwellings,  but  with  the  efliect  of  having 
the  sloji- water  absorbed  by  the  ground  and  taken  up  by  vegetation  so  far  from  the 
bouse  as  not  to  involve  a  nuisance  or  danger  to  health. 

7.  Where  water  supplies,  water-closets,  etc.,  are  introduced,  sewers  should  follow 
immediately,  in  most  kinds  of  soil  ;  cesspools  should  not  be  used,  unless  with 
extraordinary  precautions.  But  with  a  few  hundred  feet  square  of  lawn,  the  irriga- 
tion system  by  agricultural  drain-pipes  is  to  be  recommended,  whereby  the  filth  is 
at  once  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  grass.  In  all  cases,  of  course,  with  or  without 
cesspools,  there  should  be  thorough  ventilation  of  the  system  of  house-drainage, 
with  disconnection  from  the  main  outlet  drain  by  means  of  either  a  ventilating  pipe 
or  rain-water  spout  between  the  sewer-trap  and  the  house,  and  whose  ojienings  at 
the  top  should  be  only  at  |)oints  remote  from  windows  and  chimney-tops. 

On  the  whole,  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  arrangement  of  this  kind,  if  properly 
looktul  after,  is  in  many  respects  to  be  preferred  to  connecting  witli  ]>ublic  sewers. 

8.  While  the  water-carriage  system  is  the  least  offensive  to  a  refined  jjcople,  the 
least  costly  in  the  end  if  on  a  large  scale,  and,  when  well  managed,  the  least  objec- 
tionable from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  it  should  be  remembered  :  (1),  that  in  the 
case  of  towns  and  cities  of  moderate  size  its  introduction  involves  the  outlay  of  a 
large  capital ;  (2),  that  the  connections  between  houses  and  sewers  can  be  made 
free  from  danger-bringing  elements  only  with  great  caie,  and  that  usually  from  a 
want  of  such  care  they  are  often  productive  of  a  certain  amount  of  harm — a  danger 
often  very  great,  especially  to  children  and  delicate  persons,  since  the  possibility 
of  the  continuous  ill  effect  on  tlie  system  of  a  slight  poison  is  not  often  recognized, 
and  as  few  peo))le  can  be  induced  to  believe  that  anything  is  a  poison  from  which 
they  cannot  see  immediate  and  striking  ill  results;  (3),  that  the  outlets  of  sewers, 
except  near  large  bodies  of  water,  generally  involve  a  great  deal  of  difficulty,  and 
often  of  serious  nuisance,  from  the  fact  that  there  is  at  present  no  really  satisfactory 
way  of  disposing  of  the  sewage,  while  a  pro]>erly  arranged  system  of  frequent  dry 
removal  is  not  attended  with  especial  danger  to  health,  and  may  at  any  time  be 
changed  for  better  methods  without  involving  any  great  pecuniary  loss. 

When  sewers  are  built  or  sewerage  systems  adopted,  tlie  work  should  be  ])lanned 
and  carried  out  only  by  tlie  best  availabh^  talent  ;  for  badly  constructed  sewers  are 
in  many  respects  woi-se  than  none;  and  their  ])roper  airangement  and  maintenance 
involve  an  amount  of  knowledge,  skill,  and  experience,  which  are  found  only 
among  men  <if  unusual  ability,  who  have  had  special  opportunities  for  preparing 
themselves  for  their  work. 

Whichevei-  of  the  three  great  disinfectants  and  destroyers  of  filth  is  used — 
namely,  a  i^nffii-ient  t/ifanfifu  of  earth,  water,  or  air  and  sunlicrht — the  essential  proc- 
ess is  tlie  sam(>  :  the  effete  matters  are  converted  by  oxidation  and  by  chemical 
♦Described  in  an  article  on  Cottage  Hospitals,  pp.  83-9.5,  *.tth  Ann.  Rept. 


42  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

combination  into  products  that  are  finally  both  harmless  and  inoffensive.  In  all 
three  the  oxygen  is  the  most  important  agent,  and  burning,  or  oxidation,  is  the  es- 
sential process.  The  most  oft'ensive  gases,  however,  to  a  certain  extent  when  in  the 
earth,  and  to  a  less  degree  iu  the  water,  are  absorbed  mechanically  ;  in  the  earth, 
too,  the  foul-smelling  sulphuretted  hydrogen  unites  with  the  iron  found  in  most 
soils,  forming  an  inert  and  inoliensive  compound.  But  in  all  three,  unle.ss 
the  amount  of  filth  is  proportionately  very  small,  there  are  certain  gases  escaping, 
and  wliat  are  called  emunutions — possibly,  too,  disease  "germs" — often  so  minute 
or  diluted  as  not  to  be  a])precial)le  to  our  senses.  It  is  the  part  of  jivudence.  there- 
fore, to  liave  any  and  all  of  these  processes  reasonably  remote  from  dwellings,  and 
within  certain  limits  to  destroy  all  filth  by  oxidation,  sewage  irrigatior,,  etc.,  with 
as  little  delay  as  may  be  necessary. 

All  of  these  jioints  seem  of  such  importance  to  the  Board,  that,  in  their  opinion, 
no  city  or  town  sliall  be  allowed  to  einbark  upon  costly  schemes  of  water-snpplv 
and  sewerage  without  having  the  lienefit  of  advice  from  somebody  who  has  had  ex- 
perience in  such  matters.  There  has  therefore  been  inserted,  in  the  draft  of  the 
law  which  precedes,  a  section  providing  that  all  such  plans  mu.st  be  approved  by 
the  Rivers  Pollution  Couunission.  The  matter  of  local  drainage  is  also  one  involv- 
ing great  danger  to  the  jmblic  health  if  not  properly  regulated;  and  provisions  for 
that,  too,  have  been  made  in  the  bill. 

Ill  1879  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts  was  succeeded 
by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy,  and  Charity,  and  in  the  first  re- 
port of  that  Board  (1880)  the  investigations  as  begun  by  the  previous 
Board  are  continued,  liy  a  study  of  the  basin  of  the  AVestfield  river, 
wliicli  with  a  further  preliminary  examination  of  the  Merrimack  river 
conchides  the  special  work  of  pollution  on  streams  for  the  year  1879. 

Professor  Nichols  gives  m  this  report  an  account  of  a  stream  pol- 
luted by  a  large  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  discharged  into  it  by  the 
burning  of  a  chemical  works.  This  case  is  of  considerable  value  as  illus- 
trating how  seemingly  great  amounts  of  contaminating  material  may 
under  favorable  conditions  be  easily  lost  sight  of  in  large  volumes  of 
water. 

The  Second  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy,  and  Char- 
ity, contains  an  investigation  of  the  pollution  of  the  Deerfield  and  Mil- 
ler rivers  as  made  by  W.  E.  Hoyt,  C.  E.,  with  the  statistics  given  in 
form  similar  to  that  of  previous  years. 

The  Third  Beport  contains  iu  Appendix  B,  (1)  a  report  on  the  Wor- 
cester sewage  and  the  Blackstone  river,  by  Drs.  Folsom  and  Wolcott 
and  Joseph  P.  Davis,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.;  and  (2)  a  report  on  the  same 
subject  by  Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  the  latter  jDresent- 
ed  on  behalf  of  the  town  of  Milbury,  situated  on  the  Blackstone  river 
below  Worcester  and  alleged  to  be  suffering  from  the  nuisance  caused 
by  the  sewage  pollution  in  the  stream.* 

Appendix  C  contains  extracts  from  the  Report  on  the  First  Metro- 
politan Drainage  Commission  as  presented  to  the  Massachusetts  Leg- 
islature, Jan.  9,  1882. 

*  For   further   references   to  these  two   Reports   see   Chapter  XXVII.    on   sewage  disposal  at 
Worcester.  Mass. 


THE    MASSACHUSETTS    WORK. 


43 


The  next  work  on  pollution  of  streams  in  Massacliusetts  is  in  the 
Nineteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  (1888),  where 
a.re  given  tables  of  analyses  of  the  waters  of  several  of  the  streams 
examined  in  previous  years.  An  outline  of  the  proposed  experiments 
on  sewag-e  purification  at  Lawrence  is  also  g-iven. 

In  the  Twentieth  and  Twenty-first  Reports  questions  of  pollution 
are  incidentally  discussed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  recent  views 
under  the  head  of  advice  to  cities  and  towns  in  relation  to  water  sup- 
ply and  seAverage. 

In  the  Special  Report,  Part  I.,  and  in  the  Twenty-second  and 
Twenty-third  Annual  Reports,  may  be  found  the  best  exposition  of 
many  of  the  questions  arising  in  connection  with  stream  iDollution 
that  has  yet  been  made. 

In  the  Chapter  on  the  Examination  of  Rivers  in  the  Special  Report, 
the  pollution  of  the  Blackstone  river  is  first  considered.  This  river 
is  stated  to  be,  by  reason  of  receiving  the  sewage  of  the  cit}'  of  Wor- 
cester, the  most  polluted  stream  in  Massacliusetts.  For  several  miles 
below  Worcester  the  stream  was  found  not  only  very  offensive  at  times, 
but  too  dirty  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  light  colored  cloths. 

The  rept)rt  gives  a  series  of  analyses  of  (1)  the  unpolluted  water  of 
the  streams  which  unite  to  form  the  Blackstone  above  Worcester ;  (2) 
samples  taken  at  Quinsigamond  villagfe  about  one  mile  below  the  point 
where  the  Worcester  sewage  enters  the  Blackstone  ;  (3)  at  Uxbridge 
17  miles  below,  and  (4)  at  Millville  24  miles  below.  Table  No,  4  A 
gives  the  means  of  analyses  made  in  1887,  1888  and  a  portion  of  1889, 
and  is  from  data  in  the  Special  Report. 

Table  No.  4  A. — Means  of  Analyses  of   Water  of  Blackstone  River  at  the 
Points  Indicated,  as  Made  in  1887,  1888  and  1889. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


Locality. 


Lyntlo  Brook  reservoir 

Tatnii'-k  Broiik  resprv' ir 

lliv-r  tiel'uv  Quins. gnm  md  villagn 

lliver  HI,  Uxbriilge 

River  at  Millvillo 


Residue 

on 

ev 

aporatioii. 

§ 

s 

60 

S 

c 

S 

IC 

"s 

o 

t 

o 

X 

o 

H 

^ 

f^ 

0.25 

2.98 

0.91 

2.07 

0.19 

2.« 

0.8K 

1..57 

0.70 

■iS.Ki 

5.  fit! 

18.17 

0.40 

♦i.07 

1.48 

5.19 

0.39 

5.06 

1.2fi 

3.S0 

Nitrogen  as 


.0040  .010-.'   0.14  .0062  .rooi 

.0009  .015.5  '  0.12  .C036  .0001 

.21(;0  .121 S  1.19  .0^15  .0027 

.1011  .nesi;  0.65  .0292  .0009 

.0465  .0253  1  0.46  ;  .0211  11005 


At  !\[illvill('.  the  lowest  point  at  wliicli  the  samples  wc^v  tak(Mi,  the 
dr.iinage  area  is  about  four  times  as  great  as  at  Quinsigamond  villagfe. 


44 


SE\VAG1<:    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


while  the  population  is  only  34  per  cent,  greater.  A  very  considerable 
purification  takes  place  in  the  flow  down  the  river  by  reason  of  dilu- 
tion, independent  of  any  purification  resulting-  from  other  causes. 
The  dilution  is  nearly  sufticient  to  account  for  all  the  purification  in- 
dicated by  the  chemical  analyses. 

In  Table  No.  4  B  we  have  the  averages  of  a  similar  series  of  analyses 
made  from  June,  1889,  to  December,  1890,  and  given  in  the  Twenty- 
second  Annual  Report. 

Table  No.  4  B. — Means  of  Analyses  of   Water  of  Blackstone  River  at  the 
Points  Indicated,  as  Made  in  1889  and  1890. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


.9 

Residue  on 
evaporation . 

Ammonia, 

Nitrogen  as 

Locality. 

^• 

Albuminoid. 

ca 

■z 

O 

5 

■c 

■a 

, 

SS 

» 

s  ■- 

S 

"3 
o 

o 

ff. 

o 

aj 

o 

> 

c 
1 

o 
2 

1 

■a 
3 

"A 

o 

H 

J 

fa 

H 

(5 

m 

o 

a 

g 

» 

Lynde  Brook  reservoir 

19* 

0.22 

.3.07 

1.15 

.0025 

.0149  !  .0121 

.0028 

0.15 

.0062 

.0001 

0.9 

TatnucU  Brook  reservoir. . . . 

19* 

0.19 

2.74 

1.24 

.0005 

.0153  i  .0115 

.003« 

0.13 

.01156 

.0000 

0.9 

River  above  Worcester  sew- 

age disposal  works 

19« 

0.84 

9.97 

3.04 

.2452 

.1135 

.0015 

.0520 

1.10 

.0295 

.0018 

2,82 

River  below  Worcester  sew- 

age disposal  works 

6t 

0.95 

11.43 

3.20 

.28(10 

.1510 

.0787 

.072.3 

1.44 

.0345 

.0022 

3.72 

20t 
20t 

0.27 
0.38 

8.27 
6.81 

].fi9 
2.. 31 

.1131 
.0544 

.0242 
.0231 

.01<)7 
.01  to 

.0077 
.0051 

0.67 
0,46 

.o;:o2 

.0216 

.0OU7 
.0003 

2.88 

2.25 

*  Six  analyses  included  in  the  mean  total  residue   and  five  in  the  loss  on  ignition, 
t  These  analyses  were  all  made  in  I8!t0  after  the  opening  of  the  sewage  disposal  works. 
i  Seven  analyses  included  in  the  mean  total  residue  and  six  in  the  loss  on  ignition. 

The  means  for  total  residue  and  loss  on  ignition  included  in  Table  No.  4  B  are  all  of  analy.ses  made  after 
opening  of  Worcester  sewage  disposal  works  in  1800. 

In  considering  the  results  of  the  analyses  embodied  in  Table  No.  4 
B  it  may  be  remembered  that  the  Worcester  disposal  works  were  put 
in  operation  June  25,  1890. 

The  Worcester  sewage  is  mostly  discharg-ed  into  Mill  brook,  which 
flows  into  the  Blackstone  river  at  Quinsigfamond  village.  The  water- 
shed of  Mill  brook  is  about  12.5  square  miles  with  an  average  daily 
flow  of  about  a  million  g-allons  per  square  mile,  or  the  average  daily 
volume  of  brook  water  is  something  like  12,500,000  gallons.  In  dry 
weather  the  average  daily  flow  is  less  than  this.  The  sewage  proper 
amounted  to  about  5,000,000  gallons  per  day  in  1892. 

At  present  the  main  intercepting  sewer  extends  only  from  the  new 
precipitation  works,  which  are  situated  about  one  mile  south  of  Quin- 
sigamond  village,  to  the  lower  end  of  the  Mill  brook  channel,  where  it 
intercepts  the  sewage  after  dilution  with  brook  water  to  the  extent 
indicated  in  the  foreg-oing. 

During"  the  time  covered  by  the  analyses  in  Table  No.  4  B,  only 


CONNECTICUT.  45 

about  3,000,000  gallons  of  the  polluted  brook  water  were  treated  at  the 
disposal  works,  the  balance  of  the  untreated  flow  of  Mill  brook  enter- 
ing- the  river  as  formerly. 

The  effect  of  the  treatment  of  the  3,000,000  gallons  daily  is  indicated 
by  the  third  an(J  fourth  series  of  Table  No.  4  B.* 

The  results  of  I'ecent  studies  of  the  pollution  of  the  Charles,  Chico- 
pee,  Concord,  Connecticut,  Deerfield,  Hoosac,  Housatonic,  Ipswich, 
Merrimack,  Millers,  Nashua,  Neponset,  Shawsheen,  Stony  Brook, 
Taunton,  Ten  Mile,  and  Westfield  rivers,  are  given  in  the  Special  Re- 
port. The  Twenty-second  Annual  Report  also  contains  the  continua- 
tion of  the  study  of  a  number  of  the  streams. 

In  the  Twentj'-third  Annual  Report  the  results  of  studies  of  the 
Blackstone  are  continued  to  include  the  year  1891 ;  the  same  is  true 
of  the  Merrimack  and  Taunton  rivers.  In  addition  advantage  was 
taken  of  an  unusually  dry  season  to  make  special  studies  of  the  Black- 
stone,  Quaboag,  Merrimack,  Nashua  and  Neponset  rivers.  The  Report 
states : 

Nearly  all  of  the  examinations  show  an  increasing  pollution  of  the  streams  as 
comimred  with  previous  years.  This  is  caused  not  only  by  the  fact  that  the  sum- 
mer and  autumn  of  1891  were  drier  than  for  several  years  before,  but  also  by  an 
unusually  rapid  increase  in  population  and  manufactures  during  these  years,  little 
being  done  by  the  towns  and  manufacturers  to  keep  the  larger  streams  from  being 
polluted. — (p.  256.) 

Other  Massachusetts  Reports  of  value  are  (1)  the  Report  of  Commis 
sion  Appointed  to  Consider  a  General  System  of  Drainage  for  the 
Valleys  of  the  Mystic,  Blackstone  and  Charles  rivers  (1886) ;  and  (2) 
the  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  upon  the  sewerage  of  the 
Mystic  and  Charles  River  Valleys  (1889).  Both  of  these  reports 
should  be  read  by  whoever  wishes  to  fully  consider  the  literature  of 
Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States. 


Maine. 

In  Maine  a  few  chemical  analyses  of  river  waters  used  as  public  sup- 
plies have  been  made  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  the  last  few 
years,  the  results  of  which  may  be  found  in  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 
State  Board. 

Connecticut. 

In  Connecticut  the  General  Assembly,  by  an  Act  ajiproved  March 
24,  1886,  made  it  incumbent  upon  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  "  inves- 
tigate and  ascertain  so  far  as  practicable  all  facts  in  relation  to  the 
pollution  of  streams  and  natural  waters  of  this  state  by  artificial  causes, 

*  For  further  in  regard  to  pollution  of  the  Blackstone,  see  Chapter  XXVII. 


46  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

which  in  their  judgment  may  be  necessary  to  determine  the  sanitary 
and  economic  eliects  of  such  poUution." 

The  work  authorized  by  this  act  was  put  in  charge  of  Professor  S.  W. 
Williston,  of  Yale  College,  who  submitted  a  preliminary  report  in  the 
Tenth  Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  (1888).  According  to  Pro- 
fessor Williston,  this  enactment  grew  out  of  a  conviction  on  the  part  of 
those  acquainted  with  the  rapidly  growing  pollution  of  the  streams  of 
Connecticut  that  the  time  had  arrived  when  state  jurisdiction  was 
imperatively  needed.  Many  of  the  streams  are  already  in  or  approach- 
ing a  state  of  excessive  pollution.  The  growth  of  manufacturing  inter- 
ests, and  the  decrease  of  the  agricultural  population,  has  been  steady 
and  general  in  Connecticut  for  some  years.  The  manufacturing  towns 
and  cities  have  thus  increased  rapidly  ;  many  of  them  showing  50  per 
cent,  or  more  in  the  last  decade.  This  has  produced  a  twofold  result 
upon  the  streams ;  not  only  are  the  manufacturing  wastes  added,  but 
the  population  b}'  compacting  in  towns  is  brought  into  the  most  favor- 
able condition  for  discharging  sewage  and  other  human  waste  prod- 
ucts directly  into  the  rivers. 

The  chapter  on  Manufacturing  Processes  and  Refuse  in  Professor 
"VVilliston's  Report  gives  in  brief  space  the  essential  facts  in  relation 
to  pollution  from  the  ordinary  manufacturing  processes,  and  it  is 
accordingly  included  here  as  a  useful  contribution  to  the  recent  Ameri- 
can literature  of  rivers  pollution. 

Manufactueing  Processes  and  Refuse. 

BRASS   MANUFACTURES. 

As  is  well  known,  the  various  brass  manufactories  form  the  chief  industry  of  the 
Naugatuck  vallev,  an  industry  for  which  not  only  the  chief  towns  on  the  river  are 
noted,  but  also  for  which  the  State  itself  is  justly  celebrated  throughout  America. 
These  brass  works,  notwithstanding  their  extent,  are  in  reality  productive  of  little 
harm  to  the  river  in  a  sanitary  sense,  though  they  have  long  since  rendered  the 
water  of  the  stream  wholly  unlit  for  fish,  the  chief  waste,  sulphate  of  coi:)per,  being 
the  most  poisonous  of  any  substance  known  to  this  form  of  life.  Their  refuse,  aside 
from  the  sewage  of  their  operatives,  is  almost  wholly  acids  and  oils,  with  a  certain 
considerable  quantity  of  the  metals  themselves  dissolved  by  the  action  of  the  acids. 

The  refuse  or  waste  materials  diifer  somewhat  in  character,  but  not  mi;ch,  accord- 
ing to  the  product  of  the  various  mills.  Some  of  the  manufactories  produce  only 
the  sheet  or  bar  brass  from  the  copj^er  and  zinc  ;  others  are  engaged  wholly  in  the 
])roduction  of  the  various  metal  goods  from  the  alloy,  while  others  manufacture 
both  the  alloy  and  tiie  goods.  Of  the  rolling  mills  proper  there  are  a  half  dozen  or 
more,  located  in  Torrington,  Thomaston,  Waterbury,  Seymour,  and  Ansonia,  and  all 
of  them  are  on  a  more  or  less  extensive  scale,  employing  about  four-tifths  of  all  the 
operatives  engaged  in  the  brass  industries  in  the  Naugatuck  valley. 

In  the  rolling  mills,  the  acids,  chiefly  sulphuric,  are  used  almost  wholly  for  the 
removal  of  the  oxidized  scales  on  the  surface  of  the  metal  after  annealing.  The 
metal,  in  the  process  of  rolling,  as  is  well  known,  becomes  hard  and  brittle  and 
requires  repeated  heating  in  order  to  render  it  ductile.  After  having  been  thus 
heated,  the  tarnished  surface  is  again  rendered  clean  and  shining  by  immersion  in 


MANUFACTURIXG    PROCESSES    AND   REFUSE.  47 

diluted  acid,  a  process  technically  called  "  pickling."  The  acid  for  this  purpose  is 
diluted  in  a  large  vat  with  six  to  twelve  times  its  quantity  of  water,  and  is  constantly 
kept  renewed  by  the  addition  of  acid  as  its  strength  is  weakened.  This  pickling 
vat  may  be  emptied  and  renewed  daily,  weekly,  or  at  longer  intervals,  depending 
iijion  the  ditferent  usages,  and  the  different  amounts  of  metal  treated  in  it.  In  no 
case,  however,  am  I  aware  of  the  recovery  of  any  part  of  the  acid  in  the  metal  salts, 
except  in  copper  mills,  where  the  cojjper  crystals,  precipitated  from  the  saturated 
solution,  are  removed  and  thrown  intt)  the  furnace  to  be  again  reduced  to  the  metal 
state.  After  the  metal  has  been  allowed  to  remain  in  the  jnckling  vat  for  a  few 
minutes,  it  is  removed  and  placed  in  another  vat  of  running  clean  water,  to  remove 
the  residue  of  acid.  It  is  thus  seen  that  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  acids  employed 
reach  the  stream,  carrying  with  them  copper  and  zinc  in  solution.  How  much 
cojjper  and  zinc  is  thus  lost  I  cannot  say,  but,  from  analysis,  I  believe  that  more 
than  one-half  of  the  acid  becomes  saturated,  so  that  the  amount  actually  going  into 
the  stream  is  at  least  thirty  per  cent,  gjeater  than  the  amount  of  acid  used. 

Almost  the  only  other,  and  the  worst,  element  of  contamination  from  the  rolling 
mills,  is  that  caused  by  the  oils  used.  The  brass  that  is  cast  into  bars,  either  for 
future  rolling,  or  for  use  as  such  in  other  manufacturing  purposes,  requires  the  use 
of  oil  in  the  moulds,  but  this,  it  is  unnecessary  to  state,  is  all  consumed.  In  the 
process  of  rolling,  however,  laid,  fish,  and  whale  oils  in  about  equal  proi)ortions,  are 
ajjplied  to  the  surface  of  the  metal  and  the  rollers.  Some  little  of  this  oil,  it  is 
true,  finds  its  way  through  and  is  consumed  by  the  fire  in  the  process  of  annealing ; 
but  the  great  pressure  of  the  rolls,  it  is  readily  understood,  squeezes  back  this  and 
causes  it  to  flow  off,  for  the  greater  i>art,  into  a  trough  or  depression  below,  whence 
it  is  carried  off  by  a  stream  of  constantly  flowing  water.  Very  little  of  the  mineral 
oils  is  used  in  rolling,  but  chiefly  for  lubrication  on  bearings.  My  reports  will  not 
.show  accurately  the  amount  of  oils  that  are  used,  for,  in  some  of  the  manufactories 
where  I  am  pretty  confident  they  must  be  employed  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  no 
reports  were  given  of  them.  Several  of  the  largest  manufactories  on  the  river  did, 
however,  give  complete  repoi-ts,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  lard  oil  is  not  the  one 
chiefly  used,  but  also  whale  and  flsh  oils,  as  well  as  large  quantities  of  the  mineral 
oils.  The  report  of  one  large  Arm  will  give  a  pretty  clear  idea  of  the  amount  used 
for  the  rolling  mills.  In  this  manufactory,  for  each  one  thousand  pounds  of  metal 
treated  or  manufactured  one  gallon  of  "fish  and  mineral"  oils  was  used  and  fifteen 
l)ounds  of  acid.  Of  course  tlie  lighter  mineral  oils  are  the  ones  least  likely  to  get 
into  the  water  and  the  ones  least  injurious. 

The  only  other  refuse  from  the  rolling  mills,  aside  from  the  sewage  of  the  oper- 
atives, is  derived  from  the  cinders,  scoritc,  and  other  matter  containing  fragments 
of  the  metal  which  it  is  desired  to  save.  This  material,  after  having  been  cru.shed, 
is  washed  by  water  and  the  metals  se])arated  and  again  used. 

Much  the  larger  amount  of  brass  used  is  C()m])Osed  of  copper  and  zinc  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  six  to  four  ;  where  the  alloy  is  desired  of  a  more  granular  or  brittle 
character  to  adapt  it  for  turning,  rather  than  for  ductility,  a  small  part  (two  or  three 
per  cent,  i  of  lead  is  added. 

In  the  larger  number  of  the  manufactories  the  alloy  is  cast  or  turned,  or  other- 
wise formed  into  the  various  objects  for  which  the  metal  is  used,  and  here  neces- 
-saiily  they  undergo  a  ditferent  treatment,  but  one  not  essentially  different  so  far  as 
refuse  is  concerned,  save  in  the  use  of  oil.  In  most  of  these  the  acid  is  used  to 
give  some  desired  finish  to  the  goods,  and  not  merely  to  clean  the  surface.  Sul- 
phuric acid  is  still  used  in  by  far  the  larger  quantity,  but  muriatic  and  nitric  acids 
are  also  used  in  diflerent  ways  and  in  ditferent  combinations  to  produce  difterent 
ettects.  The  process  is  technically  called  "  dip]iing,"  and  the  acid  is  used  i!i  full 
strengtii  in  small  kettles  kept  at  a  boiling  tenii>eratur(>.  Before  being  dipped,  the 
goods  are  treated  with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  to  remove  whatever  greas(>  maybe 
adhering  to  them.  After  dipj)ing  tliey  are  washed  in  running  water  and  ])olislied. 
The  dipping  vats  are  kept  at  the  n^qnired  strength  and  the  conttmts  changed  from 
tinui  to  tim«»  (several  months  before  being  wholly  changed).  The  combination  of 
these  acids,  th(>ir  pi'oper  degrees  of  strength,  and  the  ])roper  methods  of  using  them, 
lequire  a  certain  degree  of  technical  skill  on  the  jiart  of  the  worker.  The  metal 
salts  are  not  recovered  in  this  process,  or,  if  so,  are  treated  as  refuse,  so  that  the 


48  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

acids  all  practically  find  their  way  into  the  stream,  together  with  a  considerable 
quantity  of  the  metals. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  pickling  baths  require  for 
saturation  : 

64.3  pounds  of  copper,  producing  254  pounds  of  blue  vitriol 

[CuO^H...S04-^CuSO,  +  H,0]. 
66.3  pounds  of  zinc,  producing  292  pounds  of  white  vitriol 

[ZnO +H.SO4 =ZnS04  +  H,OJ . 

One  hundred  pounds  of  the  same  acid  used  in  the  hot  dipping  baths  would 
require  : 

32. 1  pounds  of  copper,  producing  127  pounds  of  blue  vitriol 
[Cu+2(H.S04)  =  CuSO«  +  SO,-h2(H,0)]. 

33.2  pounds  of  zinc,  producing  146.4  pounds  of  white  vitriol 
[ZnS04  +  7H.O]. 

Considerable  quantities  of  soap  are  rei:)orted  from  the  latter  class  of  manufacto- 
ries, used  for  wire  drawing  and  lubricating  metals  in  press  operations. 

In  the  ijolishing  of  brass  and  iron  considerable  quantities  of  oil  and  grease  are 
used,  which  are  afterward  removed  by  potash  in  dift'erent  forms,  or  other  alkalies. 

In  all  the  brass  manufactories,  save  the  rolling  mills  jiroper,  considerable  quan- 
tities of  cyanide  of  potash  and  ammonia  are  reported.  These  are  used  in  electro- 
metallurgical  processes,  and  all  are  wasted,  together  with  some  fatty  matters  taken 
U13  by  the  alkali.  Goods  to  be  electroplated  are  first  treated  with  the  alkali  to  re- 
move what  greasy  matters  may  be  adhering  to  the  metal,  and  are  then  subjected  to 
a  dilute  bath  of  acid  to  remove  the  oxides  fi'om  the  surface.  They  are  then  placed 
in  a  solution  of  the  cyanide  of  jjotash,  which  acts  as  a  carrier  or  agent  in  the  de- 
position of  the  metal  by  the  galvanic  current. 

Cyanide  of  potash,  as  is  well  known,  is  a  virulent  jjoison,  and  there  is  a  sufficient 
quantity  employed  annually  in  the  Naugatuck  valley  to  destroy  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  United  States,  yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  its  contaminating  influence  is  very 
great.  The  waste  solution  is  more  or  less  neutralized  by  acids  and  diluted  in  the 
drain-pijies  that  carry  them  oflf. 

The  amount  of  aqua  ammonia  rejwrted  does  not  diff"er  much  in  the  various  manu- 
factories ;  from  two-thirds  as  much  in  weight,  as  of  the  cyanide  of  potash,  to  an 
equal  quantity  are  given. 

IKON   MANUFACTDKE. 

In  the  manufacture  of  iron,  almost  the  only  waste  of  importance  comes  from  the 
pickling  baths,  used  to  give  a  clean  non-oxidized  surface  to  the  metal.  These  pick- 
ling vats,  as  I  saw  them  in  one  of  the  largest  iron  manufactories  in  the  State,  were 
elongated  tanks  holding  several  hundred  gallons  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  kept  at  a 
boiling  temperature.  The  iron,  in  the  shape  of  bars  or  long  plates,  was  brought  in, 
in  bundles,  by  susj^ended  pulleys  and  immersed  for  a  few  minutes  in  the  first  vat, 
after  which  it  was  carried  to  a  second  similar  vat  and  likewise  allowed  to  remain 
for  a  short  time.  It  is  next  dipped  into  a  vat  of  water  to  wash  off  the  superfluous 
acid,  and  is  then  dipped  into  a  fourth  vat  containing  a  heated  solution  of  lime  to 
neutralize  the  remaining  acid. 

The  common  practice  is  to  add  fresh  acid  to  these  vats  from  time  to  time  during 
the  day,  as  it  is  needed,  and  then  to  empty  them  all  at  the  close  of  the  day's  work. 
A  sample  which  I  was  kindly  permitted  to  take  at  the  Stanley  works,  of  New  Brit- 
ain, from  one  of  these  pickling  tubs  a  little  before  the  contents  were  to  be  turned 
into  the  stream,  gave  the  following,  as  stated  by  Professor  Smith  : 

"The  'bath  solution'  contains  5.66  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  calculated  as 
such,  of  which  there  is  sufficient  iron  to  unite  with  87  per  cent.,  leaving  but  13  per 
cent,  of  the  sulphuric  acid  in  the  free  condition  ;  or,  .79  per  cent,  is  the  amount  of 
free  acid  that  the  solution  contains." 

It  is  thus  seen  that  four-fifths  or  more  of  the  acid  enters  the  stream  as  sulphate 


MANUFACTUKIXG    PROCESSES    AND    REFUSE.  49 

of  iron  (copperas).  For  every  ton  of  acid  thus  used,  nine  hundred  pounds  of  iron 
are  taken  up  in  solution,  producing  four  thousand  pounds  of  copperas,  to  which  is 
to  be  added  four  hundred  pounds  of  free  acid. 

Tinning  is  a  process  that  is  often  ajjjjlied  to  iron  goods,  and  especially  to  j^ins. 
It  is  done  by  boiling  the  goods  to  be  whitened  in  a  solution  of  cream  of  tartar  with 
block  tin  or  "  tin  crystals"  for  two  or  three  hours.  Practically  all  the  waste  here 
is  the  cream  of  tartar  alone.  In  the  manufacture  of  jiins  there  is  but  little  other 
waste  ;  the  pins  are  made  by  machines  which  comjilete  them  ready  to  whiten  ;  after 
whitening  they  are  stuck  in  papers.  Hooks  and  eyes  are  whitened  in  the  same  way, 
or  are  covered  witli  japan,  a  varnish  composed  of  asphaltum,  linseed  oil,  and  tiiri^en- 
tine,  of  which  there  is  little  or  no  waste. 

In  the  manufacture  of  metal  buttons  and  similar  goods,  another  source  of  waste, 
aside  from  that  due  to  the  ordinary  use  of  the  acids,  is  the  japan  varnish  removed 
from  tin  plate.  The  articles  are  boiled  in  a  .solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  the  latter 
is  washed  off  and  carried  into  the  stieam  together  with  the  sapouitied  varnish. 
Small  amounts  of  stannate  of  soda  probably  go  with  the  soda.  In  the  baking  to 
which  the  varnished  articles  are  previously  subjected  the  tiirpentiue  of  the  varnish 
is,  of  course,  dissipated.  This  waste,  however,  cannot  be  very  important.  In  a 
firm  employing  two  hundred  hands,  not  more  than  eight  pounds  of  the  alkali  used 
daily  were  i-eported,  and  there  consequently  could  not  be  a  very  large  quantity  of 
the  varnish  removed. 

In  the  polishing  of  the  metals,  as  has  already  been  said,  considerable  quantities 
of  oil  and  grease  are  used,  which  are  afterward  removed  by  potash  or  other 
alkalies. 

PAPER   MANUFACTUBE. 

There  are  numerous  paper  mills  on  the  streams  examined,  and  I  have  been  unable 
to  obtain  a  full  knowledge  of  the  waste  prodxicts  of  the  very  various  raw  materials 
used.  In  many  of  the  smaller  manufactories,  esjiecially  on  the  Hockauum,  heavy 
binder's  boards  are  made,  and  as  there  is  no  bleaching  nor  much  cleaning  of  the 
raw  materials,  there  is  little  refuse.  In  others  where  the  coarser  papers  are  manu- 
factured, and  where  jute,  gunny  .sacking,  old  paper,  and  colored  rags  are  used,  the 
organic  waste  may  be  as  gieat  or  even  greater  than  in  those  where  the  higher 
qualities  of  writing  paper  are  produced. 

In  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  rags,  the  first  ^jrocess  that  the  material  under- 
goes is  prolonged  boiling  under  pressure  in  a  solution  of  lime,  by  which  the  fibre  is 
freed  from  the  glutinous  and  other  matter.  Caustic  soda  may  be  used  for  this  j)ur- 
pose,  especially  for  the  lower  grades  of  paper,  but  in  the  mills  in  Connecticut  lime 
is  used  either  alone,  or,  for  colored  rags,  with  a  slight  addition  of  the  soda.  This 
solution  of  lime,  after  use,  with  all  its  impurities,  is  turned  into  the  stream,  and  the 
rags  are  subjected  to  long  and  thorough  washing.  It  is  seen  that  almost  if  not  quite 
all  of  the  lime  thus  gets  into  the  stream  ;  certainly  but  a  veiy  small  jiart  can  remain 
in  the  tiln-e  after  several  hours  washing  in  running  water.  From  ten  to  fifteen 
pounds  are  uscil  to  every  hundred  pounds  of  rag.s,  and  the  extractive  matter  dis- 
solved out  by  it,  together  with  more  or  le.ss  of  the  til)re  itself  waslied  away,  must 
add  materially  to  the  waste.  The  next  ]irocess  in  the  ])roduction  of  white  or  light- 
colored  papers  is  bleaching.  The  material  used  for  this  jmrjiose  is  called  chloride 
of  lime,  but  is  really  a  combination  of  tlie  chloride  and  hypoclilorite,  aiul  even  in  the 
best  qualities  ran^ly  has  more  than  thirty  live  ])er  cent,  of  chlorine,  the  etJective 
agent.  Tlie  residuum  of  non-soluble  jmrts  is  turned  into  the  stream  and  the  clear 
solution  is  ai)i)lied  to  the  pulp.  To  set  free  the  clilorine,  large  quantities  (u  tliird 
or  a  half  as  much  as  the  bleaching  ])owders)  of  alum  (or,  in  .some  jilact^s,  sulphuric 
acid)  is  added  to  the  solution.  The  pulp  is  allowed  to  remain  in  th(>  solution  for 
some  time,  when  it  is  removed  and  very  thoroughly  washed,  and  the  spent  .solution 
is  discharged  into  the  river.  Again  here  it  is  seen  that,  besides  the  alum,  nearly 
the  whole  quantity  of  the  bleaching  ])owd(>r  finds  its  way  into  the  stream,  either  as 
lime,  chloride  of  lime  undissolved,  or  other  chlorides,  chlorine  gas  dissolved  in 
the  water,  or  hydrochloric  acid.  All  this  bleaching  waste  is  highly  injurious  to 
fishes. 

4 


50  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IX    THE    EXITED    STATES. 

The  refuse  from  this  class  of  mills,  though  containing  not  a  little  organic  matter 
from  the  tilth,  grease,  etc.,  of  the  rags,  cannot  convey  many  germs,  as  they  must  be 
destroyed  in  the  boiling  ijrocesses,  excej^t  such  as  are  in  the  dust  and  refuse 
separated  in  the  preliminary  sorting  out  of  the  rags.  The  fatty  acids,  furthermore, 
are  converted  into  insoluble  lime  soaps.  A  large  jjart  of  the  material  discharged  is 
lime,  a  substance  that  can  hardly  be  said  to  contaminate  the  water,  especially  in 
New  England,  where  the  rivers  are  deficient  in  this  mineral  matter.  For  eveiy 
million  pounds  of  fine  writing-jiaper  manufactured,  from  three  to  four  bundled 
thousand  pounds  of  solid  refuse  matter  are  discharged  into  the  river.  According' 
to  the  British  reports  on  Rivers  Pollution,  from  line  white  rags  there  is  about 
fifteen  per  cent,  refuse  ;  from  colored  rags,  twenty-five  per  cent.;  from  esparto, 
forty  ;  and  from  straw,  fifty  per  cent.* 

WOOLLEN    MANUFACTUKi;. 

On  the  rivers  examined,  the  woollen  manufactories  are  chiefly  confined  to  th& 
Hockanum.  On  the  Naugatuck  there  are  but  few  that  manufacture  from  the  raw 
material.  In  former  years  the  woollen  manufacture  of  this  stream  was  much  more 
imi^ortant  than  it  is  at  present.  During  the  last  year,  even,  one  of  the  jjrincijjal 
mills,  that  at  Beacon  Falls,  has  suspended  indefinitely  its  operations,  throwing  out 
of  em2)loy  some  three  hundred  operatives.  There  is  jjrobably  no  class  of  manufac- 
tories m  the  State  that  pollute  the  streams  more  extensively,  in  proportion  to  their 
number,  than  these,  their  waste  consisting,  as  it  does,  chiefly  of  organic  material. 

"  Wool  is  always  accom^janied  with  other  secretions,  which  issue  from  the  skin 
along  with  it  and  lubricate  it,  rendering  it  more  or  less  'yolky  '  and  giving  it  it» 
peculiar  and  characteristic  odor.  These  secretions  differ  enormously  in  amount 
between  the  difierent  breeds,  and  vary  greatly  in  character.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to- 
say  that  besides  the  oil  that  accompanies  all  wool,  there  is  a  comi^licated  mixture  of 
several  chemical  substances  called  together  'yolk  '  or  gum  (or  sometimes  '  suint,*^ 
the  French  name,  German  '  Fetterschweiss  '  and  '  Wollscliweiss  '),and  which  consti- 
tutes a  large  percentage  of  the  unwashed  merino  wool.  In  extreme  cases,  and  with 
certain  fine-wooled  breed.s,  these  secretions  constitute  upward  of  sixty  j^er  cent,  of 
the  imwashed  fleece,  diminishing  in  quantity  as  the  fibres  becomes  coarser  and  the 
staple  longer,  and  as  the  wool  passes  from  the  carding  to  the  combing  varieties, 
reaching  its  minimum  in  certain  coarse-wooled  native  breeds.  This  '  yolk  is  chemi- 
cally a  sort  of  natural  soap,  and  is  more  or  less  soluble  in  water.  In  certain  merino 
breeds  it  is  bred  for,  and  thus  its  quantity  has  been  relatively  increased,  and,  when 
abundant,  dirt  and  dust  are  more  ai)t  to  cling  to  the  wool,'  thus  diminishing  still 
further  the  percentage  of  actual  wool  fibre."  (Professor  W.  H.  Brewer,  Ee2iort  of 
the  National  Acad,  of  Sciences,  1885,  p.  84.) 

As  is  stated  by  Professor  Brewer  above,  the  composition  of  this  "yolk"  or 
"suint"  is  very  comj^jlicated  ;  in  an  analysis  aj^pended  to  his  report,  no  less  than 
thirty  different  chemical  compounds  are  enumerated. 

"  It  is  the  common  practice  with  sheep  growers  in  most  countries  before  shearing- 
to  wash  the  sheep  in  running  w^ater  of  natural  temperature.  The  yolk  is  partly 
soluble  in  cold  water  (more  in  hot),  and  if  the  washing  is  thorough,  a  part  also  of 
the  oil  and  attached  dirt  is  removed,  the  oil  being  somewhat  soluble  in  a  solution 
of  the  yolk,  or  else  it  and  other  dirt  are  mechanically  removed  wdth  the  soapy- 
emulsion.  No  matter  how  poorly  this  washing  by  the  wool-grower  may  be  done, 
or  how  much  impurity  may  be  left  in  the  fleece,  it  is  known  in  the  market  as 
washed  wool."     (W.  H.  Brewer,  ibid.,  p.  87.) 

Raw  wool,  of  ordinary  grades  as  it  comes  to  the  manufactui-er,  conhiins  a  third  oi* 
more  by  weight  of  organic  matter  that  it  is  necessary  to  remove.  This  removal  is 
accomplished  by  scouring  in  alkaline  solutions,  chiefly  soda  ash,  but  also,  in  some 
of  the  mills  at  least,  in  urine,  the  latter  being  used,  I  have  been  told,  to  give  a 
softer  finish  to  the  goods  than  can  be  obtained  fi'oni  the  ordinaiy  alkalies  ;  that 
urine  is  not  used  more  extensively  in  many  of  the  Connecticut  mills  is  due  to  the 

*  For  more  complete  discussion  of  the  constituents  of  paper  mill  wastes,  see  A  Study  of  Paper 
Mill  Wastes,  in  Chapter  XVI. 


MANUFACTURING   PROCESSES   AND   REFUSE.  51 

difficulty  of  procuriug  it.     The  amounts  of  alkalies  returned  by  four  diJBferent  mills 
for  each  thousand  pounds  of  raw  material  treated,  are  as  follows : 

Sal  Soda 48  130  22  {-..^ 

SodaAsh 75  32  50  \  ^^^ 

128  162  72  150 

Of  this  amount  of  wool,  treated  by  these  and  other  detergents,  probably  at  least 
three  hundred  pounds  are  removed. 

In  English  mills,  where  urine  is  used  extensively,  in  this  first  washing  about  five 
hundred  jjouuds  are  used  to  the  thousand  weight,  with  about  fifty  pountls  of  alka- 
lies. As  my  re[)orts  show,  a  miich  larger  amount  of  tlie  alkalies  is  used  in  the 
Connecticut  mills,  and  but  little  urine,  at  least  I  was  so  told  by  several  manufact- 
urers All  this  refuse  goes  into  the  stream.  After  rinsing  the  next  process,  in 
the  manufacture  of  line  black  cloths,  is  that  of  "  woading,"  in  whicli  the  wool  is 
steeped  for  a  short  time  in  a  solution  of  indigo.  This  solution  is  used  constantly 
with  fresh  additions  and  the  only  part  that  finds  its  way  into  the  stream  is  the  little 
that  is  removed  from  the  wool  in  rinsing.  From  two  of  my  rejiorts  I  find  not  more 
than  six  or  seven  pounds  of  indigo  given  daily  for  each  thousand  i)ounds  of  raw 
material. 

The  next  step  is  dyeing,  in  which  the  chief  substance  used  is  logwood.  Four  of 
the  mills,  from  which  I  have  reports  of  the  dyestuffs  and  the  raw  material,  give 
from  three  to  five  hundred  pounds  of  the  logwood  for  eacli  thousand  pounds  of  raw 
wool.  With  the  logwood  and  other  organic  dyestufi's  (fustic,  camwood,  madder, 
etc.)  are  used  in  different  methods  of  dyeing,  various  mordants,  the  chief  of  which 
is  copperas,  the  next  argols  (crude  cream  tartar),  then  bichromate  of  potash,  ahim, 
l)lae  vitriol  and  tin  crystals  or  muriate  of  tin.  Tlie  wool  after  having  been  boiled 
in  the  dyeing  vat  for  an  liour  or  more  is  well  washed  in  running  water,  and  the 
contents  of  thti  vat  turned  into  the  stream.  As  a  half  or  two-thirds  as  much  dye 
material  is  used  as  the  wool  weighs  it  is  very  certain  that  only  a  small  proportion  is 
absorbed  iu  the  cloth.  It  is  this  waste  material  that  discolors  the  streams  so  much, 
and  which  causes  the  chief  complaints  by  the  inhabitants  along  the  streams.  The 
amount  of  spent  dye-liquor  tui-ned  into  the  .streams  has  been  estimated  at  G,000 
U.  S.  gallons  for  each  thousand  pounds  of  raw  material  treated,  by  the  British 
Commission. 

Afier  the  wool  has  been  dyed  and  dried  it  is  prepared  for  carding  by  the  recep- 
tion of  oil.  One  report  gives  about  twelve  gallons  of  lard  oil  for  each  thousand 
])oun(ls  of  raw  material ;  another  about  ten  gallons.  In  English  manufactories 
about  one-tenth  part  by  weight  of  sweet  oil  is  given  for  the  washed  wool,  which  does 
not  seem  to  be  far  from  the  quantity  above  given  of  lard  oil.  After  having  been 
sjjun,  the  thread  may  receive  a  small  quantity  of  thin  glue  l)efore  weaving.  This 
oil  and  glue  is  washed  out  and  removed  by  the  aid  of  soda  and  urine  after  weav- 
ing; the  washings  of  course  finding  their  way  into  the  water.  The  remaining 
tiiMtinent  is  by  soap  in  fulling  the  oloth,  each  piece  requiring  from  twelve  to 
ht'te(»n  ])ounds.  This  soa]),  where  I  have  seen  it,  is  of  a  pure  white  color,  and  in 
some  of  the  reports  it  is  given  as  "  palm  oil  "  soap. 

The  chief  and  worst  polluting  material  in  tliese  pi'ocesses  is  the  natural  grease 
and  allitMl  matter  washed  from  the  wool,  and,  next  to  this,  the  lard  oil  and  organic 
dye-stuflfs.  The  soap  is  much  less  important,  and  the  inorganic  chemicals  harm- 
less, or  positively  beneficial  in  counteracting  the  organic  matter  It  is  to  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  not  all  the  woollen  mills  manufacture  from  tlie  raw  material,  or 
do  it  only  to  a  small  extent. 

There  are  several  manufactories  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  of  old  wool,  and  in 
which  a  different  process  is  used,  and  one  that  causes  less  pollution  in  a  sanitary 
sense — than  do  the  manufactures  from  the  raw  wool.  Tlie  material  liere  is  of  two 
kinds,  that  composed  wholly  of  wool,  and  that,  the  larger  part,  containing  more  or 
less  cotton.  In  the  former  the  process  is  not  very  different  from  tliat  enijiloyed  in 
ordinary  wool,  the  rags  having  been  fiist  reduced  to  wool  by  especial  machines  for 
the  puri30.sc.     The  washings  and  scourings  of  this  material  remove  the  grease  and 


52  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

dirt  of  the  rags,  an  important  polluting  substance,  it  is  true,  but  much  less 
in  quantity  than  the  grease  from  the  natural  wool.  In  the  larger  proportion 
of  rags,  however,  the  cotton  must  be  removed,  requiring  very  ditferent  treat- 
ment, and  a  treatment  that  must  largely,  if  not  entirely,  disinfect  them.  They  are 
treated  with  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  in  order  to  convert  the  cotton  tibre 
into  cellulose,  as  in  the  treatment  of- old  rubber  material.  The  acid  is  dried  in  and 
then  washed  out ;  the  material  is  then  dyed  and  manufactured  by  the  ordinary 
processes.  In  the  scouring  processes  alkalies  and  soaps  are  used,  as  in  ordinary 
wool,  but  there  is  proportionately  more  of  the  alkali  and  less  of  both  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  raw  material  treated. 


COTTON    MANUFACTURE. 

The  cotton  manufactures  on  the  streams  investigated  are  either  of  ginghams,  or 
mixed  wool  and  cotton  goods,  and  are  not  extensive  as  comi^ared  with  the  other 
classes  of  manufactures.  The  wastes  are  both  organic  and  mineral,  but  chiefly  the 
former.     The  chemicals  reported  in  the  manufacture  of  ginghams  are  as  follows  : 

Sulphuric  acid.  Pearl  ash. 

Nitric  acid.  Stannate  of  soda. 

Muriatic  acid.  Brown  sugar  of  lead. 

Chloride  of  lime.  Indigo. 

Sal  soda.  Cutch. 

Soda  ash.  Sumac. 

Bichromate  of  potash.  ^Logwood, 

Alum.  "Soap. 

Copperas.  Aniline  colors. 

Blue  vitriol.  Oils. 

Lime. 

Of  the  mineral  matters,  the  most  important  are  lime,  chloride  of  lime,  and 
bichromate  of  potash.     Of  the  organic  dye-stuffs,  logwood. 

It  is  very  evident  that  all,  or  very  nearly  all,  of  the  mineral  matters  are  waste  ; 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  j^art  of  the  mineral  mordants,  none  of  them  are  con- 
tained in  the  finished  goods,  and  consequently  they  are  lost  in  the  process  of 
manufacture.  This  is  esi^eeially  the  case  with  the  lime  and  alkalies,  the  latter  of 
which  are  used  in  small  quantities.  The  acids  are  used  in  bleaching  to  counteract 
the  effects  of  the  lime.  The  soap  is  used — not  to  clean,  but  to  soften  the  yarn  in 
the  process  of  dyeing,  and  in  bleaching  to  neutralize  the  acids. 

Bichromate  of  potash,  alum,  copperas,  blue  vitriol,  stannate  of  soda,  and  the 
acetate  of  lead  are  mordants,  used  to  impregnate  the  cotton,  and  with  which  the 
coloring  matter  unites  to  form  a  chemical  compound  insoluble  in  water.  After  the 
dyeing,  the  excess  is  removed  by  washing,  and,  to  render  the  quantity  absorl)ed 
absolutely  insoluble,  in  calico  print  works  it  is  customary  to  treat  the  goods  to  a  hot 
emulsion'  of  cow's  dung.  To  what  extent,  if  any,  the  dunging-process  is  used  in 
gingham-dyeing,  I  do  not  know ;  but  the  process  can  be  substituted  by  other 
processes  not  involving  the  use  of  dnng. 

The  waste  of  the  actual  dye-stuflfs  in  cotton-dyeing  is  large,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  coloring  principle  forms,  usually,  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  crude 
stuflfs,  as  used.  A  firm,  employing  three  hundred  operatives,  reported  the  con- 
sumption of  logwood,  and  the  other  dye-stufTs,  at  over  ten  thousand  pounds  per 
annum  ;  but  this  amount  is  very  small  compared  with  what  is  actually  used  in 
d  print  works.  . 

>r  A  much  smaller  proportion  of  organic  matter  is  removed  from  the  fibre  m  the 

treatment  it  is  subjected  to  prior  to  weaving  than  is  the  case  in  woollen  mills.  It  is 
estimated  that  about  five  per  cent,  in  weight  of  the  raw  cotton  is  removed  in 
bleaching,  or  in  the  prior  treatment  with  soda.  This  waste  is  chiefly  color- 
ing matter  and  fatty  acids,  and  is  not  putrescible,  or,  is  so  only  to  a  very 
slight  extent,   due  to  a  very  small  quantity  of  albuminous  matter.     The  removed 


MANUFACTURIXG   PROCESSES    AXD    REFUSE.  53 

matter  will  not  cause  a  stench,  if  allowed  to  remain  in  a  concentrated  form,  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere.  Even  the  larger  mills  on  the  Hockanum  cannot  contribute 
more  than  one  hundred  pounds  daily  of  this  waste  to  the  stream  pollution. 

Of  the  oils  used  in  spinning,  chiefly  olive  oil,  at  least  one  half  is  waste. 

Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  aniline  colors,  when  used,  give  but  comparatively  little 
waste. 

To  recapitulate  :  the  acids,  lime  salts,  and  alkalies  are  virtually  wholly  turned 
into  the  stream ;  at  least  one-half  of  the  mordants  are  lost,  and  not  far  from 
the  same  proportion  of  the  dye-stuffs  used  in  the  mills  reported ;  all  of  the  soaji, 
cue-half  of  the  oil,  and  perhaps  one-tenth  of  the  anilines  is  wasted ;  and  five  or  six 
per  cent,  of  the  raw  material.  When  dung  is  not  used,  the  putrescible  waste  is 
very  small.     Where  starch  is  used,  i^ractically  none  is  waste. 


SILK   MANCFACTUKES. 

There  are  but  three  silk  mills  in  the  region  examined,  but  they  are  important, 
both  by  reason  of  their  size,  and  their  effects  upon  the  streams. 

Raw  silk  is  covered  with  a  so-called  "  gum,"  which  it  is  necessary  to  remove  that 
the  silk  may  not  have  the  elasticity  and  stiffness  that  it  otherwise  would.  For  the 
following  in  relation  to  this  "silk-gum  "  I  am  indebted  to  Professor  Johnson : 

"  Silk-gum  (sericine)  has  the  following  composition  in  parts  per  hundred: 

Carbon 44.32 

Hvdrogen 6.18 

Nitrogen 18.30 

Oxygen 31.20 

100.00 

"  Its  empirical  formula  is  CisHasNsOe.  It  is  similar  to  gelatine  in  chemical 
composition  and  characters,  but  has  6  per  cent,  less  carbon,  1  jier  cent,  less 
hydrogen  and  nearly  i  per  cent,  more  oxygen.  It  is  destitute  of  sulphur,  of  which 
gelatine  contains  0.56  per  cent." 

"  It  yields  by  action  of  hot  dilute  acids  and  oxidizing  agents,  products  simi- 
lar to,  and  in  a  great  part  identical  with,  tliose  yielded  by  gelatine,  albumen,  etc." 

This  sericine  constitutes  from  twenty  to  twenty- five  per  cent,  of  the  raw  silk, 
and  is  chiefly  soluble  in  water.  It  may  be  removed  by  maceration,  which  pro- 
duces a  most  intense  and  di-sagreeable  stench,  or  it  may,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
be  removed  by  scouring  in  a  weak  solution  of  soap.  The  soajjs  used  are  of  the 
best  olive-oil  kinds,  and  a  very  large  quantity  is  required  in  large  mills.  The 
soap  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and,  if  the  goods  are  not  intended  to  be  dyed, 
the  silk  is  boiled  in  the  solution  for  an  hour  or  more;  if  the  silk  is  required 
wiiite,  it  is  first  treated  for  several  hours  in  a  warm  solution.  After  scouring, 
the  silk  is  thoroughly  washed,  and  all  refuse,  both  scourings  and  washings, 
are  turned  into  the  stream.  Whether  raw  silk  is  treated  as  such,  or  in  the  co- 
coons before  reeling,  the  processes  so  far  as  refuse  is  concerned,  can  not  be 
very  diffment. 

The  further  processes  are  those  of  dyeing,  which,  so  far  as  the  stream  is  con- 
cerned. aiP  wh  >lly  of  secondary  importance.  But  little  oils  are  iised,  and  the  or- 
ganic refuse  is  almost  wholly  the  extractive  matter  of  various  dyewoods.  Propor- 
tionately there  is  less  waste  of  dye-stuffs  from  the  silk  mills  than  from  those  of 
other  kinds  of  fabrics.  Aniline  colors  here  form  a  very  important  part,  and  of 
them,   owing  to  their  expensiveness,  there  is  less  waste. 

HAT   MANUFACTURE. 

The  waste  products  in  the  ])rocess  of  hat  manufacture  from  fur  are  consider- 
able in  ([uantity,  and  of  a  kind  that  discolor  very  much  the  waters  of  streams 
that  receive  them.     The  character  of  tht!se  wastes,  howevt>r,  is  of  a  kind  tliat  ac- 


54  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IX    THE    UjS-^ITED    STATES. 

tually  pollute  the  streams  much  less  than  would  be  supi^osed  from  the  visible 
effects  produced,  and  far  less  than  is  caused  by  the  wastes  from  woolen  mills,  con- 
sisting as  it  does  in  Connecticut,  chiefly  of  dye-stuffs.  Almost  the  whole  of  the 
hatting  industry  in  this  State,  as  is  well  knowu,  is  confined  to  Norwalk,  Bethel, 
and  Daubury,  which  supply  a  large  part  of  the  hats  worn  in  the  United  States,  the 
only  other  manufactories  of  importance  being  those  of  New  Jersey.  In  Danbury  and 
Bethel,  ihe  two  i)laces  under  consideration  in  this  report,  the  furs  are,  mostly, 
jjurchased  ready  prepiared,  and  the  most  of  the  most  deleterious  process,  so  far  as 
the  stream  is  concerned,  thus  avoided.  There  are,  however,  two  fur-cutting  mills 
in  Danbtiry,  which  furnish  a  large  ijortion  of  the  carreted  fur  for  that  city. 

When  the  fur  is  cut,  the  first  process  that  the  skins  undergo  is  that  of  washing. 
The  skins,  chiefly  those  of  the  coney,  and  nutria,  are  imported  in  bales  from  Aus- 
tralia, South  America,  and  elsewhere,  and  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  foreign 
matter,  in  the  shape  of  sand,  dirt,  etc.  These  skins  are  first  placed  in  large  tubs 
of  hot  water  a,nd  allowed  to  soak,  after  which  they  are  washed,  rubbed,  and  rinsed, 
about  twenty-five  pounds  of  whale-oil  soap  being  used  to  each  thousand  pounds  of 
skins.  The  water  thus  used  is  run  into  the  stream,  and  must  contain  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  offensive  organic  matter,  the  waste  having  a  very  whitish  color. 
The  actual  quantity  of  pollutnig  material  cannot,  however,  be  very  great  in  Dan- 
bury,  for  altogether  only  about  three  thousand  pountls  are  washed  daily,  and  with 
seventy-five  ^lounds  of  soap,  not  a  very  large  amount  of  greasy  matters  can  be 
washed  out.  I  can  give  no  estimate  of  what  this  quantity  is,  for  such  could  only 
be  obtained  by  carefully  weighing  the  skins  before  and  after  washing,  and  then, 
too,  the  inorganic  matter  removed  could  hardly  be  determined  without  special  ex- 
aminations therefor.  lu  the  treatment  of  raw  wool,  a  fourth  to  a  third  of  the 
actual  weight  is  washed  away  by  the  alkalies,  but,  in  the  furs,  there  can  be  but 
little  fatty  matter  removed  from  the  hair  itself. 

The  other  processes  of  shearing  and  earreting  do  not  require  the  waste  of  water,  I 
was  told.  Carreting  is  that  process  which  gives  the  shrinking  or  felting  proj^erty 
to  the  fur  required  to  bring  it  into  the  desired  compact  shape,  and  consists  of  a  treat- 
ment with  the  nitrate  of  mercury.  The  process  has  long  been  known  to  have  a  very 
injurious  result  upon  tlie  health  of  the  workmen  engaged  in  the  various  hatting 
processes  ;  not  so  great,  perhaps,  in  the  actual  carreting  as  in  the  forming  and  press- 
ing of  the  hats.  Since  the  general  use  of  stiff  hats  has  come  into  vogue,  there  has 
been  a  decrease  in  the  extent  of  mercurial  poisoning,  especially  in  Connecticut, 
where  comparatively  few  soft  hats  are  made  The  manufacture  of  soft  hats  requires 
in  finishing  a  much  greater  use  of  the  jiressing  iron  on  the  damp  felt,  and  a  corre- 
sponding greater  inhalation  of  the  mercurialized  vapor.  Perhajis,  also,  the  shellac 
now  used  prevents  the  vaporization  of  the  mercury.  Still,  there  is  not  a  little  mer- 
curial poisoning  among  the  ojieratives,  especially  in  the  hat-forming  shops. 

The  dyers'  waste  liquors  are  constantly  escaping  from  the  factories,  partly  as  rins- 
ings from  the  hats,  but  chiefly  from  the  dye-tiibs  themselves  after  they  are  no  longer 
of  sufficient  strength  to  serve  their  purpose.  There  is  a  difference  among  the  differ- 
ent manufacturers  as  to  the  frequency  with  which  the  dye-tubs  are  emptied,  but 
there  seems  to  be  little  difference  in  the  amount  of  dye-stufis  used  for  a  given  num- 
ber of  hats. 

Logwood  forms  by  far  the  chief  material  used,  inasmuch  as  black  hats  are  those 
chiefly  worn  ;  the  other  dye-stuffs  are  used  in  the  production  of  diffeient  effects,  or 
the  lighter  colors,  but  their  effect  on  the  stream  is  essentially  the  same.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  recipe  given  me  by  one  of  the  manufacturers,  and  differs  only  in  unessen* 
tial  details  fi-om  those  used  by  the  hatters  in  general : 

Bichromate  potash 1  i  lb. 

Argols 1^  lb. 

Madder 2  lbs. 

Cudbear J  lb. 

Blue  vitriol 4  oz. 

Logwood  (chips) 60  lbs. 

Fustic 3  lbs. 

Madder   lib. 


MANUFACTURIXG    PROCESSES   AND    REFUSE.  55 

The  above  is  the  quantity  required  for  the  dyeing  of  twelve  dozen  stiflf  hats.  Soft 
hats  require  rather  a  larger  quantity,  and  the  extract  of  logwood  is  used  in  place  of 
the  chips,  about  ten  pounds  being  required  for  each  gross  of  hats.  The  logwood 
chips,  after  the  coloring  matter  is  extracted,  are  either  burnt  or  thrown  upon  the 
ground.  As  ten  jjounds  of  the  extract  takes  the  place  of  the  chips  in  dyeing  the  soft 
hats,  it  is  evident  that  live-sixths  of  the  logwood  chips  is  non-coloring  matter. 
Alum,  in  the  proportion  of  three  ounces  to  the  dozen  hats,  is  used  by  some  hat- 
makers. 

The  manufacture  of  wool  hats,  which  is  carried  on  only  to  a  small  extent,  produces 
proportionally  a  much  greater  degi'ee  of  contamination.  The  treatment  of  the  ma- 
terial is  here  not  much  diliereut  from  that  in  woolen  mills,  excejit  in  the  .use  of  oils. 
The  raw  wool  is  scoured  with  alkalies  to  remove  the  natural  greasy  matters,  and  after- 
ward treated  much  like  the  ordinary  fur,  the  chief  refuse  being  the  logwood  and  simi- 
lar dye-stufts. 

The  hat-forming  shops,  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  in  ^Yaterbury  and  Bethel, 
receive  the  carreted  fur  from  the  ditferent  manufacturers  and  beat  it  loosely  into 
conical  bags  by  machinery.  The  fur  is  first  placed  in  a  blowing  or  sejjaratiug  ma- 
chine, where  it  is  finely  and  evenly  mixed.  It  is  then  removed,  weighed  out  into 
IjroiJer  amounts,  and  run  through  a  machine  that  beats  it  loosely  into  large  conical 
bags.  Next,  the  bags  are  dijjped  in  water  and  rolled  several  together  in  a  cloth  to 
give  sufficient  consistency  to  handle,  and  are  then  sent  to  the  hat-shops.  The  only 
refuse,  in  forming,  it  is  thus  seen,  is  that  carried  off  in  the  water  in  which  the  bags 
are  dipped,  and  must  be  small  in  quantity. 

The  next  process  these  conical  bags  landergo  is  that  called  sizing,  and  consists  of 
repeated  dippings  in  hot  water  and  rolling  with  the  hands,  which  produces  the 
shrinkage  or  felting  of  the  material  necessary  to  bring  them  to  the  required  size. 
The  water  in  which  they  are  dipped,  carrying  with  it  a  small  amoiant  of  refuse,  is 
turned  into  the  stream.  After  drying  and  shaving  to  remove  tlie  iirojecting  fur 
they  go  into  the  dyer's  hands,  where  they  are  subjected  to  the  ordinary  vegetable 
dyes,  such  as  logwood,  camwood,  madder,  fustic,  hypernick,  etc.,  the  refuse  of 
■which,  chiefiy  logwood,  forms  almost  the  whole  of  the  contaminating  waste,  the 
treatment  with  shellac,  drying,  pre.ssing,  and  curling  producing  little  or  none.  The 
short  particles  of  fur  shorn  from  the  hats,  with  other  dry  waste,  is  used  wherever 
practicable,  or  when  not,  is  usually  destroyed,  used  for  fertilizing  material,  or 
otherwise  disposed  of.     At  the  most,  but  little  of  it  gets  into  the  streams. 


RUBBER   MANUFACTURE. 

In  the  ordinary  manufacture  of  rubber  there  can  be  but  little  waste  of  a  delete- 
rious nature.  The  only  use  of  water  is  in  tlie  washing  of  the  raw  gum,  to  remove  the 
adhering  dirt ;  and  to  cool  the  rolls  when  they  get  too  hot.  The  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon is  about  the  only  chemical  used,  and  this  for  a  solvent  to  cement  the  different 
l>ieces  of  rubber  ;  there  can  but  little  of  it  get  into  the  stream. 

In  the  manufacture  of  reclaimed  rubber  goods,  there  is  a  source  of  considerable 
refuse  in  the  treatment  the  material  undergoes  in  the  removal  of  the  vegetable 
fibers  contained  in  it.  As  in  tlio  treatment  of  cotton  and  wool  shoddy  mateiial,  the 
old  nibber  is  soaked  in  a  dilute  solution  (l;5'-'  Beaum6)  of  sulphuric  acid  :  this 
attacks  the  vegetable  fiber,  converting  in  into  the  soluble  ridlulo.se,  wliich,  with  the 
spent  solution  is  waslied  out  and  turned  into  the  stream  together  with  a  quantity  of 
alkali  (about  ten  percent,  of  the  acid),  used  in  neutralizing  the  acid. 

The  baliuici' of  this  Report  is  chiefly  oc-cupicd  with  detailed  state- 
ments of  the  s])ecitic  sources  of  polhition  in  the  state,  tlie  amounts  of 
the  various  polhitinf^  materials  and  chemical  and  bacteriological  anal- 
yses of  the  waters  of  several  of  the  streams  beino-  o-iven. 

In  the  Eleventh  Annual  Kcport  of  the  Connecticut  State  Board  the 


66  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Eivers  Pollution  Report  is  continued  by  Professor  Williston  with 
further  detailed  statements  of  sources  of  jjollution  and  chemical  and 
bacteriological  analyses  of  a  number  of  water  supplies  of  the  State. 
Reports  of  progress  are  given  in  the  Twelfth  and  Thirteenth  Annual 
Reports,  and  the  complete  results  appear  in  the  Fourteenth  Annual 
Report,  covering  the  year  from  December  1, 1890,  to  November  30, 1891. 

Of  the  results  in  the  Fourteenth  Annual  Report  brief  reference  will 
be  made  to  the  analyses  of  the  Connecticut  river  water,  samples  of  which 
were  analyzed  from  three  points,  namely.  Warehouse  Point,  Rocky 
Hill,  and  Goodspeed's. 

Warehouse  Point  is  about  13  or  14  miles  below  Springfield,  and  not 
far  from  the  north  line  of  the  State.  The  samples  taken  here  show  the 
composition  of  the  water  as  it  enters  the  State  and  after  pollution  by 
the  sewage  of  Northampton,  Holyoke,  Chicopee,  and  Springfield  in 
Massachusetts. 

Rocky  Hill,  the  second  point  from  which  samples  were  examined, 
is  about  20  miles  below  Warehouse  Point,  and  9  miles  below  Hartford. 
Between  this  j^lace  and  Warehouse  Point  the  river  receives  its  chief 
tributaries  in  Connecticut,  which  are  the  Farmington,  but  slightly 
polluted ;  the  Park  river,  which  is  grossly  polluted  by  the  sewage  of 
New  Britain  and  Hartford ;  and  the  Hockanum,  into  which  is  dis- 
charged the  sewage  of  Rockville  and  Manchester. 

Goodspeed's  is  about  22  miles  below  Rocky  Hill.  The  chief  pollu- 
tion between  this  station  and  Rocky  Hill  is  at  Middletown,  about  15 
miles  above  Goodspeed's. 

The  samples  were  all  taken  on  the  same  day  at  each  station  and 
always  from  the  same  point,  well  out  in  the  current  and  one  foot  below 
the  surface. 

The  series  extend  from  August,  1890,  to  June,  1891,  the  samples  for 
analysis  being  taken  about  the  25tli  of  each  month.  The  following 
table  shows  the  average  discharge  of  the  river  at  Hartford  for  the  ten 
days  preceding  the  dates  on  which  the  samples  were  taken. 

Average  discharge    i  Average  discharge 

in  cu.  ft.  per  sec.    j  in  cu.  ft.  per  sec. 

June,  1890 10,320     Jan.,  1891 64,370 

July       "     7,740     Feb.      "     39,120 

Aug       "    8,310     March  "    54,200 

Sept.     "     41,280     April     "     89,530 

Oct.       "     41,820     May      "     26,460 

Nov.      "     26,930     June      "     9,800 

Dec.      "    16,450     July       "     8,025 

Aug.      "     7,550 

I  Sept.     "     7,550 

I  Oct.       "     7,360 

The  means  of  the  monthly  analyses  are  given  in  the  Table  No.  4  c. 


Ni:W    JERSEY. 


57 


Table  No.  4  c— Meam  Results   of  Analyses   op  Connecticut   River  Water, 

MADE    IN    1890   AND    1891. 
(Parts  per  lC0,0Ot).    Water  filtered  through  paper.) 


s 

Suspended 
matter. 

Residue  on 
evaporation. 

Nitrogen. 

>. 

o    ^Xo 

s 

i 

&-  1 

■o 

Locality. 

o 

u 

i 

« 

Total  at    10 
C.    (212°  F 

Lobs  on 
ignition. 

•c 

o 

3 

.2 

5 

11 

1 

« 

■p  ?i-Ei; 

a  X 

X 

o 

.c 

«..  * 

=  a 

^ 

5     x=^* 

Z 

O 

bi 

> 

C^H 

o 

O 

o 

O 

o 

K    O 

11 
11 
11 

0.3 
0.3 
0.3 

2.09 

0.178 

0.138 

.27 
.22 
.29 

4.42 
4  46 
4.50 

.86 

.87 
88 

3.56 
3.59 
3.62 

123 
.128 
1.36 

.0034 
.0036 

.0126 
.01.35 
.0138 

.00018 
.00019 
.00015 

.012 
.011 
.013 

2  3       519 

Rocky  Hill 

2  5      .504 

2  5       492 

The  Connecticut  river  is  not  used  as  the  source  of  a  public  water 
supply  at  any  point  in  the  State  except  at  Hartford,  Avliere  it  is  in- 
tended to  be  used  as  an  emergency  supply  only.  The  conclusion  of 
the  report  is  that  while  the  analyses  show  that  the  sewage  entering 
the  stream  has  scarcely  a  perceptible  effect  on  the  chemical  composi- 
tion of  the  water,  nevertheless  it  is  unsafe  for  drinking  at  any  point  in 
Connecticut. 

Xew  Jersey. 

^  In  New  Jersey  the  question  of  rivers  pollution  is  in  an  exceedingly 
unsatisfactory  state.  A  high  court  of  the  State  has  recently  indorsed 
tlie  opinion  that  the  sewage  from  15,000  people  can  enter  a  stream 
having  a  minimum  daily  flow  of  125,000,000  gallons,  already  largely 
polluted,  and  flow  only  four  miles  on  a  level  reach  before  entering  the 
public  water  supply  of  400,000  people  without  demonstrated  danger.* 
The  only  law  in  this  State  dealing  with  the  pollution  of  streams  is 
one  passed  in  1876,t  which  is  stated  as  entirely  inadequate  to  deal 
efl'ectively  with  the  evils  of  stream  pollution.  Its  text  is  open  to 
various  constructions  and  its  letter  and  sjDirit  are  constantly  violated.^ 
In  a  report  presented  to  the  New  Jersey  Sanitary  Association  in  1890 

*  Bassett,  Inland  Sewage  Disposal,  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  xxv.,  p.  129. 

i  All.  Art  to  Pieveiit  (he  Willful  Polbition  of  Water  of  any  of  the  Creeks,  Ponds,  or  Brooks  of 
the  .State. 

That  if  any  person  or  persons  shall  throw,  cause  or  permit  to  he  thrown  into  the  waters  of  any 
creek,  pond,  or  brooks  of  this  Stivte  the  waters  of  which  are  used  to  supply  any  aqueduct  or  reser- 
voir for  distriliution  or  public  use  any  carcass  of  any  dead  animal  or  any  ofFal  or  offensive  matter 
whatsoevt-r,  calculate  1  to  render  such  waters  impure  or  to  create  no.xious  or  otTensive  smells,  or 
shall  connect  any  water  clo.set  with  any  sewer  or  other  means  wherebj'  the  contents  thereof  may 
V)e  conveyed  to  and  into  any  such  creek,  pond,  or  brook,  such  person  or  per.sons  shall  be  deemed 
guilty  of  a  misflemeanor  and  on  conviction  thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  81,000, 
or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  two  years,  or  both.     (Approved,  April  21,  1876.) 

+  Report  of  Committee  of  New  Jersey  Sanitary  Association,  presented  Dec.  13,  188y.  In  Eng. 
News,  vol.  XXV.,  p.  Ill  (Jan.  ;J1,  is'.ll). 


58  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

the  state  of  the  question  in  New  Jersey  is  fully  discussed,  and  the 
recommendation  made  that  an  act  be  passed  empowering  the  State 
Board  of  Health  to  act  as  arbitrator  in  all  matters  affecting  the  pol- 
lution of  streams,  water  courses,  and  lakes. 

In  this  State  studies  of  stream  pollution  thus  far  have  been  chiefly 
by  the  chemical  methods  and  in  reference  to  the  jiollution  of  the  Passaic 
river,  which  until  1892  was  the  source  of  the  water  supply  of  the  large 
cities  of  Newark  and  Jersey  City,  and  from  which  stream  the  water 
supply  of  Jersey  City  is  still  drawn,  although  efforts  are  being  made 
to  secure  a  new  supply.  Some  of  them  are  i>ublished  in  the  earlier 
reports  of  the  New  Jersey  State  Board  of  Health.  Sources  of  pollution 
from  manufacturing  wastes  are  also  discussed  in  the  Report  of  the 
Newark  Aqueduct  Board  on  Additional  Water  Supply,  published  in 
1879. 

The  Pollution  of  the  Passaic  River. 

An  extended  discussion  of  the  pollution  of  the  Passaic  from  the 
chemical  point  of  view  is  published  by  Henry  Wurtz,  Ph.  D.,  formerly 
State  Chemist  of  New  Jersey,  in  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal 
f<n-  March  22,  and  April  12, 19,  and  26,  1890.  The  matter  there  given  is 
the  substance  of  a  report  on  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  river  and  its 
tributaries,  presented  to  the  Board  of  Aldermen  of  Paterson  in  1882,, 
and  covers  the  examination  of  a  series  of  samples  collected  between 
September  7,  1881,  and  January  7,  1882.  Previously  Mr.  Wurtz  had 
made  two  reports  in  reference  to  the  Passaic  waters,  namely,  in  March 
and  October,  1873 ;  the  first,  referring  to  the  condition  of  the  water 
during  the  fall  and  winter  1872-73:  the  second,  to  the  summer  of  1873. 
Both  of  these  reports  appear  in  Yol.  lY.  of  the  American  Chemist,  but 
the  present  report  is  of  greater  interest  by  reason  of  giving  Mr. 
Wurtz's  recent  views  on  the  pollution  and  self-))urification  of  this 
stream,  which  serves  as  the  present  source  of  water  supply  for  Jer- 
sey City. 

The  report  of  1882  covers  a  series  of  chemical  analyses  of  the  water 
of  the  Passaic  river  and  its  tributaries,  including  also  a  few  compara- 
tive analyses  of  the  water  of  the  Croton  river.  Its  chief  object  is  ap- 
parently to  substantiate  the  view  advanced  in  the  report  of  1872  that 
"  the  oxidizing  power  of  this  alkaline  river  water  is  so  great  that  l)ut 
slight  traces  of  the  sewer  matter  can  be  detected  after  flowing  but  four 
miles  through  the  channel."  On  this  point  Mr.  Wurtz  considers  the 
showing  specially  strong  by  reason  of  the  prevalence  of  a  severe 
drouth  not  only  previous  to  the  beginning  but  during  nearly  the 
whole  time  covered  by  the  investigation,  there  being  no  rainfall  which 
contributed  anything  appreciable  to  the  flow  of  the  river  or  its  tribu- 


THE   POLLUTION    OF   THE   PASSAIC   EIVER.  59 

taries  from  early  in  July,  1881,  to  December  29.  Moreover  no  ice 
formed  on  the  Passaic  until  about  January  3,  1882 ;  and  Mr.  Wurtz 
deems  it  probable  that  never  before  was  such  an  opportunity  offered, 
"  to  examine  a  question  of  river  pollution,  during-  so  long-  a  time,  Avith- 
out  disturbance  of  the  uniformity  and  normality  of  the  composition  of 
the  stream  throug-h  natural  agencies."  This  fact  confers  upon  this 
work  a  value  and  importance  in  some  respects  wholly  unique.  As 
illustrative  of  this  proposition  a  series  of  analyses  of  samples  from 
different  parts  of  the  river  are  given.  The  first  of  these,  following-  the 
general  table  of  all  the  analyses  made,  is  of  water  from  above  the  high 
falls  in  the  city  of  Paterson. 

The  next  tabulation  covers  samples  taken  between  the  outlets  of 
several  of  the  Paterson  sewers  at  the  Straight  street  bridge,  and  the 
Broadway  bridge  below,  a  distance  of  some  4:1  miles  along  the  stream. 
For  the  first  two  miles  the  flow  is  sluggish  and  according  to  Mr.  Wurtz 
"  a  narrow  sewage-laden  strip  of  the  current  closely  hugs  the  right  hand 
bank  in  a  very  curious  way."  At  the  other  side  of  the  river  the  bottom  is 
densely  overgrown  with  water  weeds.  A  flow  of  this  character  for  two 
miles  brings  us  to  the  Race  track  bridge,  below  which  the  current  is 
rapid  and  usually  rippling,  diffusing  the  sewage  all  across  the  bottom. 
In  this  portion  of  the  channel  the  weed  bed  extends  the  whole  width 
of  the  channel  and  the  following  extract  from  the  report  will  indi- 
cate the  chief  reason  for  most  of  the  changes  which  take  place,  to- 
gether with  Mr.  AVurtz's  views  of  the  sufficiency  of  the  purification 
attained : 

The  weed-bed  also  here  spreads  all  across,  and  the  water  is  thus  filtered  through 
this  half-mile  of  dense  and  matted  vepfetation,  feeding  both  the  weeds  and  vast 
colonies  of  crustaceans  and  mollusks  which  swarm  throughout  tliem.  Much  below 
these  rapids,  and  even  all  around  the  Dundee  lake  below,  shallow  margins  still 
show  the  weeds  under  water.  Columns  13  and  14  of  Table  IV.*  bring  out  (juite  sat- 
isfactorily the  ]mrifving  action  liere  of  aeration  in  this  alkaline  rivei-  watcn-,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  plant  and  animal  life.  Thus,  compare  the  total  N  in  the 
three  sewage-stream  samples,  2,  84:,  and  26  =  .057!)  in  the  mean;  with  the  three 
from  the  Broadway  bridge,  .3,  4.5,  and  47  =  .0800  in  the  mean,  showing  a  large  loss 
of  ]uitrescible  nitrogenous  matters.  This  diminution  is  not  due  to  mere  dilution 
of  the  sewage-stream  throughimt  the  whole  river,  as  is  shown  by  comparison  with 
Table  III.  There,  three  N-figures  above  the  falls,  before  receiving  the  sewage, 
give  a  mean  of  .0822,  even  a  little  more  than  at  the  Broadway  bridge.  We  are 
forced  to  admit,  therefore,  that  this  flow  of  4A  miles  from  the  mouths  of  the  sew- 
ers lias  actually  destroyed  the  total  animal  and  aninialized  matter  introduced  by  the 
drainage  of  the  50.000  inhabitants  of  Paterson.  ]\[o)-eover,  the  greater  part  of  this 
eft'fct  appears  due  to  the  last  2A  miles  of  such  current. 

Further,  the  .same  surprising  i)henomenon  is  shown  under  winter  conditions  of 
the  stream  ;  as  seen  by  comparison  of  No.  4(1,  Table  III.,  and  No.  47,  both  of 
January  7th,  1S82,  with  tlie  stream  frozen  and  somewhat  swollen — No.  46,  above 
the  falls,  yielding  .0389  of  total  N  and  47,  at  Broadway  bridge  .0863  ;  a  ]>ropor- 
tioiiate  reduction  even  twice  as  large  as  before. 

*  Rimian  niuiicials  designate  ()ii;,'iiiiil  talile  niinihors,  as  sriven  in  the  Uih]o  liea(iiiif»s  in  parentheses. 


60 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Table  No.  5  (Table  III.  op  Mr.  Wurtz's  Report). — Analyses  op  Water  op  the 
Passaic  River  above  the  Great  Falls  at  Paterson. 

(Grains  per  U.  S.  gallon.) 


2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

.3 

14. 

ll 
o 

Dates. 

1 

o 
H 

ll 

< 

6 
o 
o 

a 
o    . 

P 

o 
"»-■   * 

C   It 

•§■1 
1° 

£5 
<: 

1         1-^ 

1  =     0  E  = 

C  £      5  £  r 

£  i    J  ^  & 

-  0 

1 

IS 

Sept.  7,  1881 

Sept.  29,1881 

Oct.  31.  1881 

Nov.  14,  1881   

Dec  31.  1881 

4.934 
4.87.5 
4.91.9 
5.016 

0.711 
0.991 
1.400 
1.266 

4.223 

3.884 
3.569 
3.750 

3.336 

0.286 

0.521 
0.<>90 
0.779 
1.020 

1.003 

.00248 
.00851 

.'66554 

! 00642 

.0053     .0187 
.0181    

.0088     .0201 

'.blt.O     .0239 

.0264 

.0217 

9T 

0.124 

33.. 
44 

.0347 
.0472 

.0286 

46.. 

Jan.  7,  1882,  river  ice-bound 

4.794 
4.918 

1.458 
1.1 6(i 

.0389 

3.752 

.194 

0.802 

00560 

.0125    .0210 

.0391 

.0322 

Table  No.  6  (Table  IV.  op  Mr.  Wurtz's  Report). — Analyses  of  Water  op  the 
Passaic  River  between  the  Great  Falls  and  Dundee  Lake. 

(Grains  per  U.  S.  gallon.) 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

1 

B 

o 
H 

6.135 

5.873 
6.059 

5. 

CD  ii 

i  = 

■e-S 

c  c 

6" 

1.020 
1.557 
1 .7.55 

6 

■< 

5.115 
4.316 
4.304 

7. 

8. 

c 
o 
£ 
£ 
o 
o 

.495 
.381 
.276 

9. 

o 
.S  ^ 

1| 
=  o 

CO 

0..34(i 
1.048 
1.197 

10. 

S  t 

11. 

■c 
'o 

S-5 
'2  - 
o  5 
£•= 
£■3 
<i 

.0166 
.0:;50 
.02.33 

'0088 

.0181 
.0250 
.0135 

.0125 
.0010 
0169 
.0146 

12. 

=  0  ~ 

£SS 

13. 

.2 

5  0 
1^ 

0769 
.I177:' 
.0(i7-1 

.'6:^03 
.0441 
.07.39 
.0.372 

.(1391 
noil 
.0::82 
.0375 

14. 

•Eb£ 

-8  = 

Localities. 

Dates. 

2. 

Bleecker  street,  from  sewage 

Sept.  7,  1881 
Nov.  14,    " 

Sept.  21,   " 
Sept.    7,   " 

Jan.  7,1882 

.0356 

.0102 

.0175 
.0169 

.0247 
.0321 

.0266 

.0088 

'■.6i95 
.0219 
.0278 
.0207 

(I21( 

de- 
crease 
.0169 

.019-1 

063.3: 

34 

36.. 

35 

West  end  of  race-track  bridge, 
in  sewage  stream   

West    end    of     Fifth    avenue 
bridge,  in  sewage  stream. . . 

East  end  of  racetrack  bridge. 

.063T 
.05.55 

13 

5.132 
5.931 

5.237 

6.022 

5  584 

1.166 
1.312 

1.749 

1.444 

1  531 

1.166 

3.966 
4.619 

3.488 

4.57s 

4.054 

3.750 
0  302 
2  689 
3.600 

.285 
384 
.285 

.194 
.091 
.086 
.285 

1 .079 
0..382 

0.977 

0.862 

0.680 

0.802 

de- 
crease 
0.9.36 

0  765 

;66i9 

.0041 
.0211 
.0030 

.0056 

de- 
crease 
.0044 

.0035 

,3 

Broadway  bridge 

.0250 

47.. 

Broadway    bridge,    river    ice 

.0363 

Means  of  the  sewage  stream, 
Nos.  2,  34.  and  .36 

.0579 

Means  of    Broadway   bridge, 

0307 

Means  of  Table   III.,    above 
Falls  (repeated  for  corapari- 

4.918 

.0322 

Net  increase  within  Paterson 

0.666  0.365 
3.855  1.166 

5.008  1.409 

1 

.0010 

45. 

Flooded    river    at    Broadway 
bridge 

Means  of  all  Broadway  bridge, 
Nos.  3,  47,  and  45 

Dec.  31, 1881 

.0.315 
0309' 

The  report  farther  considers  the  effect  of  the  Dundee  lake  in  assist- 
ing the  process  of  self -purification ;  for  this  purpose  examinations  were 
made  at  different  times  of  the  water  of  its  outlet,  the  Dundee  canal, 
with  the  expectation  of  gaining-  thereby  information  relative  to  the 


THE   POLLUTION   OF   THE   PASSAIC    RIVER. 


61 


average  composition  better  than  by  studies  of  samples  taken  from  the 
lake  itself.  This  canal  is  in  effect  a  mill  race  about  If  miles  in  extent, 
leading-  from  the  lake  to  the  mills  at  Passaic  city,  and  discharging 
into  the  tidal  stream  below.  The  results  are  included  in  Table  No.  7 
following,  where  Mr.  Wurtz  has  placed  them  in  comparison  with  the 
means  of  the  analyses  of  samples  taken  from  points  above  as  exhibited 
in  Tables  No.  5  and  6. 


Table  No.  7  (Table  V.  op  Mk.  Wurtz's  Report). — Analyses  of  Water  of  the 
Dundee  Canal  at  and  Near  the  City  of  Passaic. 

(Grains  per  U.  S.  gallon.) 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

s. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

c 
c  = 

5 

Localities. 

Dates. 

o 

■3 

*A 

0 
H 

6.275 

5..587 
5.552 

6.777 

5.805 

5.008 
0.797 

»-3 

a  a 
'3  0 
3  "* 

S  c 
0  « 
0 

< 

"5 

c 
0 
S 
c 
0 
0 

0 
•Ji 

il 

.2  ^ 

0    3 

si 

■3 

'c  5 

1-1 

< 

^  2-- 
1^^ 

.2 

< 

.■SH 

19.. 

Canal  at  Passaic 

Exit  from   lake    into 
canal  ;  at  west  eml 

1««1. 
Sept.  9 

"   29 
Oct.  31 

Dec.  aO 

1.312 

l.OiiO 
I.O.0O 

3.674 

1.104 

1.409 

0.305 
1.166 

0.062 

4.963 

4.537 
4.502 

3.103 
4.276 

or 
4.667 

3.600 

0.676 

0.429 

0.505 
0.371 
0.435 

0.285 
0.150 

0.590 

0.691 
1.156 

0.954 

0.848 

0.854 

0.006 
0.802 
0.046 

.0007 

.0047 
.0021 

.0085 

.0040 

.0035 
.0005 

.0056 

.0070 

.0093 

.0105 
.0089 

.0146 

.0280 

.0146 

.OOitO 
.0172 

.0194 

.03.57 
.0280 

.0271 

.o':o4 

.0:J75 

.0294 
.0235 

26 
41.. 

Canal  at  Passaic 

Canal  at  Pas.saic,  river 
in  tlood 

.0231 
.0250 

C  Means  of  Broadway 

bridge  ;  Table  IV. 

J  [ncreaxo  in  travers- 

.0309 

!  Decreaie  in  travers- 
[   ing  Dundee  lake. . 

.0057 
.0125 

.0022 
.0210 

.0071 
.0391 

.0059 

f  Mean.s  above  falls  ; 

Table  III. 
,  [lurense  from  falls 

4.918 
0.887 

3.752 
0.915 

0.194 
0.241 

.0322 

Decrease  from  falls 

.0016 

.0036 

.0038 

.C087 

.0073 

*  Regarding  t.ho.se  mean  fignres,  one  point  needs  explanation.  As  .stated,  the  flood  sample  41  was  turbid 
when  analyzed,  and  the  total  solid  and  combustible  matter  were  both  therefore  overestimated.  In  the  means  of 
columns  4  and  5,  therefore,  the  figures  of  41  have  been  neglected.  Not  so  with  the  ash.  however  (column  6). 
H  'le  r.\vo  mean  figures  have  been  computed,  the  first  with,  and  the  second  without.  No.  41.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  mean  of  the  waters  above  the  falls  does  not  include  a  flood  sample,  this  having  been  duly  collected,  but 
brok  n  and  lost  in  transit  (See  Table  I..  No.  41).  It  was  judged  proper,  therefore,  to  compute  the  figure  .915, 
representing  the  increase  of  mineral  matter  from  the  falls  to  the  lake-outlet,  from  the  second  mean  4.667.  with- 
out the  flood  water.  The  figure  .676,  however,  the  increase  of  mineral  matter  in  the  lake,  does  include  the  flood 
w.itcr,  as  it  is  the  difference  between  two  means,  both  contaming  flood-water  figures. 

The  balance  of  the  report  is  occupied  with  a  discussion  of  (1)  the 
pollution  of  the  tideway  portion  of  the  Passaic  river  below  tlie  city  of 
Passaic  by  the  sewage  of  N(nvark  ;  and  (2)  with  a  brief  discussion  of 
,  the  quality  of  the  water  of  the  Morris  canal  as  representing  the  pure 
water  of  the  upper  tributarii^s  of  the  Passaic.  The  tables  illustrating 
these  points,  while  interesting,  are  less  valuable  than  those  included 
in  the  foregoing,  so  far  as  indicating  the  possible  extent  of  the  self- 
purification  of   a  running   stream.     The  final  tabulation  giving  the 


62 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


chemical  changes  in  the  water  of  the  Passaic  river  at  six  stages  of  its 
flow  may  be  included  as  pertinent  to  the  present  discussion. 


Table  No.  8   (Table  XIII.    op   Mu.  Wurtz's  Report).— Showing  the  Chemical 
Changes  in  thk  Water  of  the  Passaic  River  at  Six  Stages  of  its  Flow. 

(Grains  per  U.  S.  gallons.) 


1. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

d 
M 

o 
c 
a 

1 

"3 
o 

■a 
'5 

c 

2 

1 

O 

d 

Stage  of  the  river. 

1 

2 

§ 
E 

If 

11 

6*9 

o  5 

c   . 

Z 

^ 

H 

s 

o 

s.     <- 

-^ 

^■~'~ 

< 

^ 

1... 

Uncontaminated  head  waters, 
Morris  canal  ;   mean  of  4.  at 

\ 

different  dates 

3.165 

1.0(14 

2.101 

0.190 

0.511    .0023 

.0062 

.0083 

.0167 

.0135 

2  .. 

River  entering  Paterson,  above 

falls ;    mean   of  5,   different 

1 

dates 

4.918 

1.166 

3.752 

0.194 

0.802   .0056 

.0125 

.0210 

.0391 

.0322 

8... 

River  leaving  Paterson,  Broad- 
way bridge  ;  mean  of  3,  dif- 

1 

5.008 

1.409 

3.G00  

0.285 

0.765   .0035 

.0146 

.0194 

.0375 

.0309 

4  .. 

River  leaving    Dundee  canal  ; 

mean  of  4,  different  dates. . . 

.^.805 

L104 

4.667 

0.435 

0.848  .0040 

.0089 

.0172 

.0:^4 

.02.50 

5 

Down   flow  in   tidal  channel ; 

mean  of  5.  different  dates. . . 

(i.752 

1.394 

5.358 

0.938 

1.081    .0101 

.0090 

.0364 

.0508 

.0418 

6... 

Up      flow,    carrying     Newark 
sewage  ;    mean  of  5.  differ- 

1 

ent  dates 

31.710 

5.396 

26.514 



21.193 

2.084 

.0111 

.0159 

.0375 

.0667 

.0549 

The  conclusions  are  stated  in  the  following  language : 

A  general  review  shows  that  we  have  obtained  quite  complete  and  satisfactoiy 
data  regarding  the  chemical  composition  of  the  Passaic  at  six  important  stages  of 
its  flow,  during  the  four  mouths  of  September  to  December,  inclusive,  1881.  In 
the  course  of  this  report  there  have  been  presented,  moreover,  rational  and  con- 
sistent theories  of  the  causes  of  the  principal  changes  of  composition  throughout 
these  six  stages.     In  Table  XIII.  they  are  presented  in  succession. 

First  Stage. — This  is  represented  by  the  Morris  canal,  chiefly  and  directly  fed 
from  the  Highland  hillstreams  of  your  State,  unexcelled  in  purity.  Lake  Hopat- 
cong,  the  Summit  canal  reservoir,  it  should,  however,  be  remarked,  does  not  natu- 
rally belong  to  the  Passaic  watershed,  but  to  that  of  the  Delaware  ;  its  tributaries, 
nevertheless,  interlock  with  those  of  the  Passaic,  and  rise  in  the  same  crystalline 
rocks. 

Second  Stage. — Eepresented  by  the  river  just  above  the  Passaic  falls.  The  incre- 
ments shown  here  of  dissolved  matters  above  those  in  the  canal  cannot  be  attrib- 
uted in  any  im])ortant  measure  to  evaporation,  which  takes  place  from  both  channels. 
The  salt  is  the  .same  in  both,  the  suljihates  considerably  larger  in  the  river,  the  total 
organic  matter  but  little  larger,  while  the  all)uminoids  are  doubled,  and  the  total 
nitrogen  more  than  doubled  in  the  river.  This  last  increase,  with  that  of  the  sul- 
phates, is  easily  traceable  to  the  much  larger  drainage  from  animals  and  fertilized 
lands  received  by  the  river  before  arriving  at  this  stage. 

Third  Stage. — Rejiresented  by  the  river  at  the  Broadway  bridge,  before  entering 
the  Dundee  lake,  after  receiving  the  total  sewage  of  Paterson,  but  subsequently 
furnishing  nourishment  to  extensive  masses  of  aquatic  plants  and  animals,  and 
rippling  through  some  miles  of  shallow  rapids,  which,  with  the  aeration  and  oxi- 
dation consequent  upon  these  conditions,  and  upon  the  basic  comiiosition  of  this 
river,  has  effected  the  absolute  absorption  and  destruction  of  almost  the  whole  of 
the  Paterson  sewage  matters.     Of  the  latter,  the  only  chemical  evidences  left  are 


INVESTIGATIONS    IN    PENNSYLVANIA.  63 

the  salt,  which  has  been  increased  about  50  per  cent.,  the  total  organic  matter, 
which  has  increased  only  21  per  cent.,  and  the  albuminoids,  which  now  average 
more  than  double  the  proportion  in  the  tirst  stage,  the  canal,  though  still  not  large 
enough  to  condemn  the  water  for  potable  purposes,  even  at  this  point.  Moreover, 
the  total  nitrogen  lias  been  kept  dow'n,  so  that  it  barely  exceeds  that  a))ove  the 
falls.  The  sulphates,  by  fertilizing  the  water  weeds,  have  actually  been  reduced 
in  amount. 

Fiiuith  Stntje.  —Represented  by  the  current  in  the  Dundee  lake  outlet,  or  Dun- 
«lee  canal.  The  water  has  here  undergone  evaporation,  but  at  the  same  time  much 
further  aeration  and  depuration  by  its  slow  passage  through  the  expanse  of  the 
lake.  Thus,  we  tind  that,  while  the  total  solids  have  increased  by  concentration, 
the  total  organic  matter  has  been  partly  consumed,  so  that  it  has  fallen  to  less  than 
4  per  cent,  more  than  in  the  tirst  stage.  The  salt  and  sulphates  have  both  increased, 
while  the  albuminoids  have  now  decreased  to  a  figure  not  greatly  above  the  first 
stage,  and  the  total  nitrogen  has  also  decreased  nearly  20  per  cent,  during  the  lake 
passage,  so  that  now  both  this  and  the  albuminoids  are  appreciably  less  (the  former 
22,  the  latter  29  per  cent,  less)  than  above  the  Falls  before  entering  Paterson. 

Fifth  Ht<t(je  — Represented  by  what  we  have  concluded  to  be  the  "  normal  "  com- 
position of  the  downflowing  tideway  waters  when  free  from  tlie  great  influx  of  sew- 
age from  Newark.  The  increase  of  nearly  a  grain  per  gallon  of  total  solids,  half  of 
which  is  .salt,  is  due  to  several  causes,  one  being  evaporation,  another  local  .sewage 
influx.  The  increa.se  of  sulphates,  over  one-fifth  of  a  grain,  may  be  partially  from 
tlie  Lodi  chemical  works,  as  already  shown.  The  total  organic  matter  increases 
20  and  the  total  nitrogen  as  much  as  67  per  cent.,  although,  rather  unexpectedly, 
the  albuminoids  do  not  increase  at  all,  but  must  be  destroyed  by  the  downflowing 
♦nirrent  and  converted  inte  the  innocuous  forms  of  ammonia  salts  and  nitrogen  acids 
about  as  fast  as  they  enter. 

These  latter  two  components,  accordingly,  have  increased  at  the  rate  of  152  and 
112  per  cent,  respectively. 

Sixth  Stnge. — Rejiresented  by  samples — mostly  Newark  hydrant  waters — showing 
large  sewage  pollution.  Here  tlie  salt  has  increased  over  22  times,  the  sulphates 
are  doubled,  and  the  total  organic  matters  increased  four-fold,  over  the  downflow- 
ing tidal  current  of  the  fifth  stage.  Nevertheless,  very  curiously  again,  the  albumi- 
noids have  not  increased  proi)ortionately,  but  only  about  77  per  cent.,  now  being 
but  little  more  than  at  the  Broadway  bridge,  at  the  head  of  Dundee  lake.  The 
ilestructive  action  of  Passaic  water  on  animal  and  animalized  matters  ap])ears, 
therefore,  to  prevail  at  all  stages  of  the  river's  flow.  The  total  nitrogen  in 
this  sixth  stage  is  but  31  ])er  cent,  larger  than  in  the  fifth  stage,  though  70  per 
cent,  larger  than  in  the  water  above  the  Paterson  falls,  120  jier  cent,  larger  than  in 
the  Dundee  canal,  and  307  \^ev  cent,  larger  than  in  the  Morris  canal. 

The  question  of  the  pollution  of  the  water  supplies  of  the  large 
cities  of  Newai'k  and  Jersey  City  has,  by  reason  of  the  extensive 
litig-ations  Avhieli  have  ensued,  become  somewhat  celebrated,  and  the 
essential  featunss  of  the  case  are  g-iven  in  Appendix  V. 

Investigations  in  Pennsylvania. 

In  Pennsylvania  Col.  Julius  W.  Adams  presented  a  Report  On  the 
rollution  of  Rivers  as  Ap|)licable  to  the  Future  Water  Supply  of 
I'liiladelphia,  to  the  Commission  of  Engineers  appointed  to  considm- 
the  (nitire  subject  of  the  jiresent  and  future  water  supply  of  Phila- 
li'lpliia  in  1875.*  This  report  is  followed  by  (1)  a  Report  of  Messrs. 
Ijootli  and  (larrett  to  the  Commission,  on  their  Examination  of  the 

*  Vol.  ii.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Select  Council  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  for  1875.   (Appendix  A.) 


64 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Waters  of  the  Schuykill  and  Delaware  rivers ;  and  (2)  by  a  tabulation 
of  analyses  made  by  Dr.  Charles  M.  Cresson. 

In  the  Eighty-second  Annual  Report  of  the  Philadelphia  Water 
Department  (1884)  is  found  the  beginning  of  an  elaborate  chemical 
investigation  of  the  present  and  future  sources  of  water-supply  for 
Philadelphia,  by  Dr.  Albert  E.  Leeds,  the  preliminary  work  of  the 
tirst  3'ear,  including  a  chemical  study  largeh'  of  the  pollution  of  that 
river  from  various  sources. 

In  the  Eighty -third  Annual  Report  of  the  Department  the  stud}'  of 
various  sources  of  prospective  future  supply  is  continued,  and  Dana 
C.  Barber,  C.  E.,  assistant  engineer,  reports  on  sources  of  pollution 
in  detail.     One  of  the  Schuylkill  cases  cited  may  be  reproduced  here. 

The  jjrincipal  source  of  contamination  at  the  falls  of  the  Schuylkill 
is  the  refuse  waste  from  an  extensive  carpet,  blanket,  and  cloth  mill, 
situated  a  short  distance  from  the  river  on  a  natural  water-course, 
through  which  the  waste  products  of  the  mill  flow  directly  into  the 
river.  In  January,  1884,  the  proprietors  furnished  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  quantitj^  of  material  used  per  day  :* 


45,000  pounds 

of  wool  scoured. 

22 

pounds 

of  extract  of  logwood. 

500 

(( 

tallow  (used  in  soap 
scouring). 

for 

11 

extract  of  logwood  (liq- 
uid) . 

11 

acetic  acid. 

192 

(( 

extract  of  sumac. 

19 

muriatic  acid. 

4 

(1 

flavine. 

31 

oxalic  acid. 

7 

(( 

fuller's  earth. 

3 

tartaric  acid. 

47 

(( 

chipijed  fustic. 

88 

alum. 

2 

(( 

gambler. 

64 

aniline  dyes. 

715 

(< 

Glauber's  salts. 

27 

butter  of  antimony. 

60 

<i 

gum  substitute. 

235 

aqua  ammonia. 

69 

" 

hypernic. 

42 

aqua  fortis. 

32 

(< 

indigo. 

674 

archil  liquor. 

3 

gallons 

of  iron  liquor. 

24 

bar  wood. 

1 

pound 

of  litharge. 

90 

bi-chromate  of  potash. 

2,351 

pounds  of  chipi^ed  logwood. 

33 

black  dye. 

26 

K 

madder. 

12 

blue  stone  (blue  vitr 

iol). 

3 

" 

muriate  of  copper. 

3 

borax . 

3 

" 

muriate  of  iron. 

245 

brimstone. 

3 

a 

muriate  of  tin  (double). 

9 

camwood. 

16 

" 

muriate  of  tin  (single). 

124 

caustic  soda. 

3 

(( 

nutgalls. 

17 

cochineal. 

505 

" 

oil  of  vitriol. 

7 

cojjperas. 

82 

i  i 

Paris  white. 

16 

cream  of  tartar. 

36 

a 

i:)ipe  clay, 

27 

crystals  of  tin. 

3 

gallons 

of  red  liquor. 

8 

ciid-bear. 

2 

pounds 

of  red  Sanders  wood. 

24 

cutch  (catechu). 

344 

(( 

sal  soda. 

247 

extract  of  bark  (quer- 

349 

" 

soda  ash. 

citron). 

66 

i( 

sumac. 

80 

extract  of  fustic. 

4 

(( 

turmeric. 

19 

extract  of  indigo  (acid). 

10 

(( 

yellow  prussiate  of  pot- 

165 

extract  of  indigo  (neu- 

ash. 

tral). 

*  Eighty-third  An.  Kept.  PhU.  Water  Dept.  (1885),  pp.  308-309. 


THE   ILLINOIS   STUDIES,  65 

Mr.  Barber  was  unable  to  state  whether  or  not  the  list  included  all 
the  pollution  from  this  particular  mill,  as  he  was  denied  access.  The 
list  may  therefore  be  taken  as  representing-  the  pollution  which  the 
jDroprietors  were  willing  to  admit.  Chemical  analyses  showing  the 
efitect  of  this  pollution  on  the  stream  are  given  in  the  report  of  Dr. 
X/eeds. 

Mr.  Barber's  report  is  also  included  in  a  Beport  on  the  Pollution  of 
Bivers,  b\'  the  Committee  on  Water  Supply,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  etc., 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  First  Annual 
Eeport  of  that  Board  (1886). 

In  the  Eighty-fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Philadelphia  Water  De- 
partment Professor  Leeds  concludes  his  report  on  the  chemical  ex- 
amination of  the  water  supply,  which,  with  an  additional  short  report 
by  Mr.  Barber  and  tables  showing  the  extent  and  density  of  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  collecting  areas  examined,  conchides  the  Philadelphia 
investigation  so  far  as  questions  of  stream  pollution  are  concerned. 

Minnesota. 

In  Minnesota,  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  for  several  years  made 
more  or  less  systematic  chemical  analyses  of  waters  throughout  the 
state.  A  number  of  such  of  the  water  of  the  Mississippi  river  are 
given  in  the  Eighth  Annual  Beport  of  that  Board.  A  few  analyses 
of  the  Mississippi  river  water  are  given  in  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  Re- 
ports. 

In  1883,  Professor  .Tames  A.  Dodge  made  a  few  chemical  analyses 
of  the  Mississippi  river  water  at  points  in  the  vicinity  of  Minneapolis, 
St.  Paul,  Hastings,  and  Winona.  The  results  may  be  found  in  the 
Bulletin  of  the  Minnesota  Academy  of  Science,  Vol.  III.,  No.  1. 

The  Illinois  Studies. 

In  Illinois,  the  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  drawn  from  the 
lake  front,  is  ])adly  i^ollutcd  by  the  sewage  of  the  city  which  finds 
its  way  into  Lake  Michigan,  lavgelj'-  by  way  of  the  Chicago  river,  into 
which  nearly  all  the  sewers  of  tlie  city  discharge.* 

The  pollution  of  the  Chicago  river  has,  liowever,  increased  with  the 
growth  of  the  city  from  year  to  year,  and  finally  means  were  taken  to 
force,  by  pumping",  a  portion  of  the  polluted  water  of  the  South 
branch  of  the  Chicago  river  through  the  existing  Illinois  and  Michi- 
gan canal,  thereby  obtaining  to  some  extent  the  reli(^f  proposed  by  Mr. 

*  See  also  Chapter  IX  ,  on  Discharge  into  Tidal  or  other  Large  Bodies  of  Water,  where  the  Chi- 
cago problem  is  further  touched  upon. 
6 


66  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL   IN    THE    UNITP:D    STATES. 

Chesbroiigh  in  1855.  The  present  plant  for  this  purpose,  erected  in 
1882-83,  has  a  nominal  capacity  of  6U,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  min- 
ute,* which  is  taken  from  the  Chicago  river,  near  where  it  receives,  in 
addition  to  the  sewage  of  about  400,000  people,  the  drainage  of  the 
Union  Stock  Yards  at  South  Chicago,  amounting  to  about  7,000,000 
gallons  per  day  of  concentrated  sewage.f 

The  work  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  and  Water  Supply  Commission 
of  1887  revived  the  project  of  a  large,  navigable  canal  to  the  Des 
Plaines  river,  and  led  to  a  study  in  1888  89,  by  the  State  Board  of 
Health,  of  the  question  of  probable  pollution  of  the  Illinois  river  by 
the  discharge  through  such  a  canal  of  the  sewage  of  the  city  of  Chi- 
cago diluted  with  600,000  cubic  feet  of  lake  water  per  minute. 

Before  discussing  bidefly  the  results  obtained  in  the  study  of  the 
water  supplies  of  Illinois  and  the  pollution  of  its  streams  in  1888-89, 
we  may  refer  to  the  fact  that  the  State  Board  of  Health  had  previous- 
ly made  a  few  similar  studies,  the  results  of  which  can  be  found  in 
their  several  reports,  though  chiefly  in  the  Ninth  Report,  for  the  year 
1886.  In  regard  to  the  results  in  the  Xinth  Annual  Report,  it  may  be 
observed  that  they  are  not  nearly  so  complete  as  the  work  of  1888-89, 
and  must  be  considered  at  the  present  time,  in  view  of  the  extended 
results  of  the  later  investigation,  of  historical  value  chiefly. 


Self-purification  in  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal. 

In  the  investigation  of  1888-89,  as  made  by  Professor  J.  H.  Long, 
750  samples  of  water  were  examined, between  May  1  and  November  15. 

One  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  investigation  was  to  determine  the 
rate  and  degree  of  self-purification  taking  place  in  the  Illinois  and 
Michigan  canal  between  Bridgeport,  the  point  where  the  sewage-pol- 
luted water  of  the  South  branch  is  pumped  into  the  same,  and  its 
point  of  discharge  into  the  Des  Plaines  river  at  Joliet,  and  so  on  down 
stream  to  the  Illinois  river,  and  finally  to  the  Mississippi.  On  this 
question  Professor  Long  presents  among  others  a  series  of  analyses  at 
(1)  Bridgeport,  the  head  of  the  canal,  and  (2)  at  Lockport,  29  miles  be- 
low. In  this  distance  the  canal  receives  nothing  aside  from  rainfall  and 
the  slight  infiltration  which  may  possibly  take  place,  but  which  is  stat- 
ed as  nearly  nil.  During  the  summer  of  1888,  while  the  tests  were  in 
progress,  the  pumps  at  Bridgepoi-t  were  in  continual  operation  at  the 
rate  of  50,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  an  amount  on  an  average  for  each 
whole  day  about  seven  times  in  excess  of  the  total  of  sewage  flowing 
into  the  river  from  all  sources.     We  have,  then,  in  this  canal  the  ideal 

*  See  Chapter  XXII.  in  Part  II.  for  description  and  illustrations  of  this  plant. 
+  For  an  analysis  of  this  stock-yard  sewage  see  foot-note,  page  32. 


SELF-PURIFICATIOX    IX   THE    ILLINOIS    AND    MICIIIGAX    CANAL.      G7 

conditions  for  determining  the  rate  of  self-puritication  of  a  running 
stream  by  the  purely  chemical  agencies.  To  place  this  in  stronger 
light,  we  may  note  that  the  necessity  for  maintaining  the  canal  in  nav- 
igable condition  precludes  allowing  the  growth  of  water  j^lants  along 
the  sides  and  bottom.  Again,  the  frequent  passing  of  heavily  laden 
boats  stirs  up  sediment  which  may  have  collected  at  or  near  the  bot- 

Table  No.  9. — Chemical.  Changes  ix  tue  Water  of  the  Illinois  and  IVIichigan 
Canal  while  flowing  29  miles  from  Bridgeport  to  Lockpokt. — (From  anal- 
yses made  by  Professor  J.  H.  Long  in  1888-89.) 

(Pai-ts  per  100,000.) 


Place  collected. 


Date  of 
collection. 


Matter  Nitro 
in  sus-  gi-n  in 
pension,  nitrates. 


Chlo- 
rine. 


Hardness 
CaCOa. 


I  1888 

Bridgeport May     1 . . , 

Lockpiirt May     3... 

Bridgeport May     8 . . , 

Lockport M.iy  10. . , 

Bridgeport May  15.. 

Lockport May  17 . . , 

Briilgeport Mav  23 . . , 

Lockport May  24 . . 

Bridgeport May  28 . . 

Lockport May  .31 . . , 

Bridgeport June    5  . , 

Lockport June    7  .. 

Brid-'oport June  12  . . 

Lockport June  14  . . 

Bridgeport J une  1 9  . . 

Lockpiirt June  21  . . 

Brid-Teport June  2')  . . 

Lockp  irt June  27  . . 

Briilgeport July  17..  . 

Lockpijrt July  lU . . . 

Bridgeport July  24   .. 

Lockport July2<>... 

Bridgeport July  31    . . 

Lockport Aug.    3... 

Briilgeport Aug.    7... 

Lockport Aug.    9... 

Bridgeport Aug.  14. . . 

Lockport Aug.  16  . . 

Bridgeport Aug.  21 . . . 

Lockport. I  Aug.  '2:i. .. 

Bridgeport Aug.  28. . . 

Lockport Aug.  30... 

Bridgeport Sept.  11.. 

Lockport Sept.  13.  . 

Bridgeport Sept.  14.. 

Lockport Sept.   1 .5 . . 

Bridgeport Sept.  18. . 

Lockp  >rt Sept.  20 . . 

BridgefKirt Sept.  2.5 .  . 

Lnrkport Sept.    27. 

liridgcport Oct.     9... 

L>K-k|X)rt Oct.  12. .  . 

Bridgeport Oct.  IK. . . 

I/ickport '  Oct.  18... 

Bridgeport    Oct.  '£i... 

Lockport 1  Oct.  25... 

Bridgeport Oct.  30. . . 

Lockport Oct.  30. . . 


109.90 
53.80 
45.00 
60.85 
58.00 
69.20 
42.81 
46.84 
50.55 
69.90 
47.48 
42.81 
46.49 
3H.71 
34.75 
32.29 
.36.70 
3.3.19 
48.05 
.34.67 
.34.75 
34.25 
75.49 
48.95 
42.03 
38.64 
.37..30 
31.24 
32.-35 

m.oo 

.34.12 
39.00 
.33.68 
.34.88 
44.70 
42.30 
58..34 
60.70 
34.50 
33.88 
.32.10 
.39..54 
34.10 
37.:i6 
41.52 
.38.40 
38.68 
40.50 


46.70 
4.10 

11.51 

24.20 
2.85 

10.70 
7.67 
5.69 

14.70 
8.06 
7.51 
6.45 

13.20 
5.80 
6.23 
4.65 

15..52 
4.70 

10.97 
3  80 
8.45 
4.67 

14.45 

17.14 
7.25 
4.88 
4.98 
3.12 
5.04 
3.25 
6..50 
4.54 
6..55 
3.08 
9.90 
3.90  I 

18.42 

14..34 
9.30 
6.70 
7.81  I 
5.71  1 
5.&3 
6.58 
8..36  I 
5..38  1 

15.76 
6.11  I 


0.0 

u.o 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 

0.0 
0.0 

0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 


15.57 
7.78 
4.81 
2.12 
5.95 
3.54 
3.04 
3.54 
3.54 

12.17 
2.55 
2.26 
3.68 
2.55 
2.12 
2.83 
1.42 
3.54 
6.23 
.5.95 
2.77 
3.29 

18.12 
2.83 
3.12 
.3.26 
2.55 
1.27 
2.55 
1.27 
2.a3 
5.84 
1.27 
1..56 
3.97 
4.96 
7.64 
8.78 
.3.04 
.3.40 
2.8:^ 
5.95 
5.10 
5.10 
6.11 
9.90 
1.42 
&54 


15.90 
27. 9U 
15.90 
18.30 
24.24 
25.70 
21.96 
26.1)4 
23.52 
26.88 
23.04 
22.80 
21.00 
21.30 
17.40 
19.20 
19.20 
20.00 
21.20 
21.50 
10.80 
10.80 
24.00 
21.60 
21.00 
20.40 
19.20 
18.80 
19.00 
1800 
19.40 
19.00 
16.80 
16.80 
19.00 
18.00 
21.00 
25.00 
18  00 
16.60 
17.40 
18.20 
20.00 
21.60 
24.00 
19.00 
21.20 
19.20 


Free 
ammo- 
nia. 


Albu- 
minoid 
ammo- 
nia. 


2  92 
1.5T 
1.11 
0.^5 
1.08 
1.2H 
O.TT 
0.64 
0.82 
1.73 
0.77 
1.01 
1.05 
1.14 
0.80 
0.72 
001 
1.05 
1.08 
1.10 
0.72 
1.10 
.3.10 
1.50 
0.98 
1.08 
1.06 
0.69 
0.76 
0.66 
0.86 
0.98 
1.04 
0.97 
0.98 
1.18 
2..58 
1.90 
0.88 
0.88 
1.18 
0.94 
0.98 
1.10 
0.92 
0.89 
0.69 
1.13 


O.fiS 
0.33 
0.37 
0.27 
0  18 
0.16 
(1.25 
0.17 
0.21 
0.22 

0.20 
0.18 

0.20 
0.16 

0.29 
0.17 
0.17 
0.17 
0.38 
0.18 

0.20 
0.12 
0.18 
0.20 
0.18 
0.36 
0.16 
0.19 
0..32 
0.17 
0.14 
0.15 
0.19 
0.18 

0.:M 
0.23 

0.26 
0.21 
0.18 
0.26 
0.17 
0.19 
0.25 
0.23 
0.26 
0.16 
0.24 
0.16 


Oxygen 

con- 
sumed. 


5.96 
2.51 
2.96 
2.46 
2.22 
1.59 
2.27 
1.74 
2.08 
2.26 
2.11 
1.72 
2.16 
1.21 
1.98 
1.58 
1.86 
l.fiO 
2.63 
1.86 
2.37 
1.54 
2.66 
2.24 
1.80 
1.36 
2.00 
1.47 

1.55 
1..53 
1.58 
1.85 
1.40 
1.52 
1.46 
1.25 
1.57 
1.07 
1.12 
1.31 
2.18 
1.96 
3.04 
0.88 
3.74 
0.69 
2.40 
1.78 


68 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


torn,  thereby  preventing-  the  appearance  of  a  self-purification  by  actual 
destruction  of  org-anic  matter,  which  is  in  reality  merely  a  change  of 
position  of  polluting  material  by  sedimentation.  Further,  in  relation 
to  sedimentation  it  may  be  stated  that  the  current  of  the  canal  of 
nine-tenths  of  a  mile  an  hour  is  sufficient  to  prevent  it,  and  this  fact  is 
further  said  to  be  proven  by  numerous  dredgings  of  the  bottom,  which 
show  no  traces  of  sewage  subsidence.  The  changes  which  do  take 
place  may  therefore  be  considered  as  due  entirely  to  oxidation ;  and  in 
order  to  show  their  extent.  Table  No.  9,  derived  from  Tables  II.  and 
III.  of  Professor  Long's  report,  has  been  prepared,  in  which  the 
sami3les  are  grouped  in  such  way  as  to  give  in  juxtaposition,  so  far  as 
possible,  the  same  sample  from  the  two  places,  the  difference  in  time 
allowing  for  the  flow  from  Bridgeport  to  Lockport. 

The  following  are  the  means  of  all  the  analyses  made  from  May  to 
October  inclusive  (includes  a  number  not  given  in  the  foreg-oing" 
table.) 


Place  collected. 


Bridgeport 
Lockport. . . 


Date  of 
collection. 


1888 


Total 
solids. 

Matter 
in  sus- 
pension. 

Nitro- 
gen in 
nitrates. 

Chlo- 
rine 

Hardness 
CaCOg. 

Free 
ammo- 
nia. 

Albu- 
minoid 
am  mo- 
nia. 

47  12 
43.12 

12.92 

6.98 

0.0 
0.0 

4.68 
4.61 

20.13 

20.77 

1.23 
l.OS 

0.26 
0.20 

Oxygen 

con- 
sumed. 


2.31 
1.62 


The  following  are  the  means  of  a  number  of  analyses  made  in  Jan- 
uary, February,  and  March,  1889.  (The  single  analyses  of  these  two 
series  are  not  comparable  in  the  same  way  as  the  summer  series,  from 
the  fact  that  the  samx3les  were  taken  at  both  places  on  the  same  day.) 


Place  collected. 

Date  of          Total 
collection.        solids. 

1 

Matter 
in  sus- 
pension. 

Nitro- 
gen in 
nitrates. 

Chlo- 
rine. 

Hardness 
CaCOa. 

Free 

am  mo- 

nia. 

Albu- 
minoid 
ammo- 
nia. 

Oxygen 

con- 
Kumed. 

)     Jan.  to     (       37.66 

i'Mch.,1889|  1     40.86 

2.72 

2.46 

0.0 
0.0 

6.29 

5.60 

0  89 
0.81 

0  28 
0.25 

2.65 

2.28 

The  amount  of  purification  attained  appears  from  Table  No.  9  to  be 
quite  slight,  although  dilution  would  undoubtedly  assist  the  process 
somewhat.  The  indication  of  the  table  is,  however,  quite  clear,  that 
an  ordinary  stream  receiving  a  large  quantity  of  a  moderately  dilute 
sewage,  of  the  average  quality  indicated  by  these  tests  at  Lockport, 
can  hardly  be  considered  safe  as  a  source  of  drinking-water  for  many 
miles  beyond. 

In  a  paper,  Notes  on  some  Cases  of  Drinking- Water  and  Disease, 
read  by  Professor  William  P.  Mason,  before  the  Chemical  Section  of 
the  Franklin  Institute,  May  19,  1891,  and  to  which  we  have  already 
referred  in  Chapter  I.,  page  10,  some   propositions  are  advanced  in 


THE    LAW    OF    SELF-PUKIFICATION. 


69 


reg-ard  to  the  process  of  self-purification  taking-  place  in  the  Illinois 
and  Michigan  canal,  between  Bridgeport  and  Lockport,  which  are  of 
importance  in  connection  with  the  present  discussion. 

The  Law  of  Self-pueification. 

Professor  Mason  advances  the  proposition  that  the  rate  of  purifica- 
tion varies  directly  as  the  amount  of  sewage  contamination,  and  states 


r.9 

■^ 

V 

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.. 

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1       1      1       1      1       1       1      1       1      1       1      1 

7b 
164  ■ 

ALBUMINOID  AMMONIA 
mOOEPORT  TO  LOCKPORT 

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Fig.  3.— Decrease  in  Free  and  Albuminoid  Ammonia  in  the  Illinois  and 
MicHioAN  Canal  fud.m  BuinciKroKT  to  Lockpout,  III. 


70  SEWAGE   DISI'OSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

that :  "  Given  a  stream  with  a  certain  amonnt  of  pollution,  the  per 
cent,  of  such  pollution  which  must  disappear  per  mile  of  flow  will 
continually  decrease  as  the  stream  flows  on."  In  illustration  of  this 
proposition,  Professor  Mason  submits  a  graphical  exhibit  of  the 
results  of  a  number  of  Professor  Long-"s  analyses  (Fig-.  3),  showing  the 
decrease  in  the  free  and  albuminoid  ammonias  between  Bridgeport 
and  Lockport  on  certain  dates.  The  following  figures  were  used  in 
preparing  the  diagrams : 


Parts  por 

1.000.000 

Free   ammonia. 

Albuiiiinoiil 

ammonia. 

Bridgeport. 

Lockport. 

Bridgeport. 

Lockport 

2.6 

2.8 

0.64 

0.56 

2.7 

2.4 

0.52 

0.42 

25.0 

10.2 

1.50 

0.72 

5.5 

9.2 

0.37 

0.47 

23.0 

11.0 

1.76 

0.72 

26.0 

12.0 

1.50 

0.48 

29.0 

15.2 

1.64 

0.88 

27.2 

15.0 

1.50 

0.84 

29.2 

13.0 

1.90 

0.88 

June  26 

July     3 

July   17 

July    24 

July    31 

Aug.     7 

Aug.  14 

Aug.  21 

Aug.  28 

In  regard  to  these  figures  and  their  significance,  Professor  Mason 
calls  specific  attention  to  the  samples  of  July  3,  which,  with  relatively 
low  ammonias  at  both  ends,  show  a  loss  of  11.2  per  cent,  of  the  free 
ammonia,  and  19.3  per  cent,  of  albuminoid  ammonia  ;  and  also  to  the 
samples  of  August  28,  where,  with  relatively  high  ammonias  at  both 
ends,  the  indicated  losses  are  55.5  per  cent,  free  ammonia,  and  53.7 
per  cent,  albuminoid  ammonia.  Many  other  illustrations  of  the  same 
law  will  be  noted  on  examination  of  the  results  given  iii  Table  No.  9, 
in  detail. 

Steeam  Pollution  in  New  York. 

In  New  York  State  stream  pollution  has  not,  until  the  last  two  or 
three  years,  received  the  attention  which  its  importance  demands, 
although  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers  have  been  used  as  the 
sources  of  public  water  supplies  for  more  than  20  years. 

A  few  chemical  analyses  of  the  waters  of  these  rivers  may  be  found 
in  the  earlier  w\ater-works  reports  of  some  of  the  towns  supplied,  but 
altogether  they  furnish  nothing  of  special  value  in  studying  questions 
of  stream  pollution.  In  1873  Professor  Charles  F.  Chandler  made  a 
number  of  analyses  of  the  water  of  the  Hudson  river  at  Albany,  and 
strongly  recommended  the  river  as  a  source  of  supply  for  that  city.  In 
1885,  after  12  j^ears'  use  of  it  in  accordance  with  that  recommenda- 
tion, some  doubts  arq^e  as  to  the  propriety  of  further  use  in  view  of 


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IONS  OF  CROTON   WATER,    1876,      1885-6   AND    1888. 


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PLATE  1.   DIAGRAMS  SHOWING  CHEMICAL  EXAMINATIONS  OF  CROTON  WATER,    1376,     1885-6   AND    1888, 


Protective  legislation  in  new  york.  71 

the  constant  and  rapid  increase  of  both  sewage  and  manufacturing^ 
pollution.  Professor  Chandler  again  examined  the  Hudson  river 
water,  and  a  series  of  analyses  of  this  and  other  American  rivers  may 
bo  found  in  his  report  to  the  Albany  Water  Commissioners  of  that 
year. 

Protective  Legislation  in  New  York. 

Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  organized  study  of  stream  pollution, 
the  partial  evils  of  it  have  been  felt  in  various  parts  of  New  York  [State, 
especially  in  relation  to  preserving  the  purity  of  the  public  water 
supplies.  This  led  to  the  passage  in  1885  of  an  Act  conferring  upon 
the  State  Board  of  Health  the  jiower  to  protect  from  contamination, 
by  suitable  regulations,  the  water  supplies  of  the  State  and  their 
sources. 

Early  in  that  year  the  Executive  Board  of  the  city  of  Rochester 
caused  to  be  made  a  detailed  survey  of  all  the  various  pollutions  at 
and  about  Hemlock  lake,  the  source  of  the  domestic  water  supply  of 
the  city  of  Rochester.  The  information  gained  was  used  as  the  basis 
of  rules  and  regulations,  formulated  by  the  State  Board  of  Health 
under  the  act  just  referred  to,  for  the  protection  of  the  Rochester 
supply.     (See  Appendices  III.  and  IV.) 

Similar  regulations  have  since  been  made  for  the  i:)rotection  of  the 
water  supplies  of  the  villages  of  Fredonia,  Norwich,  Cobleskill,  and 
Oneonta;  and  the  cities  of  Amsterdam,  Mt.  Vernon,  and  New  York. 
The  rules  and  regulations  established  at  these  several  places  are  all 
modelled  after  the  original  Rochester  rules,  although  in  some  eases 
modified  to  suit  either  the  locality  or  to  provide  for  special  condi- 
tions. They  may  be  found  in  detail  in  the  several  reports  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health. 

Furthermore,  these  rules  have  all  been  formulated  to  meet  cases  of 
pollution  which  were  apparent  to  the  unaided  senses  on  inspection, 
and  in  regard  to  which  it  may  be  justly  claimed  that  the  pollutions 
were  so  flagrant  that  neither  chemical  nor  biological  studies  were 
necessary  to  point  out  the  necessity  for  improvement. 

In  connecti(ni  with  the  establismcnt  of  the  rules  for  the  protection  of 
the  water-shed  of  the  Croton  river,  an  extended  survey  of  the  sources 
of  pollution  was  made  by  Professor  Charles  C.  Brown,  C.E.,  Avliose 
report  in  the  Ninth  Annual  of  the  State  Board  confciins  a  compilation 
of  all  th(^  clHMnicid  analyses  of  Croton  water  as  made  by  the  New  York 
City  Health  Dci)artm('nt  for  many  years.  As  stated  in  the  report  a 
number  of  analyses  are  included  in  the  tabulations  which  have  never 
before  ]hh'u  published.  The  tal)les  include  analyses  from  1843  to  1888 
inclusive. 


72  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

In  a  brief  discussion  of  these  analyses  by  Professor  Elwyn  Waller, 
who,  as  chemist  for  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Health,  had  made  many 
of  them,  it  is  pointed  out  that  as  a  whole  they  do  not  show  any  seri- 
ous decrease  in  the  quality  of  water  from  year  to  year.  The  fact  is, 
however,  clearly  brought  out,  that  the  Croton  water  is  considerably 
better  some  years  than  others. 

The  accompanying  diagrams  (Plate  I.)  from  the  report  show  some  of 
the  fluctuations. 

In  1889  the  State  Board  of  Health  began  an  extended  study  of  the 
Hudson  river  with  reference  to  pollution  and  allied  questions.  The 
Tenth  and  Eleventh  Annual  Eeports  (1890  and  1891)  contain  prelimi- 
nary reports,  and  Professor  Brown,  who  has  charge  of  the  work,  prom- 
ises an  extended  series  of  chemical  and  biological  determinations  for 
the  Twelfth  Keport. 


Classification  of  Streams  with  Eeference  to  Pollution. 

The  foregoing  essentially  represents  the  present  state  of  the  infor- 
mation in  relation  to  stream  pollution  in  the  United  States.  Study- 
ing it  analytically,  streams  may  be  divided  into  five  classes,  namely : 

(1)  Streams  which  are  the  sources  of  public  water  supplies,  and 
which  are  not  polluted  by  either  sewage  or  manufacturing  wastes. 

(2)  Unpolluted  streams  which  are  not  now  the  source  of  public  water 
supplies,  but  which  are  likely  to  be  so  used  in  the  future. 

(3)  Streams  either  polluted  or  unpolluted  which  are  not  the  sources 
of  public  water  supplies,  and  which  are  not  likely  to  be  so  used  in  the 
future. 

(1)  Streams  which  are  now  the  sources  of  public  water  supplies,  and 
which  are  polluted  with  both  sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes. 

(5)  Streams  which  are  now  the  sources  of  public  water  supplies,  and 
which  are  polluted  with  manufacturing  wastes  only. 

In  regard  to  (1)  it  is  clear  that  the  thing  to  be  done  is  to  keep  them 
in  the  same  condition  for  all  time  to  come.  To  this  end,  sharply  cut 
legislative  enactments  ought  in  the  majority  of  cases  to  prove  suffi- 
cient. The  New  York  State  Act  of  1885,  with  some  modification  in  the 
way  of  increased  powers  for  the  executive  sanitary  authority,  could  be 
taken  as  a  model  on  which  to  build. 

For  (2)  it  is  equally  clear  that  definite  measures  should  be  inaugu- 
rated for  preserving  them  so  far  unpolluted  that,  when  actually  needed 
for  water  supplies,  they  may  be  so  used  without  prejudice  by  reason 
of  the  previous  occupation. 

To  this  end  each  State  needs  some  competent  authority  with  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  all  the  streams,  ponds,  lakes,  etc.,  of  the  State. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STREAMS  WITH  REFERENCE  TO  POLLUTION.      73 

In  Massachusetts,  as  already  seen,  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  made 
the  custodian  of  the  inland  waters,  and  given  powers  which  enable  it 
to  properly  decide  each  case  on  its  merits.  In  New  Jersey  the  last 
legislature  had  under  consideration  an  act  leading  to  State  custody  of 
inland  waters,  which,  however,  failed  to  pass. 

For  (3)  it  is  probably  permissible  to  use  the  streams  as  sewers  and 
common  drains,  and  the  chief  question  to  be  considered  is  how  much 
pollution  any  given  stream  will  stand  without  becoming  offensive  to 
the  senses  or  dangerous  to  health.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  a  sewage-polluted  stream  is  not  an  entirely  safe  source 
of  drinking-water  for  domestic  animals. 

The  second  question  may  properly  be.  What  dilution  of  sewage  in  the 
stream  is  necessary  in  order  to  produce  the  best  results  in  resolving  it 
through  the  action  of  the  biological  forces?  The  standard  of  Mr. 
Hering,  of  150  to  200  cubic  feet  per  minute  minimum  flow  per  1,000 
persons  contributing,  is  in  the  majority  of  cases  probably  too  small  a 
dilution  for  the  best  results.  As  a  matter  of  judgment  based  on  some 
laboratory  experiments  merely,  for  the  present,  a  minimum  flow  of  300 
cubic  feet  per  minute  per  1,000  people  contributing  may  be  taken,  al- 
though subject  to  modification  when  more  data  are  obtained.*  The 
amount  and  kind  of  silt  carried  by  any  given  stream,  whether  there 
are  rapids  or  pools  just  below  the  point  of  discharge,  are  some  of  the 
physical  features  of  the  stream  which  will  modify  conclusions  as  to 
amount  of  dilution  in  any  given  case.  If  the  stream  is  rapid  flowing 
above  the  sewage  outfall,  carries  large  quantities  of  clay  or  other 
earthy  matter  in  suspension,  and  is  sluggish  below,  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  the  suspended  matter  of  the  inflowing  sewage  may  be  de- 
posited through  the  action  of  sedimentation  in  a  very  short  distance.f 
On  the  other  hand,  with  rapid  flow  below  the  point  of  discharge  and 
little  earthy  matter  in  suspension,  the  insoluble  portion  of  the  sewage 
may  be  carried  a  long  distance  before  there  is  much  deposition.  If 
rapids  intervene  the  process  of  reduction  will  go  on  somewhat  faster 
than  when  the  rapid  flow  is  merely  that  of  a  deep  channel.  All  these 
points  and  many  others  will  require  taking  into  account  before  decid 
ing  any  given  case. 

In  regard  to  (4)  there  can  be  but  one  conclusion,  the  pollution  should 
either  be  removed  or  their  use  as  a  public  water  supply  discontinued. 
Probably  the  decision  of  any  given  case  will  depend  to  some  extent 
upon  the  bearing  of  legal  questions. 

The  decision  of  questions  relating  to  (5)  will  be  the  most  difiicult  of 

*  See  Purification  of  S'wagea  by  Microbes.  Editorial  discussion  in  Engineering,  Oct.  7,  1802; 
reprinted  in  Eng.  A  Bldg.  Rec'd.  vol.  xxvi.,  p.  .'580  (Nov.  I'i,  181V2). 

+  Tn  regard  to  the  sanitary  bearings  of  a  partial  purification  by  sedimentation  only,  see  Chapter 
v.,  The  Composition  of  Sewage  Muds. 


74  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    TIIK    I'MTKD    STATES. 

all.  As  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  The  Leg-al  Aspects  of  the  Case, 
several  of  the  States  have,  by  the  enactment  of  Mill  Acts,  api^arently 
given  legistative  sanction  to  the  ordinary  pollution  due  to  the  use  of 
streams  as  sites  for  manufacturing  establishments.  The  development 
of  manufacturing  interests  has  led  in  Massachusetts  to  the  well  settled 
practice  of  temporary  permissive  pollution  under  State  supervision,  to- 
gether with  purification  of  streams  by  graduall}^  removing  sources  of 
pollution,  rather  than  by  forcing  an  immediate  abatement  in  every 
case  ;  the  experience  gained  in  that  State  indicates  that  an  independent 
commission,  empowered  to  consider  each  case  on  its  merits,  can  more 
nearly  satisfy  the  various  conflicting  interests  than  any  other  form  of 
adjudication  yet  devised. 


CH.iPTEE  IV. 

THE  SELF-PURIFICATION  OF  RUNNING  STREAMS,  AND  THE  RA- 
TIONAL  VIEW  IN  RELATION  TO  THE  DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE  BY 
DISCHARGE   INTO   TIDE- WATER. 

In  this  chapter  two  questions  are  discussed  which  at  first  sight  may 
be  considered  as  possibly  bearing  no  relation  to  each  other.  When, 
however,  we  take  into  account  the  action  of  biological  forces  it  is  found 
that  they  are  in  reality  interdependent,  a  consideration  which  leads  to 
their  discussion  together. 

The  Self-Purification  of  a  Kunning  Stream  from  the  Biological 

Point  of  Vlew. 

It  has  been  asserted  at  various  times  that  a  running  stream  so  far 
tends  to  purify  itself  after  a  few  miles'  flow  that  the  argument  against 
drinking  sewage-contaminated  streams  wliicli  have  had  an  opportunity 
for  several  miles'  tiow  is  not  founded  in  fact.  So  generally  has  this 
view  been  held  that  the  Massachusetts  legislature,  in  limiting  the 
distance  from  the  intake  of  a  water  supply,  derived  from  a  running 
stream,  that  sewage  may  be  allowed  to  enter,  has,  in  Chapter  80  of 
the  General  Statutes,  fixed  upon  20  miles.  Beyond  this  distance,  accord- 
ing to  the  legislature,  there  is  no  objection  to  polluting  a  stream  with 
sewage,  even  though  it  is  used  as  the  source  of  drinking  water.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  know  just  how  the  legislature  arrived  at  this 
limit  of  20  miles.  It  is  indeed  true  that  under  favorable  conditions 
the  tendency  is  toward  self-purification,  but  the  uncertainty  as  to 
how  thoroughly  the  forces  tending  in  that  direction  may  act  in  any 
given  case,  is  merely  an  enforcing  of  the  views  already  expressed.  By 
way  of  illustrating  the  recent  views  on  the  question  of  self-purification 
from  the  biological  point  of  view,  the  following  is  given  as  a  partial 
exhibit  merely :  "^ 

Amoii^  tlio  invortobrata  there  are  certain  classes  of  microscopic  animals  which, 
under  favorable  conditions  of  snfficiencv  of  food  supply,  multiply  in  enormous  num- 
bers. As  common  representatives  of  tiiese  minute  animals,  we  may  mention  ;  (1) 
certain   of   the   tilth   infusorians,   as   for   instance   /'<ir<imeciuin ;   {^2)  Hydra,  as  the 

*  Discussion  l)y  Mr.  Rafter  of  Dr.  Cluis.  G.  Currier's  paper  on  Sclf-Piirification  of  Plowing 
Water  and  the  Inflnence  of  Polluted  Water  in  the  Causation  of  Disease,  in  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  B., 
vol.  xxiv. ,  pp.  70-76. 


76  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

typical  representative  of  the  order  Hydroida ;  (3)  certain  of  the  Eotifera,  of  which 
Lacinularia  and  Conochilus  may  be  cited  as  perhaps  typical  forms  ;  (4)  the  numer- 
ous species  of  animals  included  in  the  entomostracan  Crustacea  ;  (5)  Gammnrus,  or 
the  fresh-water  shrimp  ;  and  (6)  the  larvse  of  a  number  of  water  insects. 

In  comparison  with  bacteria  the  infusoria  are  creatures  of  vast  size,  even  though 
some  species  are  as  small  as  tdVo  inch  in  length.  Paramecium  aurelia,  a  form 
found  I  believe  almost  invai-iably  wherever  putrefaction  of  animal  matter  is  taking 
place  in  water,  is  an  infusorial  giant,  mature  individuals  measuring  as  much  as  t^o 
inch  in  length.  Paixwiecium  bursaria,  however,  is  much  smaller,  about  ^iir  inch 
being  the  usual  length. 

In  addition  to  Paramecium,  there  are  a  number  of  other  ciliate  infusorians,  which 
are  almost  invariably  found  in  water  containing  organic  matter  undergoing  decay, 
and  examinations  made  by  the  recently  developed  methods  of  biological  enumera- 
tion, indicate  that  from  twenty  to  fifty  such  forms  may  be  found  in  every  cubic 
centimetre  of  badly  contaminated  water  ;  but  whether  any  such  numbers  would  be 
found  in  running  streams,  even  though  flowing  slowly,  I  have  had  as  yet  no  means 
of  determining. 

Any  notice  of  the  infusoria  in  relation  to  the  self-purification  of  contaminated 
waters,  would  be  incomplete  without  some  reference  to  Eugleyia  and  the  allied 
genera.  In  standing  waters  Euglena  vir'idis,  an  infusorian  of  bright  green  color,  is 
frequently  present  in  such  quantity  as  to  impart  a  green  color  to  the  water.  Its 
length  varies  from  jio  inch  to  ^orr  inch.  The  vast  quantities  of  Euglena  which  are 
met  with  under  favorable  conditions  are  suflficiently  accounted  for  when  we  learn 
that  it  may  multiply,  not  only  by  fission,  or  by  the  division  of  one  individual  into 
two,  but  it  further  multiplies  by  the  *'  subdivision  of  the  entire  body  substance  into 
sporular  elements,  and  by  the  development  of  independent  germinal  bodies  out  of 
the  substance  of  the  endoplast."* 

Euglena  is  generally  found  in  quantity  in  streams  contaminated  with  sewage. 
Hydra  is  an  animal  ol  considerable  size,  frequently  reaching  a  length,  when  fully 
extended,  of  nearly  an  inch.  It  is  attached  to  water  plants  in  quantity  in  stagnant 
waters,  and  voraciously  devours  everything  coming  within  its  reach. 

Rotifers  frequently  develop  in  vast  quantity  in  waters  carrying  large  amounts  of 
organic  matter ;  and  among  such  Lacimdaria  socialia  may  be  taken  as  tyj^ical.  This 
creature  is  usually  attached  to  water  plants  along  the  margins  of  slowly  running 
streams ;  and  in  favorite  locations  at  certain  seasons  many  hundred  thousand  col- 
onies will  be  found  in  a  limited  sjiace.  The  colonies  are  about  i  inch  in  diameter, 
and  frequently  contain  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  individuals,  each  about  -,-V  inch  in 
length  A  single  sprig  of  water  plant  has  been  found  to  support  nearly  one  hun- 
dred colonies. 

Another  rotifer  which  may  be  mentioned  is  Conochilus  volvox — a  free-swimming, 
social  form — with  the  colonies  containing  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  individuals. 
The  colonies  are  on  an  average  ^^j  inch  in  diameter,  with  the  single  members -/u  inch 
in  length. 

Probably  the  Entomostraca  are  of  the  animal  forms  the  most  efficient  assistants 
in  the  self-purification  of  running  streams.  The  vast  numbers  in  which  they  de- 
velop, and  the  readiness  with  which  they  devour  all  sorts  of  filth,  render  them 
worthy  of  more  extended  study,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  than  they  have 
yet  received. 

As  illustrating  the  forms  especially  worthy  of  attention,  in  this  connection,  may 
be  mentioned  Daphnia,  Ceriodaphnia,  Cypris,  Cyclopis  and  others.  These  are  all 
found  in  waters  containing  decaying  organic  matters,  and  if  the  water  is  intended 
for  domestic  use,  their  presence  in  quantity  may  be  taken  as  danger  signals. f  On 
the  other  hand,  their  presence  in  quantity  may  be  taken  to  indicate  a  step  in  the 
process  of  self-purification  of  contaminated  waters.  As  many  as  one  thousand  four 
hundred  Ceriodaphnias  have  been  counted  in  a  single  quart  of  such  water,  J  and  this 
number  by  no  means  exhausted  the  visible  life  in  the  sample. 

A  study  of  the  Entomostraca,  and  observations  of  their  immense  fecundity  and 

*  Kent :  Manual  of  the  Infusoria,  page  379. 

t  Herrick  :  Crustacea  of  Minnesota.  %  Herrick,  loc.  cit. 


THE   SELF-PURIFICATION    OF    A    RUNNING   STREAM.  77 

tendency  to  act  as  scavengers,  led  at  an  early  day  to  singularly  coiTect  views  as  to 
the  causation  and  sjjread  of  disease.  Thus  Otho  Fredericus  Miiller,  in  his  work  on 
the  Entomostraca,  published  in  1785,  says  :  "  The  time  is  at  hand  when  the  causes 
of  disease  shall  not  only  be  sought  after  in  the  air,  iu  our  method  of  living,  etc., 
but  in  the  incautious  use  of  waters  often  abounding  in  innumerable  animalcules." 
The  fertility  of  these  little  animals  has  already  been  referred  to,  and  by  way  of 
illustrating  it,  reference  may  be  made  to  Jurine's  computation,  that  a  single  female 
Cyclops  quadricornis  might  in  one  year  have  a  progeny  amounting  to  four  billibn, 
four  hundred  million.*  The  following  are  the  average  lengths  of  some  of  the 
animals  of  this  grouj? :  Daphnia,  -h  inch  ;  Simocephalus,  i  inch  ;  Cyclops,  -/.r  inch  ; 
and  Cypris,  -,V  inch.  Gwnnuirus,  another  crustacean  of  the  order  Amphipoda,  is  a 
denizen  of  sluggish-flowing,  contaminated  streams,  where  it  may  be  frequently 
found  in  great  quantity.  This  animal,  when  full  grown,  attains  a  length  of  i  inch. 
The  larvae  of  a  number  of  insects  pass  their  larval  stage  immersed  in  water,  and 
among  such  the  larva  of  the  mosquito  may  easily  take  a  high  rank  for  large  num- 
bers. 

The  foregoing  exhibits,  in  a  very  incomplete  way,  a  few  of  the  animals  which 
assist  in  the  self-purification  of  a  running  stream.  The  number  of  species  which 
actually  assist  in  such  work  is  very  great,  and  a  mere  eniimeration  of  them  would 
require  considerable  space.  As  to  the  definite  part  jjlayed  by  each  species  little  can 
be  said,  as,  with  the  exception  of  the  Entomostraca,  none  of  them  have  been 
studied  in  reference  to  their  economic  value  in  this  direction.  The  exception 
noted  in  the  case  of  the  Entomostraca  is  a  partial  study  made  by  Dr.  H.  C.  Sorby, 
of  England,  a  few  years  ago. 

Enough  can  be  gathered,  even  though  we  possess  little  definite  knowledge,  to 
justify  saying  that  animals  of  tlie  classes  under  consideration  i)lay  a  very  important 
part  in  the  so-called  self-purification  of  streams.  Minute  plants  may  also  be  con- 
sidered as  assisting  greatly  in  such  work,  but  this  j)art  of  the  subject  I  leave  un- 
touched at  this  time. 

The  question  of  self-purification  may,  however,  be  somewhat  simplified,  if  we 
consider  just  the  distinction  which  marks  the  division  line  between  animals  and 
plants.  The  specific  diff'erence  may  be  readily  appreciated  by  consiileriug  that  ani- 
mals always  require  organized  food  ;  they  seek  those  substances  in  which  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  carbon,  sul^jhur,  etc.,  have  been  already  assimilated  into  living  forms,  such 
living  forms  themselves  being  either  animal  or  plant.  Plants,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
no  power  of  assimilating  organized  food  ;  they  require  ratlier  the  elements  hydro- 
gen, nitrogen,  carbon,  etc.,  in  their  primal  state.  In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said 
that  this  distinction  holds  good  through  the  whole  scale  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest.  Indeed,  when  we  come  to  deciding  a  difficult  case,  as  for  instance,  whether 
a  given  form  belongs  to  the  Protophyta  or  the  Protozoa,  we  take  advantage  of  this 
distinction,  and  the  natural  lineof  study  is  to  determine  in  which  way  food  is  taken 
by  the  unknown  form. 

A  i)roper  appreciation  of  this  distinction  will  assist  greatly  in  understanding  the 
phenomena  exhibited  by  streams  in  the  process  of  self-purification.  Thus  we  seem 
justified  in  concluding,  that  if  contaminating  organic  matter  in  streams  is  to  be  re- 
duced to  an  innocuous  form,  without  the  intervention  of  foul,  odor-producing,  putre- 
factive processes,  it  will  be  accomplished,  in  the  earliest  stages  at  any  rate,  by  the 
as.sistance  of  animals  rather  than  plants.  Just  how  animals  and  plants  assist  in  the 
process  of  self-purification,  is  finely  exhibited  by  the  paper  of  Dr.  H.  C.  Sorby 
herewith  apjjended,  entitled,  Detection  of  Sewage  Contamination  by  the  Use  of  the 
Microscope,  and  on  the  Purifying  Action  of  Minute  Animals  and  Plants  f  Dr.  Sorby 
says: 

"By  studying  with  the  microscope  the  solid  matters  deposited  from  the  waters 
of  a  river,  the  previous  contamination  with  sewage  can  usually  be  detected 
without  any  considerable  difficulty.  If  the  amount  be  serious,  the  characteristic 
particles  of  human  excrement  can  easily  be  seen  ;  and  if  it  is  small  and  has  been 
carried  a  long  way  by  the  current,  it  can  usually  be  recognized  by  means  of  the 

*  Baird's  British  Entomontraca,  pape  190. 
+  Jour.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  1884.  pp.  988-991. 


78  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

hairs  of  oats  derived  mainly  from  the  dropjiings  of  horses,  which  resist  decomjoosi- 
tion  for  a  long  time,  and  are  not  consumed  as  food  by  minute  animals.  I,  however, 
do  not  propose  to  enter  into  detail  in  connection  with  this  part  of  my  subject,  but 
sjiecially  desire  to  call  attention  to  the  connection  between  the  number  of  minute 
animals  aud  plants  and  the  character  of  the  water  in  which  they  live,  and  also  to 
their  influence  in  removing  organic  impurities. 

"  For  some  time  pa.st  I  have  been  carefully  ascertaining  the  number  per  gallon 
of  different  sam|)les  of  river  and  sea  water,  of  the  various  small  animals  which  are 
large  enough  not  to  pass  through  a  sieve,  the  meshes  of  which  are  about  -^ir,  i^art  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  The  amount  of  water  used  varies  from  ten  gallons  down- 
ward, according  to  the  number  present.  By  the  arrangements  used  there  is  no 
impoi-tant  difficulty  in  carrying  out  the  whole  method  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  I 
confine  my  remarks  entirely  to  general  mean  results.  The  chief  animals  met  with 
in  freshwater  are  various  Entomostraca,  Rotifera,  and  the  worm-like  larv*  of  insects. 
I  find  that  the  number  per  gallon  and  percentage  relationship's  of  these  mark,  in  a 
most  clear  manner,  changed  conditions  in  the  water,  the  discharge  of  a  certain 
amount  of  sewage  being  indicated  by  an  increase  in  the  total  number  jier  gallon,  or 
by  an  alteration  in  the  relative  numbers  of  the  different  kinds,  or  by  both.  All  my 
remarks  aj^ply  to  the  warm  part  of  the  year,  and  not  to  winter. 

"It  is  known  that  Entomostraca  will  eat  dead  animal  matter,  though  probably 
not  entirely  dependent  on  it.  I  have  myself  proved  that  they  may  be  kept  alive  for 
many  months  by  feeding  them  on  human  excrement,  though  they  soon  died  without 
it.  If  the  amount  of  food  in  any  water  is  small,  not  many  of  such  animals  can  obtain 
suflScient  ;  but  if  it  V)e  abundant,  they  may  multiply  rajjidly,  since  it  is  asserted  that 
in  one  season  a  single  female  Cyclops  may  give  rise  to  no  less  than  four  thousand 
millions  of  young.  In  stagnant  muddy  j^onds,  where  food  abounds,  I  have  found 
an  average  of  200  per  gallon.  In  the  case  of  fairly  pure  rivers  the  total  number 
of  free-swimming  animals  is  not  more  than  1  per  gallon.  I  found,  however,  that 
where  what  may  be  called  sewage  was  discharged  into  such  water,  the  number  jier 
gallon  ro.se  to  27,  and  the  jjercentage  relationshijis  between  the  different  groups  of 
Entomostraca  were  greatly  changed.  In  the  Thames  at  Crossness,  at  low  water, 
the  number  was  about  6  per  gallon,  which  fell  to  3  or  4  at  Erith,  and  was  reduced 
to  less  than  1  at  Greenhithe. 

"There  is,  however,  a  very  decided  limit  to  the  increase  of  Entomostraca  when 
the  water  of  a  river  is  rendered  very  impure  by  the  discharge  of  too  much  sewage, 
probably  because  oxygen  is  deficient,  and  free  sulphide  of  hydrogen  present.  Such 
water  is  often  characterized  by  the  great  number  of  worm-like  larvte  of  insects. 
Thus,  in  the  Don  below  Sheffield  in  summer,  I  found  the  number  of  Entomostraca 
per  gallon  only  about  one-third  of  what  it  is  in  jiure  waters  ;  whilst,  on  the  contrary, 
the  number  of  worm-like  larvse  weie  more  than  1  per  gallon. 

"  Now,  if  the  minute  free-swimminc  animals  thus  increase  when  a  certain  amount 
of  sewage  supplies  them  with  ample  food,  it  is  quite  obvious  that  they  must  have  a 
most  important  influence  in  removing  objectionable  impurities.  The  number  of 
excrements  of  Entomostraca  in  the  recent  mud  of  such  rivers  as  the  Thames  is  most 
surprising.  In  one  specimen  from  Hammersmith  I  found  that  there  were  more 
than  20,000  per  grain  ;  and  the  average  number  at  Erith  in  August,  1882,  was  about 
7,000,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  200,000  ])er  gallon  of  water  at  half  ebb,  from  the 
surface  to  the  bottom.  This  enormous  number  must  represent  a  very  large  amount 
of  sewage  material  consumed  as  food  ;  and  though,  as  in  the  case  of  larger  animals, 
a  considerable  part  of  their  excrements  no  doubt  consists  of  organic  matter  capable 
of  putrefaction,  yet  there  can  be  no  less  doubt  that  the  amount  entirely  consumed  in 
the  life-processes  of  these  animals  is  also  great. 

"As  named  above,  I  ke]it  Cyclops  alive  for  many  months  by  feeding  them  on 
human  excrement.  It  is  thus  easy  to  understand  why,  when  they  abound  in  the 
Thames,  the  relative  amount  of  human  excrement  is  very  considerably  less  than  in 
the  winter,  when  their  number  must  be  much  smaller.  We  thus  ajipear  to  be 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  wlieu  the  amount  of  sewage  discharged  into  a  river 
is  not  too  great,  it  furnishes  food  for  a  vast  number  of  animals,  which  perfoim 
a  most  important  part  in  removing  it.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  discharge  be 
too  great,  it  may  be  injurious  to  them,  and  this  process  of  purification  may  cease. 


THK    SKLF-PUKIMCATIOX    OF    A    KUXNING    STREAM.  79 

Possibly  this  explains  why  iu  certain  cases  a  river  which  is  usually  unobjectionable 
may  occasionally  become  oifeusive.  It  also  seems  to  make  it  clear  that  the  dis- 
charge of  rather  too  much  sewage  may  produce  relatively  very  great  and  objection- 
able results. 

"Though  such  comparatively  large  animals  as  Entomostraca  may  remove  much 
put  reliable  matter  from  a  river,  we  cannot  suppose  that,  except  incidentally,  they 
remove  such  very  minute  objects  as  disease-germs ;  but  it  would  be  a  subject  well 
worthy  of  investigation  to  ascertain  whether  the  more  minute  infusoria  can,  and 
do,  consume  such  germs  as  a  portion  of  their  food.  If  so,  we  should  be  able  to 
understand  how  living  bodies,  which  could  resist  any  purely  chemical  action  likely 
to  be  met  with  in  a  river,  could  be  destroyed  by  the  digestive  process  of  minute 
animals.  Hitherio,  I  have  had  no  opportunity  for  examining  this  question 
critically,  but  have  been  able  to  learn  certain  facts,  which  at  all  events  show  that  it 
is  well  worthy  of  further  examination.  It  is  only  during  the  last  month  that  I 
have  paid  special  attention  to  the  number  of  larger  infusoria,  and  various  other 
animals  of  similar  type  met  with  in  the  waters  of  rivers  and  the  sea,  which  can  be 
seen  and  be  counted  by  means  of  a  low  magnifying  jjower.  At  low  water  in  the 
Medway  above  Cliatham,  in  the  first  half  of  June,  the  average  number  per  gallon  has 
been  about  7.000,  but  sometimes  as  many  as  16,000.  Their  average  size  was  about 
timmt  inch.  Possibly  the  number  of  still  more  minute  forms  may  be  equally  great; 
but  if  we  confine  our  attention  to  those  observed,  we  cannot  but  conclude  that 
their  effect  in  removing  organic  matter  must  be  very  considerable.  Judging 
from  what  occnrs  in  the  case  of  larger  animals,  those  -nfov  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
may  well  be  supposed  to  consume  as  food  particles  of  the  size  of  germs.  Up  to 
the  present  time  I  have,  however,  collected  so  few  facts  bearing  on  this  question, 
that  it  must  l)e  regarded  as  a  suggestion  for  future  inquiry. 

"  So  far  I  have  referred  exclusively  tn  the  effect  of  animal  life.  Minute  plants  play 
an  important  part  in  another  way.  The  number  per  gallon  of  suspended  diatoms, 
desmids,  and  confervoid  aIg;o  is,  in  .some  cases,  most  astonishing,  and  they  must 
often  produce  more  effect  than  the  larger  plants.  As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
ascertain,  their  number  is,  to  some  extent,  related  to  the  amount  of  material  in  the 
water  suitable  for  their  assimilation  and  growth.  In  the  mud  deposited  from  pure 
rivers  their  number  is  relatively  small,  but  in  the  district  of  the  Thames  where  the 
sewage  is  discharged,  I  found  that  in  summer  their  number  per  grain  of  mud 
at  half  ebb-tide  was  about  400,000,  which  is  equivalent  to  about  5,000,000  per 
gallon  of  water.  This  is  two  or  three  times  as  many  as  were  found  higher  up 
or  lower  down  tlie  river,  and  out  of  all  proportion  more  than  in  the  case  of  fairly 
pure  rivers  like  the  Medway.  Their  effet-t  in  oxygenating  the  water  must  be  very 
important,  since  when  exposed  to  the  light  they  decompose  carbonic  acid  and  give 
off  oxygen,  under  circumstances  most  favorable  for  siipplying  the  needs  of  animal 
life,  and  counteract  the  putrefactive  decomi^ositiou  so  soon  set  up  by  minute  fungi 
when  oxygen  is  absent. 

"  Taking  all  the  above  facts  into  consideration,  it  appears  to  me  that  the  removal 
of  impurities  from  rivers  is  more  of  a  i)iological  than  a  chemical  question  ;  and 
that  in  all  discussions  of  the  subject  it  is  most  important  to  consider  the  action  of 
minute  animals  and  plants,  which  may  be  looked  upon  as  being  indirectly  most 
])owerful  chemical  agents." 


The  self-purification  of  streams,  as  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Percy  Frank- 
land  and  others,  admits  of  discussion  from  two  distinct  points  of  view, 
namclv,  the  chemieo-phvsical  and  the  bioh^.q-ical.  "When  discussed 
from  the  first  tlie  concensus  of  recent  opinion  is  that  dihition  and  sedi- 
mentation are  the  causes  chiefly  operative.  From  this  point  of  view 
little  remains  to  be  said  in  addition  to  what  has  already  been  well  said 
by  others,  and  we  may  pass  to  the  consideration  in  detail  of  a  recently 
observed  specific  case  of  self-i)urification  throui^h  tlu;  agency  of  tho 


80 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    TIIK    UNITED    STATES. 


biolog-ical  forces.*     AVe  shall,  however,  consider  the  question  from  the 
purely  physical  point  of  view  in  the  next  chapter. 


The  Case  of  Beaver  Dam  Brook. 

Beaver  Dam  brook,  a  tributary  of  Lake  Cochituate,  receives  the- 
water  of  the  underdrain  of  the  South  Framingham  separate  sewerag-e 
system.  The  underdrain  is  laid  at  a  lower  level  than  the  sewers  and 
an  analysis  of  the  water  flowing-  from  it  made  before  any  sewage  was 
turned  into  the  sewers,  in  comparison  with  analyses  made  after,  indi- 
cates that  no  leakage  from  the  sewers  takes  place.f 

Tables  Nos.  10  and  11  give  the  results  of  a  series  of  chemical  and 
microscopical  analyses  made  in  August,  1890,  as  detailed  in  the 
Special  Eeport,  Part  I.,  and  also  the  Twenty-second  Annual  Keport. 

Tablk  No.  10. — Anaxyses  of  Water  from  South  Framixgham  Underdrain  aki» 
FROM  Beaver  Dam  Brook  Above  and  Below,  Made  August  8,  1890. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


1 
S 
o 

Ammonia. 

Nitrogen  as 

Albuminoid. 

1 

1    . 

Sample  collected  from 

Beaver  Dam   brook,   above  entrance  of  stream 

0.77 
3.&2 

2.20 

2.02 
1.54 
l.S'.l 

.0018 

.02:30 

.OOlfi 
.(i0.'4 
.1044 

.0146 

.0058 

.0100 

.0134 

.03(12 
.02SO 

.0022 
.OOCO 

.0002 

.0018 
.01.-0 
.0240 

.0125 
.6000 

.2200 

.2000 
.Oi'OO 
.0200 

.0001 
.0036 

.0023 

.0005 
.0019 
.0012 

6381 

Underdrain  at  outlet 

Brook,  ?AW  feet  below  entrance  of  stream  from 

un- 

638» 

Mouth  of  brook   proper,  one  mile  below  un 

ler- 

(•,38.? 

Ertnary  f.f  brook,  1,700  feet  below  its  month 

Estuary  of  brook,  2,100  feet  below  its  month .... 

6384 
6385 

On  the  date  of  these  examinations  it  is  stated  that  the  brook  w'as 
extremely  low,  its  waters  flowing  sluggishly  through  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  aquatic  plants.  After  receiving  the  flow  from  the  under- 
drain the  relative  proportion  was,  as  further  stated  in  the  Special 
Report,  45  per  cent,  from  the  underdrain  and  55  per  cent,  from  the 
original  water  of  the  Ijrook. 

*For  recent  discussion  o£  the  self -purification  of  streams  from  the  chemical  point  of  view,  see 
a  paper  by  Dr.  Percy  F.  Frankland  on  The  Present  State  of  Our  Knowledge  Concerning  the  Self- 
Purification  of  Rivers,  read  before  the  International  Congress  of  Hygiene  and  Demography^ 
1891,  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxvi.,  p.  218  (Sept.  5,  1891).  The  earlier  Reports  of  the  Mass. 
St.  Bd.  of  Health  contain  a  large  amount  of  information  from  the  purely  chemical  point  of  view, 
while  in  the  very  recent  ones  may  be  found  the  most  of  what  we  have  in  this  country  from 
the  biological  side  of  the  question.  Moreover,  a  discussion  of  pollution  of  streams  involves  largely 
their  self-purification,  and  the  chapter  on  Pollution,  etc.,  contains  an  abridged  account  of  some 
of  the  more  important  recent  studies  in  this  country  from  the  chemical  point  of  view,  as  for 
instance,  the  report  of  Mr.  Wurtz  oh  the  pollution  of  the  Passaic  river,  and  the  pollution  aC 
the  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal  in  Illinois,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred. 

t  Twenty-second  An.  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Health,  p.  149. 


THE  CASE  OF  BEAVER  DAM  BROOK. 


81 


Tablk  No.  11. — Results  of  Microscopical  Examination  of  Samples  Nos.  6,380  to 
6,385,  AS  PEU  Previous  Table. 

(Number  of  organisms  per  cu  jic  centimetre.) 


1S90. 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Aug. 

9 
63S0 

0 

0 

u 

0 
0 
0 

0 

0 

0 
0 

u 

0 
0 
0 
0 

0 

400* 

0 

0 
0 

u 

0 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 

u 

0 

9 
63S1 

3 

1 
0 
2 

pr. 

0 

0 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

31 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

9 

2 

0 

0 

pr. 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

28 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

9 
6383 

16 

7 
0 
5 
2 
2 

0 

2 

2 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
pr. 
0 

13 

pr. 
pr. 

% 
0 

0 

0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

9 
6384 

1,794 

0 
0 
•2 

0 
1,7<.>2 

460 

2,812 

0 
12 
84 
20 

8 

2,664 

22 

2 

0 

92 

0 
80 

0 
12 

24 

0 
2 
14 
4 
2 
2 

9 

6385 

Plants. 

834 

0 

2 

0 

0 

632 

Cyanophyceae.    Anabaena 

328 

Algae 

542 
66 

0 

Eiulorina 

4 

8 

Pediastrum   

Zoospores 

0 
460 

a 

Staurastrum 

IFungi.     Crenothrix 

Animals. 

3 
0 

12 

0 

4 

8 

0 

42 

24 

0 

2 

3 

6 

Triarthra           

8 

Total  oiganiamB 

400 

34 

30 

31 

5,182 

1,758 

*  Estimated. 


Studying-  tlie  results  we  note  first  of  all  the  large  amount  of  chlorine 
in  the  water  of  the  underdrain,  which  is  taken  as  meaning  that  it  de- 
rives a  portion  of  its  water  from  the  cesspools  in  use  before  the  sewers 
M^ere  built  and  wliich  are  still  in  use  in  many  instances.  Even  if  the 
cesspools  had  all  been  abandoned  immediately  on  the  completion  of  the 
sewerage  system  in  1889  their  effect  could  hardly  have  failed  to  be 
manifest  for  some  time  after.  The  water  issuing  fr(^m  the  mouth  of 
Ihe  underdrain  is  clear  and  colorless  and  contains  considerable  6'/"C- 
nofhrix,  which  rapidly  deposits  in  the  sluggish  current  of  the  open 
channel.  The  water  of  the  brook  itself  above  the  mouth  of  the  under- 
<draiu  also  contains  a  small  amount  of  Cfenotltrlx,  as  shown  by  the 
6 


82  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

microscopical  analysis  No.  6,381.  As  the  llow  proceeds  down  the 
brook,  the  analyses  show  a  progressive  change,  and  comparison  of  the 
successive  stages  of  development  of  the  plant  life  with  the  changes 
in  quantity  of  the  ammonias  and  nitrates,  indicates  the  nature  of  the 
changes  in  the  organic  matter  which  are  taking  place.  The  impor- 
tance of  distinguishing  betAveen  the  suspended  and  dissolved  albu- 
minoid ammonia  is  also  clearly  brought  out  by  these  analyses. 

September  5  and  10,  1889,  samples  taken  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
Beaver  Dam  brook  estuary  were  examined  microscopically  by  Mr. 
Rafter.  At  that  time  the  plant  life  was  chiefly  Zoospores,  there  being- 
present  on  September  25,  2,442  per  cubic  centimetre,  with  52  Diafo- 
macece ;  and  on  September  10,  2,018  Zoospores  and  14  Diafoniacece  per 
cubic  centimetre.  Heavy  rains  during  the  preceding  summer  had  kept 
the  stream  at  an  abundant  flow.  We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that 
the  results  obtained  in  August,  1890,  were  not  exceptional,  but  that, 
on  the  contrary,  in  this  case  the  biolog-ical  forces  are  constantly  at 
work  in  effecting-  a  purification.  This  special  case  has  been  further 
discussed  by  Frederick  P.  Stearns,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  in  the  Special 
Report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  Part  I.,  and  the 
reader  is  accordingly  referred  to  that  discussion  for  additional  detail 
in  regard  to  it. 

Before  concluding  the  subject  it  may,  however,  be  properly  pointed 
out  that  this  example  is  not  quite  the  same  as  the  problem  of  imrifica- 
tion  of  a  river  polluted  by  raw  sewage,  as  discussed  by  Dr.  Sorby. 
We  have  in  this  case  rather  an  incomplete  reduction  of  the  orgaiiie 
matter  to  the  state  of  nitrates  through  the  operation  of  partial  soil 
filtration,  and  probably  in  such  cases  the  farther  changes  in  the  nitro- 
gen will  take  place  through  the  influence  of  plants  rather  than  ani- 
mals. It  may  be  pointed  out,  moreover,  that  mineral  nitrates  usually 
act  as  stimulants  of  an  abundant  algal  life. 

The  Manurial  Constituents  of  Sewage. 

There  is  a  popular  impression  that  great  quantities  of  valuable  ma- 
nure annually  go  to  waste  in  the  sewage  of  our  large  cities  and  towns, 
and  much  ingenuity  has  been  expended  in  attempts  to  utilize  the  ma- 
nurial elements  of  sewage.  None  of  the  various  projects  looking  to- 
ward such  realization  have  thus  far  been  siiccessful  from  a  commer- 
cial point  of  view,  and,  however  hard  it  may  be  for  those  who  have 
preconceived  opinions  on  the  subject  to  change  their  views,  it  must 
still  be  concluded  that,  in  the  present  state  of  the  applied  sciences, 
anything  like  a  general  utilization  of  the  manurial  constituents  of  sew- 
age at  a  commercial  profit  is  apparently  impossible.  A  consideration 
of  the  amount  of  the  manurial  constituents  in  comparison  with  the 


Suspended 
matter. 

Total  dry 
matter. 

0.717 

1.926 

0.4.J3 

0.930 

0.102 

1.6S0 

0.S94 

2.333 

o.taj 

0.879 

0.778 

1.924 

FALLACY    OF   THE   ARGETMENT.  83 

amount  of  water  carrying  tlie  sewage  serves  at  once  to  emphasize  the 
difficulties  of  the  problem.  Thus  the  average  of  total  dry  matter  in  a 
ton  of  sewage  from  an  ordinary  English  town  is  from  two  to  three 
pounds,  while  in  American  cities,  where  the  use  of  water  is  greater 
than  in  the  English  towns,  the  amount  is  much  less.  Professor  W.  R. 
Nichols  having  found  it  to  be  only  about  one  pound  per  ton  in  the 
sewage  of  Boston  in  the  year  1872. 

The  following  table,  No.  12,  which  gives  the  mean  results  of  a  num- 
ber of  analyses,  will  serve  to  show  the  amount  of  matter  actually  pres- 
ent in  the  sewage  of  a  number  of  cities  :  * 

Table  No.  12. — Constituents  of  Sewage. 

Dissolved 
matter. 

2.000  lbs.  Boston  sewasre 1 .  179 

2  000  I  ba.  Worcester  sewage    0  507 

2,0  10  lb-.  Berlin  sewage 1 .578 

2,0<j0  lbs.  of  sewage,  average  50  English  towns 1 .444 

Organic 0.2T6 

Inorganic 1 .  140 

Sum........ 1.423  l.:J81  2.803 

Of  the  fertilizing  matters  in  sewage  the  nitrogen  compounds  are  the 
most  important,  but  their  amount  is  very  small,  as  little  as  O.Oi  and 
0.U5  pound  in  the  Worcester  and  Boston  sewage,  as  determined  by 
Professor  Nichols. 

Money  Value  of  Sewage. 

From  such  data  as  the  foregoing  it  has  been  estimated  that  the  sew- 
age of  English  cities  may  contain  from  one  to  four  cents'  worth  of  fer- 
tilizing matter  per  ton,  while  a  ton  of  the  Boston  sewage  as  indicated 
bv  these  analyses  will  contain  say  one  cent's  worth  of  manure,  t 

Tub  conclusion  from  the  foregoing  cursory  examination  is  that  the 
valuable  constituents  of  sewage  are  so  diluted  that  the  cost  of  extract- 
1  u  them  by  any  known  process  is,  on  the  whole,  equal  to,  or  in  some 
3;ises  even  greater  than  the  value  of  the  material  after  it  is  extracted. 


Fallacy  of  the  Argument. 

The  argument  as  to  the  fallacy  of  attempting  to  utilize  sewage  at  a 
commercial  profit  has  been  put  very  appropriately  by  a  number  of 
writers,  as,  for  instance,  Professor"  Anderson,  who  says  it  would  be 

*  Storer's  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  p.  286. 

+  For  discns.sion  of  this  phase  of  the  question  in  detail  see  f)ai>or.  Sewerage ;  Sewage  ;  The  pol- 
lutii)  I  of  Stream.s  ;  The  water  supply  of  towns,  in  the  4th  An.  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Healtli  (1872). 
By  Nichols  and  Derby. 


84  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

about  as  reasonable  to  expect  farmers  to  manure  their  land  with  the 
smoke  of  cities  as  with  sewag-e,  for,  as  everyone  knows,  enormous 
quantities  of  ammonia  must  be  lost  in  the  aggregate  from  cities  where 
domestic  fires  are  fed  with  soft  coal.  But  precisely  as  it  is  with  smoke 
so  it  is  with  sewag-e ;  that  is  to  say,  the  fluid  is  so  very  dilute  that  it 
cannot  be  put  to  use. 

David  Forbes,  also,  in  replying  to  calculations  based  upon  the  as- 
sumption that  the  excrement  of  each  inhabitant  of  a  city  represents  a 
value  of  several  dollars  a  year,  argued  that  it  would  be  equally  correct 
to  maintain  that  a  barrel  of  water  into  which  a  bottle  of  brandy  had 
been  poured  would  be  worth  as  much  as  the  original  brandy.* 

Professor  Storer  cites,  also,  another  very  striking-  illustration  of  a 
valuable  substance  so  diluted  as  not  to  be  worth  the  cost  of  collect- 
ing :  The  city  of  Philadelphia  stands  on  an  extensive  bed  of  clay  which 
contains  a  pound  of  gold  for  every  1,224,000  pounds  of  clay,  and,  it 
api^ears  evident  that  this  bed  of  clay  contains,  within  the  corporate  lim- 
its of  the  city,  at  least  $1,000,000,000  worth  of  gold.  Except  as  a  mat- 
ter of  scientific  interest  no  one  has  ever  dreamed  of  extracting  g-old 
from  this  Philadelphia  clay.  It  can  be  g-ot,  with  infinitely  less  trouble, 
from  places  where  it  is  more  abundant ;  and  in  this,  as  in  everything 
else,  the  cost  of  getting  the  thing  depends  upon  the  amount  of  labor 
of  some  sort  that  must  be  expended.  It  is  precisely  so  with  sewag-e 
utilization,  and  the  sooner  a  clear  appreciation  of  this  fact  is  g-enerally 
disseminated,  probably  the  sooner  will  the  question  of  sewage  purifi- 
cation be  placed  on  a  thoroughly  practical  basis.  At  the  present  time 
agriculturists  can  g-et  commercial  fertilizers  cheaper  than  the  manurial 
elements  of  sewage  can  be  utilized,  and,  so  long-  as  this  proposition 
remains  true,  it  is  idle  to  talk  of  making  sewag-e  utilization,  except 
under  favorable  circumstances,  a  commercial  success.  For  a  presenta- 
tion of  the  manurial  constituents  of  domestic  sewag-e  in  detail,  with 
theoretical  commercial  values,  sec  Chapter  VIIL,  on  General  Data  of 
Sewag-e  Disposal. 

The  Eight  Way  to  Approach  the  Problem. 

With  this  understanding,  the  problem  of  sewage  purification  is  nat- 
urally approached  from  a  different  point  of  view  from  what  it  would  be 
if  we  expected  to  realize  commercial  returns,  either  by  utilization  in 
broad  irrig-ation  or  by  the  sale  of  a  manure  from  the  sludge,  resultiug- 
from  processes  of  partial  chemical  purification.  Experience  abroad 
has  apparently  settled  both  these  questions,  so  we  can  approach  the 
subject  in  this  country  in  a  somewhat  more  rational  way  than  has 
characterized  a  larg-e  portion  of  the  early  discussion  abroad.     A  full 

*  Storer' s  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  p.  288. 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    WORKS    NOT   SUBJECT   TO    FRANCHISE.         85 

appreciation  of  the  fact,  on  the  part  of  the  jDublic,  that  ordinarily  little 
commercial  profit  can  be  realized  from  sewage  utilization,  is  of  con- 
siderable importance  in  the  beginning-  of  sewage  purification  processes 
on  an  extended  scale  in  this  country.  Such  apiDreciation  enables  san- 
itarians and  others  interested  in  the  improvement  of  the  public  health 
to  insist  upon  sewage  purification  as  a  right  which  one  community  or 
individual  owes  to  another,  independent  of  the  question  of  commercial 
profit ;  it  further  prevents  the  failure  of  executed  projects  which  are 
successful  in  effecting  a  purification,  but  which  do  not  return  a  com- 
mercial profit  on  the  capital  invested ;  again,  it  removes  the  motive 
for  bolstering  up  projects,  which,  while  ineflicient  in  purification,  are 
still  operated  at  a  commercial  profit ;  it  puts  the  whole  subject,  in 
short,  on  a  scientific  basis,  in  which  the  health  of  communities  is 
placed  first,  and  questions  relating  to  commercial  utilization  are  kept 
in  the  background,  as  of  secondary  importance  only. 

In  advancing  the  foregoing  views  it  is  not  intended  to  assert  either 
that  broad  irrigation  may  not  be  a  successful  way  of  both  purifying 
and  utilizing  sewage  when  the  proper  conditions  obtain,  or  that  the 
sludge  from  a  chemical  process  is  not  worth  something  for  manure.  It 
is  desired  merely  to  point  out  that  in  the  present  understanding  of 
things,  commercial  utilization  of  sewage  is,  so  far  as  this  country  is 
concerned,  properly  subordinate  to  the  more  important  question  of 
thorough  purification. 

Moreover,  in  considering  this  phase  of  the  question  of  sewage  puri- 
fication, we  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that,  independently  of 
the  manurial  ingredients  of  sewage,  it  has,  when  not  applied  in  too 
excessive  quantities,  a  distinct  value  for  purposes  of  irrigation.  AYliile, 
therefore,  the  preceding  propositions  are  fundamentally  true,  it  may 
be  still  stated  that  many  cases  will  undoubtedly  arise  in  practice  in 
which  broad  irrigation  may  be  an  exceedingly  valuable  method  of 
sewage  purification  ;  and  it  is  in  this  latter  view  that  the  subject  has 
been  discussed  at  length  in  Chapters  XII.  and  XIII.,  following. 

Sewage  Disposal  Works  Not  Properly  Subject  to  Franchise. 

As  a  corollary  to  the  foregoing,  it  may  be  concluded  that,  generally 
speaking,  sewage  disposal  works  are  not  properly  subject  to  franchise 
by  private  companies.  The  interests  to  be  served  are  so  important, 
and  the  effect  of  neglecting  to  render  proper  service  so  serious  and  far- 
reaching,  that  the  commercial  sjiirit  should  be  absolutely  eliminated 
from  everything  relating  to  sewage  disposal.  The  problem  has  gen- 
erally been  regarded  in  this  light,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  only  a  few 
municipalities,  mostly  small  ones,  have  granted  sewerage  franchises, 
New  Orleans  being  the  only  large  city  which  has  taken  such  action. 


86  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


Disposal  into  Tide-Water. 

Ag-ain  it  may  be  further  concluded  that  where  the  conditions  clearly 
indicate  disposal  into  tide-water  as  the  rational  course  of  procedure 
there  is  no  valid  argument  to  be  urg-ed  against  such  disposition.     The 
view  of  twenty  years  ago  that  turning  sewage  into  the  ocean  was  a 
drain  upon  national  wealth  may  be  considered  as  fairly  met  by  Avhat 
has  already  been  offered  in  reference  to  cost  of  utilization.     There  is, 
moreover,  another  line  of  argument  substantiating  the  same  conclusion 
from  an  entirely  different  point  of  view.     We  have  already  seen  that 
when  the  amount  of  sewage  per  unit  volume  of  water  is  not  too  large, 
the   entomostracan   Crustacea  multiply   in   enormous   uumliers.     The 
Entomostraca  are  further  the  favorite  food  of  the  carnivorous  fishes,* 
and  while  it  has  been  the  experience  in  Boston  harbor  and  elsewhere 
that  too  much  sewage  per  unit  of  volume  drove  the  fish  away  from  the 
vicinity  of  sewage  outfalls,  nevertheless  the  increase  in  Entomostraca 
and  their  utilization  for  food  of  iish  at  points  somewhat  removed  from 
the  centers  of  sewage  pollution  may  be  ccmsidered  a  practical  utiliza- 
tion of  sewage,  and  a  direct  return  therefrom  to  the  total  stock  of 
national  wealth.     To  secure  this  return  in  the  largest  degree,  it  is  still 
essential  that  certain  general  principles  be  observed  in  relation  to  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  sewage  discharge.     In  the  first  place  the 
sewerage  system  should  be  so  designed  as  to  deliver  the  sewage  into 
tide-water  while  perfectly  fresh,  and  to  this  end  tidal  discharge  sewer- 
age systems  need  to  be  self-cleansing,  so  far  as  is  possible,  in  order  to 
reduce  sewage  putrefaction  to  a  minimum.     Again  the  discharge  at 
any  given  point  should  be,  if  possible,  relatively  small.     Any  tendency 
to  the  production  of  either  an  effluvium  nuisance  or  of  a  foul  beach  line 
may  be  taken  as  evidence  that  the  limit  of  quantity  at  any  given  point 
has  been  exceeded.     We  arrive,  therefore,  at  the  conclusion  that  for 
practical  utilization  of  sewage  as  food  for  fish,  the  concentration  of 
large  quantities  of  sewage  and  the  discharge  of  the  same  into  tide- 
water at  the  single  point  is,  generally  speaking,  undesirable.     By  dis- 
charging the  sewage  at  a  number  of  i:)oints,  each  far  enough  removed 
from  the  other  to  insure  the  proper  dilution  which  has  been  pointed 
out  by  Dr.  Sorby  and  others  as  necessary  for  the  development  of  the 
maximum  quantity  of  minute  animal  life,   the  best  results   will   be 
secured. 

Disposal  into  Fresh  Water. 

The  same  conclusion  holds  good  when  for  any  reason  it  may  be  con- 
sidered either  necessary  or  desirable  to  discharge  large  quantities  of 

*  See  the  various  Reports  of  the  United  States  Pish  Commission. 


DISPOSAL    INTO    FKESH    WATKK.  87 

sewage  into  bodies  of  fresh  water.*  The  correct  principle  governing 
such  discharge  has  been  recognized  by  the  Milwaukee  Special  Com- 
mission, appointed  "  to  prejaare  and  present  plans  and  estimates  for  the 
completion  of  works  for  the  collection  and  final  disposal  of  the  sewage 
of  the  city,  and  for  the  permanent  location  of  the  intake  for  the  water 

*  In  this  country  the  most  important  studies  thus  far  made  of  the  relation  of  tlie  minute  life  in 
water  to  fish  life,  are  those  (if  Professor  S.  A.  Forbes,  of  the  Uiinuis  State  Lab.  of  Xat.  History. 
Beginning  in  ISTT,  Professor  Forbes  has  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Laboratory  to  date  the 
following : 

(1 )  The  Food  of  Illinois  Fishes,  vol.  i..  No.  2,  pp.  71-89. 

(2)  The  Food  of  Fishes.  No.  '■).  pp.  l.S-<).5. 

(;!)  On  the  Foo(i  of  Young  Fishes.  No.  o,  pp.  fifi-79. 
(4)  The  Food  of  tiie  Smaller  Fresh  Water  Fishes.  No.  fi,  pp.  O.'i-'.H. 
(.5)  The  First  Food  of  the  Common  White  Fish,  No.  fi,  pp.  9.5-109. 
(('))  Studies  of  the  Food  of  Fresh  Water  Fishes,  vol.  ii.,  art.  vii.,  pp.  433-473. 
(7)  On  the  Food  Relations  of  Fresh  Water  Fishes:  a  Summary  and  Discussion,  art.  viii.,  pp. 
474-538. 

In  these  several  papers  Professor  Forbes  has  discussed  nearly  every  phase  of  the  question  of  food 
for  fi&hes,  and  pointed  out  in  many  cases  the  specific  food  of  diflerent  species  of  fish. 

The  great  economic  value  of  the  Eutomostraca  is  strongly  brought  out  in  these  papers,  and  es- 
pecially as  food  for  young  fish.  In  tne  paper  on  The  First  Food  of  the  Common  White  Pish,  an 
account  is  given  of  the  result  of  examining  the  stomach  contents  of  over  100  young  fish.  After 
giving  the  data  derived  from  these  eximinations  in  detail.  Professor  Forbes  says  : — 

*  *  *  \yg  aj-g  compelled  to  conclude  that  the  earliest  food  of  the  white  fish  consists  almost 
wholly  of  the  smaller  species  of  Entoinostraca  occurring  in  the  lake,  since  the  other  elements  in 
their  alimentary  canals  were  evidently  either  taken  accidentally,  or  else  appeared  in  such  trivial 
quantity  as  to  contribute  nothing  of  importance  to  their  support. 

In  the  paper  on  The  Food  of  the  Smaller  Fresh  Water  Fishes  it  is  further  shown  that  the  cliief 
food  of  the  young  of  the  family  Cyprinidiu  (popularly  minnows)  wliich  embraces  by  far  the  larger 
part  of  the  smaller  fishes,  is  composed  of  such  vegetable  elements  as  filaments  of  Spirofjijra  and 
other  filamentous  algae,  cells  of  Coxiunrimn.  and  Closierinm  among  the  desmids,  together  with 
CijiiKitopleiira  and  other  diatoms.  Among  representatives  of  the  animal  kingdom  Englena  was 
found  to  be  an  important  item,  as  was  also  Bosmina,  an  Entomostracan. 

Summarizing  the  food  of  the  young  of  this  family.  Professor  Forbes  says : 

*  *  *  we  may  conclude  that  the  young  Cyprinid;e  draw  almost  indiscriminately  for  their 
food  supply  upon  Protozoa,  Alg;e.  and  Hntomostraca. 

■The  fish  of  the  family  Cypriniihe  are  of  economic  interest  because  of  furnishing  an  important 
part  of  the  food  supply  of  larger  species. 

No.  (7)  of  the  foregomg  list  is  the  concluding  numl)cr  of  the  series  of  papers  on  the  food  of  fish 
and  in  it  Professor  Forbes  has  presented  a  number  of  highly  important  facts  and  conclusions  of 
interest  in  the  present  discussion,  as  for  instance  a  statement  in  detail  of  the  percentage  of  the 
various  minute  plants  and  animals  found  in  the  food  of  different  species  of  young  fish.  Thus,  the 
food  of  young  perch  consists  of  93  per  cent,  of  Entomostraca,  while  the  food  of  young  bass,  sun- 
fishes,  and  pickerel  consists  of  from  .50  to  70  per  cent,  of  Entomostraca. 

Young  suckers  prefer  a  diet  of  Entomostraca,  Rotifers,  Infusoria,  and  unicellular  Alga;,  while 
young  catfish  apparently  dine  only  on  Entromostraca  and  Chironomus  larvie. 

Reca{)itulating,  Professor  Forbes  says  : 

I  find  that,  taking  together  the  young  of  all  the  genera  .studied,  considering  each  genus  as  a  unit, 
and  combining  the  minute  di[)terou8  larva-  with  the  Kntomostraca  as  having  essentially  the  same 
relation,  about  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  food  taken  ijy  young  fishes  of  all  descriptions  is  made 
up  of  these  elements. 

The  conclusions  of  this  paper  are  based  upon  a  study  of  \,'l'.l\  fishes  obtained  from  the  waters  of 
Illinois  at  intervals  from  lS7(i  to  1SS7,  and  in  various  months  from  April  to  November ;  they  repre- 
sented eighty-seven  species,  sixty-three  genera  and  twenty-five  families.  A  detailed  recapitulation 
of  data  showing  the  number  of  examples  of  each  species  of  fish  in  which  a  given  food  element  was 
detected,  ajjpears  at  the  end  of  the  paper. 


88 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


supply  of  the  city."  In  the  report  submitted  to  the  Mayor  and  Com- 
missioners of  Public  Debt  in  1889,  this  commission  presented  plans 
pioviding  for  the  discharge  of  the  sewag-e  of  the  city  into  Lake  Michi- 
gan, at  a  large  number  of  different  points,  instead  of  one,  and  while  the 
reasons  assigned  in  the  report  for  this  arrangement  are  not  entirely 
satisfactory  from  the  present  point  of  view,  thej'^  may  nevertheless  be 
considered  sufficient  for  the  particular  case.   The  Commissioners  say :  * 

At  the  lake  end  of  the  outfall  sewev,  a  terminal  basin  is  to  be  built.  From  this 
basin,  two  iron  pipes,  eacli  56  inches  in  diameter,  are  to  discharge  the  sewage  into 
the  lake. 

These  pipes  are  to  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to  carrv  all  of  the  dry  -weather  sewage, 
and  a  portion  of  the  storm  water.     Tlie  basin  is  to  be  so  arranged  that  the  surplus 
of  storm  water  is  dischaiged  over  a  weir,  directly  into  the  lake. 
**  ***  *  ** 

In  order  to  dilute  the  sewage  to  a  high  degree  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  aud 
thus  promote  the  rapid  oxidation  of  the  organic  matter  contained  in  it,  the  dis- 
charge from  the  56-inch  pipe  is  to  be  through  eleven  branch  connections,  placed 
about  three  hundred  feet  apart ;  the  first  discharge  branch  being  placed  about 
three  thousand  feet  from  shore.  The  branches  are  to  be  17  inches  diameter,  and 
reduced,  at  the  points  of  discharge,  that  the  same  quantity  of  sewage  will  be 
delivered  by  each  brancli.  The  size  of  the  main  pipes  is  to  be  diminished,  after 
passing  each  branch,  so  that  the  velocity  of  flow  may  be  maintained  about  the  same 
throughout  the  entire  length. 

The  branches  are  to  be  placed  in  a  vertical  position,  discharging  about  five  feet 
above  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  and  to  be  secured  in  their  j^osition  by  piles,  or  rip- 
rap filling. 

For  a  distance  of  1,000  feet  from  its  outer  end,   the  main  pipe  is  to  be  laid  on 

piles,  so  as  to  bring  the  discharge  about 
6  feet  above  the  bottom  of  the  lake. 
Any  road  detritus,  or  other  material 
that  may  at  long  intervals  accumulate 
at  the  mouth  of  the  jjipe,  can  be  re- 
moved by  dredging. 

Fig.  4,  from  the  Commission's 
Report,  illustrates  the  proposed 
method  of  discharge. 

The  question  of  practical  util- 
ization of  sewage  as  food  for  fish 
has  also  recently  received  consid- 
erable attention  in  England,  and  a 
number  of  interesting  and  valu- 
able conclusions  have  been  drawn. 
In  the  Agricultural  Gazette,  Sir 
J.  B.  Lawes,  of  Kothamsted,  dis- 
cusses the  subject  at  length,t  and 
cites  a  number  of  facts,  the  real  significance  of  which  has  not,  so  far 
as  the  authors  are  aware,  been  previously  clearl}^  pointed  out. 

*  Report  of  the  Commission  of  Engineers  on  the  Collection  and  Final  Disposal  of  the  Sewage 
and  on  the  Water  Supply,  of  the  City  of  Milwaukee,  1889. 

+  See  Colonel  Waring's  Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage,  pp.  231-232,  for  an  extended  extract. 


^*=^ 

LAKE          / 

MICHIGAN 

Fig.  4. — Proposed  Multiple  Discharge 
Outlet  Skwer  at  Milwaukee,  Wis. 


THE    RATIONAL    VIEW    OF    DISPOSAL    INTO    TIDE-WATER.  89 

Dr.  Sorby's  results  iu  relation  to  the  number  of  entomostraca  in 
rivers,  apply  entirely  to  fresh-water  forms,  but  the  marine  entomos- 
traca are  quite  as  numerous  as  the  fresh  water,*  and  we  may  assume 
that  what  is  true  of  the  one  is  equally  true  of  the  other. 

The  Legitimate  Conclusion.. 

The  minute  forms  of  animal  life  are  thus  seen  to  be  powerful  agents 
in  the  self-purification  of  sewage-polluted  waters,  but  the  conclusion 
which  has  been  drawn  that,  therefore,  sewag-e-polluted  streams  are, 
after  a  few  miles'  flow,  fitted  through  the  action  of  such  and  other 
natural  agencies  for  drinking,  is  not  wholly  justified  by  the  present 
state  of  knowledge  of  the  subject  as  a  whole. 

Along  with  our  knowledge  of  the  purifying  action  of  the  minute 
animals  and  plants  has  grown  up  a  more  definite  knowledge  of  the 
causation  of  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  and  the  other  water-borne  com- 
municable diseases  ;  and  before  it  can  be  positively  afiirmed  that  a 
sewage-polluted  stream  is  safe  for  drinking  after  a  few  miles'  flow,  it 
must  be  shown  so  definitely  as  to  be  beyond  question  by  those  whose 
special  studies  have  fitted  them  for  intelligent  judgment,  that  the 
purifying  agencies  have  practically  eliminated  the  germs  of  the  water- 
borne  communicable  diseases.  Until  such  showing  is  clearly  made, 
the  proposition  that  crude  sewage  ought  not  to  be  turned  into  running 
streams,  ponds,  lakes,  or  other  bodies  of  water,  which  either  are,  or 
may  be,  the  sources  of  water-supplies,  must  be  considered  as  holding 
good. 

The  Eational  View  of  Disposal  into  Tide-Water. 

We  may  conclude  from  this  brief  discussion  that  the  question  of 
rational  disposal  of  sewage  in  tide-water  is  not  only  trauscendently 
important  to  the  many  large  cities  on  the  seaboard,  but  that  its  mag- 
nitude is  such  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  reach  a  successful  solution 
except  by  studies  of  wide  range.  An  investigation  by  the  General 
Government  might  therefore  be  appropriate,  by  reason  of  its  involving 
the  broad  question  of  national  waste  versus  ultimate  economic  conser- 

*See  (1)  Bair.l's  British  Entomostraca. 

(2)  Dana's  Crustacea  of  the  Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition. 

(3)  Reports  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission. 

(4)  Catalogue  of  the  Specimens  of  Amphipodous  Crustacea  in  the  Collection  of  the  British 

Mns"nm. 
(.5)  Brady's  (a)  British  Oceanic  Entomostraca ;  (b)  Copepodaof  the  Challenger  Expedition  ; 
and  (c)  Osrracnda  of  the  Cliallonger  Expedition. 

(6)  Brooks'  Stomatopoda  of  the  Challenger  Expedition. 

(7)  Sars',  (a)  Cumacea  of  the  Challenger  Exp.  dition  ;   (b)  Phyllocrida  of  the  Challenger 

Expedition  ;  and  (c)  Schizopoda  of  the  Challenger  Expedition. 


90  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

vation.*  As  the  matter  stands,  it  may  be  asserted  that  there  are  abso- 
hitely  no  detailed  data  proving"  that  sewage  disposal  in  tide-water, 
under  proper  conditions,  is  in  any  way  a  waste  of  raw  material. 

In  regard  to  purification  of  sewage  by  intermittent  filtration,  in 
such  manner  as  to  convert  the  bulk  of  the  organic  matter  into  soluble 
mineral  nitrates,  we  are  equally  unable  to  affirm  that  there  is  here,  in 
any  sense,  a  Avaste  of  raw  material.  The  nitrates,  when  flowing  into 
streams,  become  the  chief  nourishment  of  an  abundant  cryptogamic 
life,  which  is  again  devoured  by  sponges,  rhizopods,  infusoria,  and 
other  Protozoa.t 

Protozoa  again,  with  a  certain  portion  of  the  Cryptogams,  are  eaten 
by  higher  minute  forms,  until  in  the  universal  round  we  may  finally 
find  our  sewage  utilized  by  an  increase  in  the  piscatorial  life  of  the 
fresh  water  inland  streams.  Moreover,  it  must  be  urged  that  the  mere 
fact  of  oiir  present  inability  to  control  these  cycles  is  no  argument 
against  the  truth  of  the  view  here  advanced  ;  such  inability  can  only  be 
taken  as  merely  indicating  the  dearth  of  definite  data  in  this  direc- 
tion. 

*  Such  a  study  would  seem  to  be  in  line  with  the  work  of  the  Fish  Commission,  and  could  be 
made  by  it  without  great  expense. 

t  In  reference  to  the  food  supplies  of  the  Protozoa  and  classes  immediately  higher  in  the  scale, 
it  may  be  said:  (1)  that  the  chief  food  of  fresh-water  sponge  is  largely  minute  spores  of  algae, 
though  the  sponge  when  growing,  attached  to  a  fixed  place,  cannot  be  considered  as  having  much 
power  of  selection,  and  may,  therefore,  at  times,  take  into  its  organization  animal  foods  also.  It 
apparently  receives  and  digests  anything  which  the  flowing  waters  in  which  it  is  usually  found 
may  bring  to  it.  The  proof  that  alga;  may  be  considered  the  chief  food  is  derived  from  the  fact 
that  sponge  apparently  prefers  localities  where  alga;  spores  are  moie  abundant  than  infusoria.  {2) 
Rhizopods,  according  to  Professor  Leidy,  chiefly  devour  desmids,  diatoms,  and  other  minute  algae; 
and  many  of  the  elegant  illustrations  in  his  Fresh-Wat  r  Rhizopods  of  North  America  show  the  little 
animals  in  the  very  act  of  ingesting  the  various  forms  of  plants  which  they  apparently  prefer.  The 
recurrence  of  examples  of  th's  character  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  rhizopods,  unlike  the 
sponge,  have  some  power  of  selection  and  are  able  to  exercise  a  degree  of  preference.  (3)  The  infu- 
soria, probably,  take  whatever  comes  in  their  way  ;  the  motions  of  the  flagella  and  cilia  of  the  differ- 
ent classes  set  the  water  in  the  vicinity  of  each  individual  in  motion,  and  whatever  is  within  reach, 
and  not  of  too  large  a  size  to  enter  the  oral  aperture,  is  received,  digested,  and  the  refuse  excreted 
the  same  as  with  other  animals.  Some  species,  apparently,  prefer  decaying  animal  matter  (Para- 
iiwcium,  Coltpx,  etc.),  and  are  usually  found  in  vast  quantities  wherever  such  decay  is  taking 
place.  Others  (Trcirfirlnrerfin,  etc.),  are  found  among  vegetable  debris,  filaments  of  decaying 
algge,  etc.  As  with  sponge  and  rhizopods,  algae  spores  are  probably  a  large  j)ortion  of  the  food  of 
the  infusoria.  (4)  In  the  next  higher  class  of  animals  we  find  hydra,  which  is  essentially  a  car- 
nivorous feeder,  worms,  entomostraca,  and  other  animals,  falling  an  easy  prey  whenever  they 
venture  within  reach  of  its  moving  tentacles.  (.5)  Polyzoa  feed  mostly  on  desmids,  etc.,  with 
decayed  vegetable  matter,  and  have  a  finger,  or  tongue-like  organ,  stretching  over  the  mouth, 
which  enables  them  to  exercise  some  selection  of  the  food  coming  within  reach.  They  some- 
times dine  on  rotifers.  (6)  Rotifers  are  like  infusoria,  in  that  the  rotating  apparatus,  from  which 
they  derive  their  name,  is  in  rapid  motion  when  feeding,  and  brings  into  the  capacious  mouth — 
characterizing  most  of  the  species — whatever  happens  to  be  in  the  vicinity,  although  some  power 
of  selection  may  be  observed.  The  literature  of  the  food-supplies  of  the  minute  animals  is  still 
comnnratively  scarce.  The  classificatory  tendencies  of  nearly  all  the  writers  on  this  branch  of 
zoology  has  thiJ%  far  mostly  obscured  the  biological  side  of  the  subject,  and  with  the  broader  views 
of  the  present  day  we  must,  to  some  extent,  traverse  ground  already  gone  over,  in  order  to  supply 


THE    UATIOXAL    VIEW    OF    DISPOSAL   INTO   TIDE-WATEK.  91 

lu  the  discussions  of  this  question  which  have  taken  place  in  Eng- 
land, it  has  been  asserted*  that  the  argument  in  reference  to  increase 
and  decrease  of  fish  by  reason  of  either  sufficiency  or  insufficiency  of 
food  supply  is  not  valid,  because  "  probably  all  the  great  sea  fisheries 
are  inexhaustible."  In  reference  thereto  it  is  answered  that  twenty 
years  ago  it  was  generally  held  in  this  country  that  the  buiialo  of  the 
Western  plains  were  inexhaustible,  and  to  any  one,  who,  traversing  the 
plains  at  that  period,  saw  the  immense  herds,  it  did  appear  plausible 
to  say  that  no  efforts  Avhich  man  could  make  Avould  have  any  special 
efi'ect  upon  such  countless  numbers.  Nevertheless  there  are  to-day 
less  than  1,000  buffalo  within  the  limits  of  the  United  States,  and  this 
extraordinary  extermination  has  all  occurred  in  20  years.  Again 
sixty  years  ago  it  was  not  unusual  to  find  large  schools  of  whales  just 
outside  New  York  and  Boston  harbors,  and  many  successful  whaling 
voyages  were  made  to  portions  of  the  sea  where  now  whales  are 
scarcely  ever  seen.  Again  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  oyster  beds  is  within 
the  experience  of  everyone  engaged  in  the  oyster  fishery.  Many  other 
similar  illustrative  examples  could  be  cited,  but  the  foregoing  is  con- 
sidered sufficient  to  indicate  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  conceive  of  a 
great  ocean  fishing  interest  either  seriously  injured  or  even  actually 
driven  to  other  localities  by  systematic  catching  in  excess  of  the  nat- 
ural increase  ;  and  that  this  has  frequently  happened  in  inland  rivers 
and  lakes  is  attested  by  the  presence  on  the  statute  books  of  every  State 
of  protective  laws.  We  may,  therefore,  fairly  conclude  that  anything 
which  tends  to  increase  the  food  supply  of  fish  must  be  looked  upon 
as  assisting  in  conserving  the  fisheries,  through  the  operation  of  the 
natural  law  that  sufficiency  of  food  supply  is  one  of  the  forces  accele- 
rating natural  increase. 

material  deficiencies  in  the  information.  The  following  works  may  be  consulted  for  hints 
miTely  ;  a  complete  systematic  treatise  still  remains  to  be  written  : 

Baird,  British  Entomostraca. 

Carpenter,  The  Microscope  and  its  Revelations. 

Cooke,  Ponds  and  Ditches. 

(Josse.  Evenings  with  the  Microscope. 

Herrick,  Crustacea  of  Minnesota. 

Hudson  and  Gosse,  The  Rotifcra  or  Wheel  Animalcules. 

Kent,  Manual  of  the  Infusoria. 

Leidy.  Fresh  Water  Rhizopods  of  North  America. 

Keport  of  Commissioners  on  Investigation  of  the  Water-Supply  of  the  city  of  Boston  (1883.) 

Slack,  Marvels  of  Pond  Life. 

Taylor,  The  .Aquarium. 

Tieniann  and  Gilrtner,  Untersuchung  des  Wassers,  etc. 

In  addition,  the  various  journals  of  Microscopy  and  Zoology  contain  notes  and  observations  of 
more  or  less  interest. 

*Corfield,  Treatment  and  Utilization  of  Sewage,  3d  ed. ,  pp.  00.3-305. 


CHAPTER  V. 
THE  COMPOSITION  OF  SEWAGE  MUDS. 

The  Conditions  Fayokable  to  Sedimentation. 

The  fact  that  a  stream  which  is  visiblj^  polhited  at  one  point  may  be 
clear  and  limpid  only  a  few  miles  below  is  probably  within  the  expe- 
rience of  every  person  who  has  paid  any  attention  to  the  pollution  and 
self-purification  of  streams.  Widely  varying-  opinions  have  been  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  fate  of  the  polluting  matter,  which,  to  the  unaided 
senses,  appears  to  have  been  removed  from  the  flowing-  water.  On  the 
one  hand,  it  has  been  claimed  that  an  absolute  destruction,  throug-h 
the  action  of  either  oxidation  or  of  purely  biolog-ical  forces,  has  taken 
place,  while,  on  the  other,  it  is  asserted  that  the  apparent  purity  of 
the  flowing  water  is  due  entirely  to  sedimentation,  according-  to  which 
the  organic  matter  may  still  be  found  in  a  nearly  unchanged  form  at 
the  bottom.  Probably  the  real  truth  is  that  all  these  several  methods 
of  self-purification  may  be  operative  in  different  streams,  although  un- 
doubtedly sedimentation  is,  where  the  conditions  are  favorable,  likely 
to  be  a  leading  cause.  Relative  to  the  conditions  favorable  for  sedi- 
mentation, they  may  be  stated  in  a  few  words  generally  as  produced  by 
thB  presence  in  the  water  of  some  substance  which  naturally  tends  to 
assist  sedimentation.  For  instance,  a  stream  carrying  a  considerable 
quantity  of  clay  in  suspension  is  likely  to  free  itself  of  sewage  by  sed- 
imentation more  quickly  than  one  in  which  the  water  is,  under  normal 
conditions,  entirely  free  of  earthy  matter  in  suspension.  In  a  stream 
w^here  the  conditions  are  unfavorable  for  rapid  sedimentation  we  may 
expect  to  find  of  more  importance  the  purifying  effect  of  such  minute 
animals  as  actually  consume  in  their  life  processes  a  portion  of  the 
polluting  matter  ;  while,  in  a  rapid  flowing  stream,  where  the  water 
tumbles  over  falls  and  cascades  and  flows  down  rapids,  there  may  be 
a  considerable  degree  of  self -purification  through  the  operation  of  the 
chemical  process  of  oxidation  purely.  The  self -purification  of  a  stream 
may  be  effected,  then,  by  either  mechanical,  biological,  or  chemical 
agencies,  or  by  all  of  them  acting  in  conjunction,  and  to  which  to  ascribe 
the  self-purification  in  any  case  can  only  be  determined  by  a  careful 
study  of  the  attendant  circumstances.  For  present  purposes  we  will 
consider  the  case  of  a  stream  in  which  an  apparent  self-purification 


macadam's  study  of  the  water  of  the  leith.  93 

from  sewag-e  inflow  is  obtained  within  a  short  distance  through  the 
action  of  sedimentation.  In  doing-  this  we  will  not  concern  ourselves 
as  to  just  what  agency  is  effective  in  producing  sedimentation,  but  will 
merely  assume  such  rapid  action  that  a  stream  of  moderate  volume  in 
ordinary  stages  frees  itself  of  the  visible  evidence  of  a  gross  sewage 
pollution  in  the  course  of  a  sluggish  flow  of  a  few  miles.  We  will 
further  assume  that  the  mean  flood  flow  of  the  stream  is  at  least  lUU  to 
200  times  the  ordinary  flow  at  the  season  of  low  water,  from  which  it 
results  that  the  velocity  through  a  given  cross-section  will  be  from 
100  to  200  times  as  great  in  flood  flow  as  in  low  water.  Under  these 
conditions,  it  is  clear  that  the  deposited  matter  of  a  long  period  of  low 
water  may  be  swept  along  for  an  indefinite  distance  by  the  first  flood 
flow,  and,  if  we  assume,  as  we  safely  may,  that  the  organic  matter  of 
the  deposited  sewage  has  undergone  little  change,  it  follows  that  water 
supplies  taken  from  the  stream  many  miles  below  will  be,  in  times  of 
flood,  as  thoroughly  subject  to  the  deleterioiis  influence  of  the  sewage 
discharge  as  though  water  were  drawn  from  that  reach  of  the  stream 
in  which  the  most  of  the  sedimentation  takes  place.*  To  appreciate 
the  importance  of  this  conclusion,  we  have  only  to  consider  that,  in 
flashy  mountain  streams,  the  accumulated  deposits  of  months  may  be 
swept  along  for  many  miles  in  a  day. 

Macadam's  Study  of  the  Water  of  the  Leith. 

Considering  the  importance  of  this  phase  of  the  self-purification  of 
running  streams  comparatively  few  detailed  studies  have  been  made, 
but  the  few  fully  substantiate  the  view  that  sewage  sediments  retain 
their  dangerous  character  for  long  periods  of  time. 

Of  such  studies,  one  of  the  first  is  that  of  the  water  of  Leith  made 
by  Macadam  in  1864,  and  given  at  length  in  the  Third  Report  of  the 
Sewage  of  Towns  Commission.f 

The  Leith  is  a  comparatively  small  stream,  which,  at  the  time  of 
Macadam's  report,  received  the  sewage  of  about  100,000  people  in  the 
ncighljoring  towns  of  Edinburgh  and  Leith.  The  accumulation  of  the 
sediment  of  this  sewage  in  the  mill  dam  and  pools  of  the  stream  and 
in  tlie  harbor  of  Leith,  had  led  to  the  j^roduction  of  a  most  disgusting 
nuisance.  Li  many  places  the  banks  of  sewage  mud  were  several  feet 
in  depth,  and  analyses  of  samples  from  different  parts  of  the  stream 

*  For  discussion  ot  the  conditions  obtaining  on  the  bottom  of  a  stream  in  which  sedimentation 
has  been  effective  see  paper,  On  the  Amount  of  Dissolved  Oxygen  in  Waters  of  Ponds  and  Reser- 
voirs at  different  depths,  by  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  22d  An.  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Health  (1S91), 
pp.  373-381  ;  the  greater  part  of  this  paper  was  also  published  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.  (1892), 
pp.  309-10. 

t  On  the  (contamination  of  the  Water  ot  Leith  by  the  sewage  of  Edinburgh  and  Leith.  By 
Stevenson  Macjwlam,  Ph.D..  etc.     3d  Rept.  Sew.  T.  Com.,  Appendix  No.  5. 


94  SEWAGK    DISPOSAL    IN    TIIK    UNITED    STATES. 

showed,  in  some  cases,  amounts  of  org-anic  matter  as  high  as  55,  66, 
and  in  one  case,  of  82  per  cent.  The  means  of  one  series  of  four  sam- 
ples of  mud  from  the  stream  was,  organic  matter,  48.1  per  cent.,  and 
earthy  matter,  51.9  per  cent.  The  same  series  showed  a  mean  of  1.63 
j)er  cent,  of  nitrogen.  Another  series  of  eight  samples  gave  as  a  mean, 
organic  mutter,  43.7  per  cent.,  earthy  matter,  56.3  jjer  cent.,  and  ni- 
trogen, 1.14  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  A  series  of  12  samples  from  the 
harbor,  where  more  or  less  sand  is  brought  in  with  the  tide,  gave  a 
mean  of  organic  matter  28.3  per  cent.,  earthy  matter,  71.7  per  cent, 
and  nitrogen,  0.64  per  cent.  Macadam's  investigations  were  before 
the  days  of  bacteriological  examinations,  and  we  are  accordingly  left 
in  the  dark  as  to  what  would  now  be  a  very  important  division  of  such 
a  stud}' ;  but  he  recognized  the  imi^ortauce  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
larger  microscopical  forms,  and  notes  the  presence  of  masses  of  infu- 
soria belonging  to  the  family  Yoi-ticellida?,  including  the  genera  Vorii- 
cella,  Carchesium,  Zoofhcuiaiiuni  and  Epi.sfi/Iis.  Paratiuxiiuit  and  Euglena 
were  also  abundant. 

Macadam's  results  have  been  verified  by  a  number  of  studies  of  the 
muds  of  the  Thames  river,  the  more  recent  of  which  are  those  of  W. 
J.  Dibdin,  made  in  1879-80,  and  1882-83,  Mr.  Dibdin  found  in  some 
samples  from  sewage  of  24  hours  as  high  as  57.4  per  cent,  of  volatile 
matter  in  dried  mud,  with  nitrogen  of  the  dried  mud  amounting  to  3.3 
per  cent,  and  nitrogen  of  the  dried  volatile  matter  5.75  per  cent.  The 
phosphoric  acid  of  the  dried  mud  in  the  same  sample  was  0.8  of  one 
l)er  cent.  The  means  of  the  samples  of  mud  taken  at  different  points 
are,  however,  considerably  lower  than  this. 

The  net  result,  not  onlj-  of  Macadam's  but  of  the  more  recent  investi- 
gations, is  to  emphasize  the  statement  already  made,  that  usually  the 
effect  of  a  flood  flow  Avould  be  to  actually  increase  temporarily  the 
pollution  at  points  far  below  where  sedimentation  takes  place. 

Dr.  Beale's  Study  of  Thames  Muds. 

After  Macadam,  nothing  so  interesting  appeared  until  the  publica- 
tion h\  Dr.  Beale  of  a  paper  on  The  Constitutents  of  Sewage  in  the 
Mud  of  the  Thames,  in  1884,*  in  which  are  detailed  the  results  of  a 
microscopical  study  of  25  samples  of  Thames  mud  taken  from  various 
banks  between  Gravesend  and  Chelsea,  the  observations  relating  chiefl}^ 
to  the  demonstration  by  microscopical  investigation  of  the  existence 
in  sewage  muds,  which  have  been  deposited  a  considerable  length  of 
time,  of  constitutents  which  can  be  identified  as  derived  from  human 
excrements.  So  thoroughly  can  this  conclusion  be  demonstrated  that 
Dr.  Beale  states  in  his  judgment  "  that  the  several  constitutents  of 

*  Jonr.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc,  Sec.  ser.,  vol.  iv.  (Feb.  1884),  pp.  1-19. 


LORTET S    RESULTS.  95 

human  faeces  are  present  in  all  the  specimens  of  mud  submitted  for 
examination/'  Among-  the  constituents  of  human  food  which  Dr.  Beale 
found,  may  be  mentioned  starch  grahules,  fragments  of  vegetable 
tissue,  the  spiral  fibers  of  cabbage,  cooked  muscular  tissue  and  yellow 
elastic  tissue,  the  latter  in  the  state  in  which  they  are  often  found  in 
fecal  matter.  Tea  leaves,  cotton  fibers,  probably  from  jDaper,  fatty 
matter  and  crystals  of  fatty  acids,  fragments  of  paper  and  rags  and 
many  other  substances  Avere  also  present.  "  Even  blood  corpuscles  of 
man  or  of  one  of  the  higher  animals  have  been  detected  in  the  mud, 
having  withstood  all  the  destructive  agencies  to  which  they  have  been 
exposed,  during  probably  many  months." 

Dr.  Beale's  paper  furnishes  methods  of  working  and  nuu'  be  profita- 
bly consulted  by  anyone  pursuing  a  similar  line  of  investigation.  The 
methods  of  bacterial  investigation,  which  were  just  coming  into  use, 
were  applied,  with  the  result  of  showing  the  presence  of  immense  num- 
bers of  bacteria  in  all  the  muds  examined. 

Following  Dr.  Beale's  paper,  there  appeared  in  1885,  in  the  Report 
of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Discharge,  an  exten- 
sive paper  bj^  Dr.  H.  C  Sorby;  which  is  in  many  respects  the  most 
important  contribution  to  the  literature  of  sewage  pollution  that  has 
3'et  appeared.* 

In  this  paper  Dr.  Sorby  covers  substantially  the  ground  traversed 
by  Dr.  Beale,  with  the  addition  of  developing  many  points  which  Dr. 
Beale  left  untouched.  He  agrees  with  Dr.  Beale  as  to  the  ease  and 
certainty  with  which  the  microscope  may  be  used  to  determine  the 
presence  of  sewage  in  river  muds. 

The  chief  value  of  Dr.  Sorby's  paper  lies  in  the  development  of  a 
new  method  of  quantitativel}^  determining  the  amount  of  pollution  in 
any  given  sample,  and  it  is  somewhat  extraordinary  that  with  a  definite 
method  of  making  such  examinations  before  the  scientific  world  for 
eight  years  it  has  not  been  more  used.  By  its  use  the  progress  of  the 
contaminating  material  may  bo  tractnl  down  a  stream,  both  in  the  fiow- 
ing  water  and  in  the  deposited  muds  ;  and  consequently  the  quantity' 
and  quality  of  any  self-purification  which  may  be  attained  more  thor- 
ougldy  measured  than  by  any  otlier  method  of  examination  thus  far 
made  known. 

Lortet's  Results. 

Prohablv  the  most  useful  study  of  this  character  in  the  wa\'  of  defi- 
nite results  ol)tained  is  that  of  Lortet,  as  recorded  in  his  paper  The 
Pathogenic  Bacteria  of  the  Mud  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,t  in  wliich  it  is 

*  Rf'port  of  a  Microscopical  Investigation  of  Thames  Muds.     By  H.  C.  Sorby,  LL.D.,  RR.S. 
Appendix  f^.  IJ.  Rejunt  of  ll<i\ .  Cditi    on  Met.  Sew.  Dischg.,  p.  108. 
t  Centralblatt  fur  Rakturiologie,  ix  .  7W. 


96  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 

shown   that  sewag-e   mud  banks  in   lakes  frequently  contain  living- 
pathogenic  forms  of  bacteria. 

What  the  Sevekal  Studies  Indicate. 

The  length  of  time  which  pathogenic  bacteria  may  be  expected  to 
survive,  when  enveloped  in  masses  of  fecal  matter,  is,  as  noted  in 
Chapter  I.,  still  somewhat  uncertain,  but  what  we  positively  do  know 
teaches  that  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  assumption  that  sew- 
age mud  banks  may  easily  become  centers  from  which  immense  num- 
bers of  disease  germs  may  be  sent  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the 
stream  below  the  mud  banks,  at  every  time  of  flood  flow.  The  fact  that 
thorough  sedimentation  takes  place  in  the  course  of  a  few  miles'  flow 
is  therefore  not  only  no  guarantee  of  immunity  at  points  below  where 
the  sedimentation  occurs,  but  it  may  even  be,  independent  of  other 
circumstances,  the  source  of  the  greatest  danger  in  times  of  high 
water. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

LEGAL  ASPECTS  OF  THE  CASR 

In  the  preceding-  chapters  some  of  the  physical  features  of  stream 
pollution  have  been  presented  ;  we  will  now  consider  stream  pollution 
from  the  legal  point  of  view,  though  it  may  be  premised  that  possibly 
tlie  present  discussion,  as  prepared  by  an  engineer,  must  be  taken  as 
the  views  of  a  member  of  that  profession  interested  in  sanitary  ques- 
tions, rather  than  as  those  of  an  authority  in  law.  It  may  be  juoperly 
stated,  however,  that  this  chapter  has  been  submitted  to  a  legal  friend 
of  some  attainment  in  the  law  of  waters,  and  it  is  chiefly  by  reason 
of  his  opinion  that  the  views  advanced  are,  on  the  whole,  sound  from 
the  legal  point  of  view,  that  the  authors  have  been  encouraged  to 
include  this  chapter  in  the  present  work. 

How  THE  Right  of  Property  in  a  Water-course  is  Derived. 

The  right  of  private  property  in  a  water-course  is  derived  from  the 
ownership  of  the  soil  over  which  the  stream  naturally  passes.  It 
carries  with  it  the  right  to  have  a  stream  passing  through  private 
lands  flow  as  it  is  wont  by  nature,  without  material  diminution  or 
alteration.  Persons  holding  real  property  to  which  these  rights  in 
running  streams  pertain  are  called  riparian  proprietors,  while  those 
whose  lands  border  upon  tide  waters  are  called  littoral  proprietors. 
It  is  the  rights  of  the  rii^arian  proprietor  that  it  is  proposed  to 
briefly  discuss  here. 

Riparian  Proprietor's  Right  to  a  Stream  in  its  Natural 

Condition. 

According  to  the  legal  authorities,  each  proprietor  has  the  common- 
law  right  that  the  stream  shall  flow  to  his  laud  in  the  usual  quantity 
and  in  its  natural  condition.  No  one  proprietor  has  any  property  in 
the  flowing  stream  which  is  not  equally  the  right  and  privilege  of 
every  other,  and  each  may  apply  it  to  au}^  use  to  which  it  can  be 
applied  without  material  injury  to  the  right  of  the  other  proprietors. 

On  this  point  the  courts  have  held : 

Every  owner  of  land  throup^h  wliicli  a  stream  of  water  flows  is  entitled  to  the 
use  and  enjoyment  of  tlie  water,  and  to  have  the  same  flow  in  its  natural  and 
accustomed    course,    without    obstruction,    diversion,   or    corruption.     The    ripfht 

7 


98  SEWAGD  DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

extends  to  tlie  quality  as  well  as  the  quantity  of  the  water.  If,  therefore,  an 
adjoining  projjrietor  corrupts  the  water,  au  action  upon  the  case  lies  for  the  injury.* 

The  right  to  the  natural  flow  of  water  is  not  an  easement  but  a  natural  right, 
which  is  not  lost  until  an  adverse  easement  has  been  acquired  f 

We  consider  it  as  settled  law  that  the  right  to  have  a  stream  running  in  its 
natural  course,  is  not  by  a  presumed  grant  from  long  acquiescence  on  the  part 
of  the  riparian  jjroprietors  above  and  below,  but  is  a  jure  iiaiiirce  .  .  .  and 
au  incident  of  property,  as  much  as  to  have  the  soil  itself  in  its  natural  state, 
unaltered  by  the  acts  of  a  neighboring  proprietor,  who  cannot  dig  so  as  ta 
deprive  it  of  the  support  of  his  land.J 

In  tlie  case  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Pennsylvania  v.  Soulas  and 
others,  decided  in  1884,  the  common-law  principles  applyiug-  to  stream 
pollution  have  been  affirmed  by  the  presiding  juclge  in  his  charge  to 
the  jury  with  such  clearness  as  to  justify  its  reproduction  in  full  here. 
The  judge  said: 

The  case  which  you  are  engaged  in  tiying  is  one  of  much  importance,  and  your 
resjjonsibility  is  proportioned,  of  course,  to  its  im2^ortance.  The  facts  which  have 
been  proved  by  the  evidence  given  on  behalf  of  the  Commonwealth  are  very  few  and 
simple.  They  are,  however,  very  weighty,  and  it  is  my  duty  to  add,  have  not  been 
contradicted.  The  law  also  upon  this  subject  is  very  plain.  The  defendants  are 
charged  in  this  indictment  with  maintaining  a  common  nuisance  by  causing  the 
excrement  and  foul  water  from  the  water-closets  and  urinals  upon  their  jiremises, 
which  are  situated  upon  the  bank  of  the  Schuylkill  river  just  above  the  confluence 
of  the  Wissahickon  with  that  stream,  to  be  drained  into  the  river.  It  has  been 
shown  by  witnesses,  some  of  whom  are  experts  in  such  matters,  that  the  effect  of 
this  has  been  to  pollute  the  drinking  water  of  this  city,  and  to  render  it  unwhole- 
some and  dangerous.  Such  i:)ollution  has  also  been  shown  by  cnm]>etent  and  cred- 
itable evidence  to  have  a  direct  tendency  to  jiroduce  disease  in  those  who  driidc  tJie 
water  which  is  supplied  to  the  city  from  the  river  Schuylkill. 

Now,  it  is  a  very  old  and  well-settled  law  that  to  pollute  a  public  stream  is  to 
maintain  a  common  nuisance.  It  is  not  only  a  public  injury,  but  it  is  crime,  a 
crime  for  which  those  who  jjerpetrate  it  are  answerable  in  a  tribunal  of  criminal 
jurisdiction.  An  act  of  Assembly  forbids  and  punishes  as  crimes  all  common  or 
jjublic  nuisances,  and  I  know  of  no  public  nuisance  moie  serious  in  its  evil  eflFects 
and  more  obnoxious  to  the  denunciation  of  the  law  than  to  corrupt  and  poison  a 
public  stream  from  which  large  numbers  of  people  obtain  their  driidiiug  water.  If 
the  jury,  therefore,  find  that  the  defendants  have  done  the  acts  charged  against 
them  in  this  indictment,  no  doubt  whatever  remains  that  they  are  guilty  of  the 
offence  of  maintaining  a  common  nuisance,  and  ought  to  be  convicted.  If  the  water 
drained  from  the  defendant's  establishment  into  the  river  is  of  a  foul  and  impure 
character,  and  if  the  effect  of  that  is  to  pollute  the  water  and  render  it  unwholesome 
for  drinking  purposes,  then  they  are  guilty  as  they  stand  indicted,  and  it  is  your 
duty  to  say  so. 

It  is  no  defence  to  say  that  the  premises  are  in  the  same  condition,  and  the  drain- 
age conducted  in  the  same  manner,  as  when  they  obtained  possession  and  liepaa 
their  occupancy.  Their  continuance  of  the  nuisance  is  itself  an  offence  against  the 
law  for  which  they  are  personally  responsible.  The  law  is  perfectly  well  settled 
that  no  man  can  prescribe  for  a  public  nuisance,  or  defend  himself  by  showing  that 
others  have  violated  the  law  before  him.  No  length  of  time  can  justify  a  public 
nuisance,  although  it  may  furnish  an  answer  to  an  action  for  a  private  injury. 
P^^blic  rights  are  not  destroyed  by  private  encroachments,  no  matter  how  long  they 
have  endured.  Nor  is  it  any  defence  that  the  river  is  also  polluted  from  other 
sources,  that  imi^urities  flow  into  it  from  sewers,  and  from  towns  and  places  above 

*  Holsman  v.  Boiling  Spring  Bleaching  Co.,  14  N.  J.  Eq.,  355. 
+  Stokee  v.  Singers.  8  Eh.  &  Bl.  .36,  Erie,  J. 
I  Wadsworth  v.  TiUotson,  15  Conn.  360,  37o. 


RIPARIAX    PKOPKIE J  UU*S    IIIGIIT    TO    A    STREAM,  99 

Mauayunk.  If  the  defendants  have  contributed  to  the  pollution,  they  are  guilty. 
No  man  can  excuse  himself  for  violating  the  law  upon  the  ground  that  others  also 
violated  it.  It  is  said  that  the  city  ought  to  have  built  an  intercepting  sewer.  But 
what  of  that?  Perhaps  it  ought.  But  if  the  city  has  been  guilty  of  negligence  in 
that  respect  that  fact  does  not  justify  the  defendants  in  their  violation  of  the  law. 
It  makes  no  difference  whatever  in  the  guilt  of  the  defendants  that  the  city  has  not 
taken  steps  to  protect  itself  against  the  unlawful  acts  of  those  who  pollute  the 
stream.  Nor  ought  your  verdict  to  be  affected  in  the  slightest  degree  by  the  sug- 
gestion that  if  these  pollutions  of  the  rivai-  are  stopped  by  indictments  and  couA-ic- 
tions,  the  effect  of  that  may  be  injurious  to  large  business  interests,  which  are  pros- 
ecuted under  similar  conditions  upon  the  river.  You  have  nothing  to  do  with  that. 
Such  considerations  cannot  affect  your  duty  in  the  present  case.  The  law  is  to  be 
enforced,  and  those  who  violate  it  are  to  be  punished,  no  matter  what  the  effect  of 
that  may  be  upon  their  business,  for  the  law  is  above  every  personal  and  private 
interest.  All  persons  engaged  in  business  are  bound  to  conduct  that  business  in 
subordination  to  the  law,  and  in  such  manner  as  not  to  injure  tlie  public.  It  has 
been  argued  also  that  the  city  ought  to  have  resorted  to  a  civil  remedy  against  the 
defendant  foi-  the  correction  of  these  abuses,  that  it  ought  to  have  gone  into  a  civil 
court  and  asked  for  an  injunction  against  their  continuance.  Such  suggestions  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  case.  It  is  sutKeient  that  the  defendants  are  arraigned  by 
the  Commonwealth  to  answer  for  an  infraction  of  her  laws.  If  they  have  broken 
those  laws,  they  are  in  the  proper  tribunal  to  answer  for  their  acts.  Civil  proceed- 
ings are  slow,  and  in  sucli  proceedings,  where  the  parties  are  private  persons  or 
corporations,  which  are  a  kind  of  artificial  persons  created  by  the  State,  many  em- 
barrassing and  dilatory  questions  might  obstruct  and  hinder  the  speedy  abatement 
of  the  nuisance.  In  my  judgment  the  remedy  which  has  been  chosen  is  the 
speediest  and  the  most  effective.  It  is  a  proper,  a  lawful  remedy,  and  you  have  no 
concern  now  with  any  other.  The  defendants  are  before  you  to  answer  the  charge 
of  maintaining  a  common  nuisance,  which  is  a  public  offence  by  the  laws  of  Penn- 
sylvania. The  simple  question  which  you  have  to  decide  is,  whether  the  defen- 
dants are  guilty  of  this  offence.  If  they  have  done  the  acts  which  are  charged 
against  them  in  this  indictment,  then,  as  a  matter  of  law,  I  instruct  you  that  those 
acts  constitute  the  offence  of  maintaining  a  common  nuisance,  and  they  are  guilty. 
Upon  the  question  of  fact  you  have  the  testimony  of  numerous  witnesses  examined 
by  the  Commonwealth,  and  thej  have  not  been  contradicted  by  any  witness  pro- 
duced by  the  defendants. 

While  the  foregoing-  citations  have  thus  affirmed  the  right  of  every 
riparian  proprietor  to  have  the  stream  flow  in  its  natural  state,  it  is 
still  true  that  the  reasonable  use  of  a  .stream  by  each  proprietor  may 
modify  this  right  in  some  way,  and  it  accordingly^  becomes  an  impor- 
tant question  to  determine  when  one  riparian  oAvner's  use  ceases  to  be 
rightful  by  infringing  on  the  rights  of  others.  In  the  English  case  of 
Embrey  v.  Owen,  it  was  held  that  the  right  of  a  riparian  owner  to  the 
flow  of  the  stream  in  its  natural  state,  without  diminution  or  alteration, 
is  not  an  absolute  and  exclusive  right  to  all  the  water  in  its  natural 
state,  but  is  a  right  only  to  the  flow  of  the  water  and  the  enjoyment  of 
it,  subject  to  the  similar  rights  of  all  the  proprietors. 

From  these  citations  it  appears  that  the  common  law  distinctly  rec- 
ognizes within  certain  limitati<ins  the  natural  right  of  every  riparian 
proprietor  to  receive  the  natural  flow  of  a  stream  essentially  pure  and 
und(!filed.  But  by  reason  of  the  operation  of  the  law  of  custom,  certain 
moditications  of  this  general  principle  have  grown  uj)  which  we  may 
discuss  a  little  in  detail. 


100  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   TJIE   UNITED   STATES. 


Natukal  and  Artificial  Uses  of  a  Stream. 

Before  entering-  upon  such  discussion  it  may  be  noted  that  the  law 
further  recog-uizes  ordinary,  or  natural,  and  extraordinary,  or  artificial 
uses  of  streams ;  the  ordinary  use  being-  for  the  supplying-  of  natural 
wants,  as  for  instance,  the  use  of  water  for  such  domestic  purposes  as 
drinkingf,  bathing-,  cookings,  and  laundry,  and  for  watering  stock. 

For  these  strictly  natural  uses  the  weight  of  authority  is  to  the  effect 
that  any  one  riparian  owner  may,  if  necessary,  consume  all  the  water 
of  the  stream,  though  the  exercise  of  such  rig-ht  is  strictly  confined  to 
riparian  land.  Moreover,  a  stream,  all  the  water  of  which  is  consumed 
by  these  ordinary  natural  uses  of  any  one  proprietor  will  usually  be  a 
very  small  one,  though  this  fact  cannot  be  considered  as  in  any  way 
affecting  the  application  of  the  legal  principle  involved.  But  the  fact 
that  a  city  is  itself  a  riparian  j)roprietor  does  not  authorize  it  to  erect 
water-works  and  convey  its  supply  several  miles  away.  It  can  only 
take,  without  compensating  the  other  owners,  such  an  amount  as  will 
supply  one  family.*  But  the  right  of  the  one  family  to  an  undefiled 
water  supply  may  nevertheless  enable  a  municipality  to  insist  on 
purity  of  the  supply  for  the  whole  population  under  the  common-law 
rule. 

Actionable  Pollutions. 

According  to  Gould,  who  is  the  most  recent  American  writer  and 
who  makes  elaborate  citations  in  relation  thereto,  the  following  dis- 
tinct sources  of  pollution  have  been  held  to  be  actionable :  The  set- 
ting up  of  cattle-yards,  hog-pens,  or  lime-pits  for  calf  and  sheep  skins 
so  near  the  water  as  to  pollute  it ;  discharging  blood  from  a  slaughter- 
house into  the  stream  ;  erecting  a  cesspool,  placing  manure  or  oil,  or 
permitting  gas  to  escape,  so  near  a  well,  spring,  or  stream  as  to  pollute 
it ;  the  casting  upon  one's  own  land  of  dirt  and  foul  water  or  sub- 
stances which  reach  the  stream  by  percolation  ;  the  letting  off  of  water 
made  noxious  by  precipitation  of  minerals,  or  by  dye  wastes,  liquors, 
madder,  indigo,  potash,  sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid  ;  discharging  into 
a  stream  heated  water  injuriously,  sewerage  or  anything  rendering  the 
water  unfit  for  domestic,  culinary,  or  mining  purposes,  for  cattle  to 
drink,  fish  to  live  in,  or  for  use  in  manufacturing. 

A  large  number  of  cases  are  cited  of  actions  brought  for  these 
various  sources  of  pollution,  and  undoubtedly  a  more  extended  list 
could  be  easily  made.f 

*  Swindon  Water- Works  v.  Wilts  and  Berks  Canal,  L.  R.  7  H.  L.  697. 
t  Gould  On  the  Law  of  Waters,  2d  ed.,  1891,  sec.  219,  pp.  431-432. 


THE   CASE    OF   EVANS    V.  MERRIWEATHER.  101 


Distinction  between  Natural  and  Artificial  Use. 

The  extraordinary  or  artificial  use  of  a  stream  is  sucli  reasonable 
nse,  aside  from  the  ordinary  natural  uses,  as  is  common  to  all  the  pro- 
prietors. It  differs  from  the  ordinary  use  in  this,  that  no  one  may 
for  an  extraordinary  use  appropriate  the  whole  stream,  but  each  pro- 
prietor has,  as  already  stated,  a  right  to  the  use  of  the  stream  subject 
to  a  like  similar  use  on  the  part  of  all  the  others.  Moreover,  the  right 
to  the  extraordinary  use  is  inferior  to  the  ordinary,  and  cannot  be 
made  to  interfere  with  an  ordinary  use  when  such  is  clearly  indicated 
as  necessary  to  any  of  the  proprietors.  So  long  as  the  reasonable  use 
of  the  common  property  doj^s  no  injury  to  the  rights  of  others  who 
are  entitled  to  a  like  reasonable  use  no  action  lies  ;  but  an  unreason- 
able use  is  an  actionable  injury. 

The  Case  of  Evans  v.  Merriweather. 

A  clear  distinction  of  the  difference  between  these  two  kinds  of  use 
was  made  for  the  first  time  in  this  country  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Illinois,  where  the  Court  said  :* 

Eiich  riparian  proprietor  is  bound  to  make  sucli  a  nse  of  running  water  as  to  do 
as  little  injury  to  those  below  him  as  is  consistent  with  a  valuable  l)enetit  to  him- 
self. The  use  must  be  a  reasonable  one.  Now  the  question  fairly  arises,  is  that  a 
reasonable  use  of  running  water  by  the  upjier  proprietor,  by  which  the  fluid  is 
entirely  consumed?  To  answer  this  question  satisfactorily,  it  is  proper  to  consider 
the  wants  in  regard  to  the  element  of  water.  These  wants  are  either  natural  or 
artificial.  Natural  are  such  as  are  absolutely  necessary  to  be  supi)lied  in  order  to 
his  existence.  Artiticial,  such  oidy  as  by  supplying  them  his  comfort  and  pros- 
perity are  increased.  To  quench  thirst,  and  for  household  purposes,  water  is  ab- 
solutely indispensable.  lu  civilized  life,  water  for  cattle  is  also  necessary.  These 
wants  must  be  supplied,  or  both  man  and  beast  will  perish.  The  supply  of  a  man's 
artificial  wants  is  not  essential  to  his  existence  ;  it  is  not  indisjiensable ;  he  could 
live  if  water  was  not  employed  in  irrigating  land.s,  or  in  j^ropelling  his  machinery. 
In  countries  difTei-ently  situated  from  ours,  with  a  hot  and  arid  climate,  water 
doubtless  is  indispensable  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  in  tlieiu,  water  for  ir- 
rigation would  bo  a  natiiral  want.  Here  it  might  increase  the  products  of  the  soil, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  essential,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  considered  a  natural  want 
of  man.  So  of  manufactures,  they  promote  the  prosperity  and  comfort  of  mankind, 
but  cannot  be  considered  absolutely  necessary  to  his  existence. 

From  thes  )  premises,  the  Court  then  inoceeds  to  state  the  conclusion 
resulting,  Hanndy  : 

That  an  individual  owning  a  spring  on  his  land  from  which  water  flows  in  a  current 
tlu'ougli  Ills  nciglilioi's  land,  would  have  the  right  to  use  the  whole  of  it,  if.  neces- 
sary to  satisfy  his  natnral  wants.  He  niay  consume  all  the  water  for  his  domestic 
purposes,  including  water  for  his  stock.  If  he  dtvsiies  to  use  it  for  irrigation  or 
manufactures,  and  there  be  a  lower  proprietor  to  whom  its  use  is  essential  to  sup- 
])ly  his  natni'al  wants,  or  for  his  stock,  \w  must  use  the  water  so  as  to  leave  enough 
for  such  low(>r  proprietor.      Wluire  the  stream  is  small,  and  does  not  supply  water 

*  KvaiiH  V.  Merriwcather,  'A  Scan.  (111.),  4'.t«i. 


BIO-AGRICULTURAL  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
RIVERSIDE,  CALIFORNIA  92502 


1U2  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITF:D    STATES. 

more  than  sufficient  to  answer  the  natural  wants  of  the  difterent  i)roprietors  living 
on  it,  none  of  the  proprietors  can  use  the  water  for  either  irrigation  or  manufact- 
ures. So  far  then,  as  natural  wants  are  concerned,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  furnish- 
ing a  rule  by  which  riparian  proprietors  may  use  flowing  water  to  sujjijly  such 
natural  wants.  Jilach  i:)roprietor  in  his  turn  may,  if  necessary,  consume  all  the  water 
for  these  purposes.  But  where  the  water  is  not  wanted  to  supply  natural  wants, 
and  there  is  not  sufficient  for  each  proprietor  living  on  the  stream  to  cairy  on  his 
manufacturing  purposes,  how  shall  the  water  be  divided?  \\'e  have  seen,  that, 
without  a  contract  or  grant,  neither  has  a  right  to  use  all  the  water  ;  all  have  a 
right  to  participate  in  its  benefits.  Where  all  have  a  right  to  participate  in  a  com- 
mon benefit,  and  none  can  have  an  exclusive  enjoyment,  no  rule,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case,  can  be  laid  down,  as  to  how  much  each  may  use  without  infring- 
ing upon  tlie  rights  of  others.  In  such  cases,  the  question  must  be  left  to  the 
judgment  of  the  jury,  whether  the  party  complained  of  has  used,  under  all  the  cir- 
cumstances, more  than  his  just  proportion. 

RiPAEiAN  Peopeietoes  Can  Abeogate  the  Eight  to  the  Natural  Use. 

Concluding-  this  part  of  the  subject,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the 
riparian  proprietors  can  voiuntaril}^  as  by  ag-reement,  abrogate  the 
right  to  the  ordinary  use  of  a  stream,  giving  it  up  to  such  extraordi- 
nary uses  as  the  exigencies  of  manufacturing  or  other  artificial  interests 
may  be  expected  to  subject  it  to.  Custom  for  a  series  of  years  may  be 
considered  evidence  of  such  voluntary  abrogation. 

Eight  to  Use  of  a  Steeam  Can  be  Acquired  by  Grant. 

It  is  evident  without  special  discussion,  that  the  right  to  uses  of  a 
stream  outside  of  the  ordinary  and  reasonable  extraordinary  use  may 
be  acquired  by  grant  or  reservation  the  same  as  to  real  proj)erty. 
Such  special  rights  are  of  the  nature  of  easements,  and  can,  like  ease- 
ments in  real  property,  only  be  created  by  deed,  devise,  or  record. 

Prescriptive  Eights  in  Streams. 

There  is,  however,  another  way  in  which  the  right  to  the  super- 
extraordinary  use  of  a  stream  may  be  apparently  acquired,  namely,  by 
prescription,  and  as  this  is  the  more  important  part  of  the  subject  for 
present  purposes,  we  will  discuss  the  matter  a  little  at  length. 

By  the  common  law  the  right  to  do  a  thing,  which  from  the  i  ature 
of  the  case  could  have  been  created  by  a  grant,  may  be  acquired  by  an 
individual,  by  reason  of  long-continued  and  peaceable  possession,  and 
such  right  or  title  is  denominated  prescriptive,  though  the  length  of 
time  required  before  such  right  can  be  held  as  acquired  varies  in  dif- 
ferent States.  In  New  York  it  has  been  fixed  by  the  Statute  of  Limita- 
tions at  20  years,  while  in  some  other  States  the  lapsing  of  15  years 
sufiices.  In  order  to  constitute  a  prescription  in  England,  according 
to  the  old  writers,   the  enjoyment  must  have  existed  "  time  out   of 


POPULAR   VIEWS    OF    PRESCRIPTION.  103 

mind,"  but  in  modern  times  not  only  there  but  in  this  countrj'  definite 
periods  are  fixed  by  the  Statute  of  Limitations. 

In  its  orig"inal  sense  the  term  prescription  applied  to  incorporeal 
heredituinents  and  not  to  corporeal  titles  to  land,  as  to  easements  of 
rig-hts  of  way  across  land.  In  this  sense  prescriptive  rights  were 
originally  enjoyed  by  adverse  user,  and  finally  by  analog-y  came  to  in- 
clude title  to  land  by  adverse  possession.  A  further  extension  of  the 
doctrine  again  led  to  a  presumi>tion  of  some  title  in  running  screams 
not  justified  by  the  common-law  rule,  this  latter  being  also  a  prescrip- 
tive title  by  adverse  user. 

Angell  has  affirmed  the  principle  of  a  prescriptive  right  to  pollute 
water-courses  under  certain  circumstances  in  the  following  language  :* 

That  a  title  to  aur  iucorporeal  liereditameut  may  be  supported  by  an  uniuter- 
rupted  enjoyment  for  the  period  limited  by  statute  "for  the  right  of  entry  upon  land, 
was  tirst  laid  down  as  law  in  England  by  Mr.  C.  J.  Wilmot  in  the  year  1761  .  .  . 
as  twenty  years'  possession  of  land  is  considered  a  bar  to  an  ejectment,  so  the  pos- 
session of  an  easement  attached  to  it  for  the  same  period  is  by  analogy  deemed  evi- 
dence of  right  in  the  party  possessing  it.  Indeed,  it  would  seem  absurd  to  acknowl- 
edge a  right  to  a  greater  interest,  as  having  been  created  by  an  enjoyment  for  a 
given  space  of  time  and  to  deny  it  to  a  lesser. 

The  Case  of  Bealy  v.  Shaw. 

The  case  of  Bealy  v.  Shaw,  as  cited  by  Angell,  has  been  a  leading 
case  in  England  on  the  subject  of  acquisition  of  an  adverse  right  to  the 
use  of  a  natural  water-course :  and  it  was  decided  in  conforraitv  to  the 
doctrine  above  laid  down.     Lord  EUenborough,  C.  J.,  said : 

The  genei'al  rule  of  law,  as  applied  to  this  subject,  is  that,  independent  of  any 
particular  enjoyment  used  to  be  had  by  another,  every  man  lias  a  right  to  have  the 
advantage  of  a  flow  of  water  in  his  own  land  without  diminution  or  alteration,  but 
an  adverse  right  may  exist,  found'^d  on  the  occupation  of  anotlier.  and,  although 
the  stream  may  be  diminished  in  quantity,  or  corrupted  in  quality,  yet  if  the  occu- 
pation of  the  party  so  taking  it  and  using  it  have  existed  for  so  long  a  time  as  may 
raise  the  presumption  of  a  grant,  the  other  party,  whose  land  is  below,  must  take 
the  stream  subject  to  such  adverse  right. 

Popular  Views  of  Prescription. 

In  administrating  sanitary  regulations  for  the  protection  of  the 
drainage  areas  whence  public  water  supplies  issue,  one  quickly  finds 
disseminated  among  both  laity  and  professionals  the  idea  that  such 
rights  of  pollution  as  were  enjoyed  by  the  inhabitants,  without  con- 
test or  objection  on  the  part  of  anv  of  tln^  rii)ariaii  owners  before  the 
taking  of  a  given  stream  for  a  i)ublic  water  sui)i)ly,  have  be<-onie  per- 
scriptiv<>  through  adverse  use,  and  that  such  rights  cannot  be  del)arred 
except  by  the  ]iaynient  of  a  valnalde  consideration.  Tlie  growth  of 
this  view  is  undonbtedlv  laru-'ly  due  to  tlie  strong  artirmation  of  the 

*  Angoll,  Law  (tf  W.itiT  Courses,  fltli  ciL,  p.  351. 


104  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

doctrine  of  rig-lit  to  pollute  by  adverse  possession  as  stated  in  the  fore- 
going from  Angell.  It  is  believed,  however,  that,  in  the  present  under- 
standing of  thing's,  such  a  view  is  bad  law,  contrary,  indeed,  to  the 
first  principles  of  the  common  law,  and  an  attempt  will  be  made  to 
make  good  that  proposition. 

The  Law  of  Custom. 

The  laws  of  England,  wdience  ours  have  been  derived  by  inheritance, 
are  defined  by  Blackstone  as  of  two  kinds,*  the  unwritten  or  common 
law,  and  the  written  or  statute  law,  and  it  is  from  the  former  that  we 
mostly  derive  our  views  as  to  prescription  and  adverse  possession. 
We  must  observe  in  this  connection  that  the  common  law  is  founded 
entirely  in  custom  f  and  the  sine  qua  non  for  the  observance  of  the  com- 
mon-law maxim  is  that  the  custom  itself  be  good,  and  the  goodness 
of  the  custom  under  the  common-law  ruling  depends,  according  to 
Blackstone,  (1)  upon  its  having  been  used  from  a  "  time  whereof  the 
memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary;"  if  any  one  can  show 
the  beginning  of  it  the  custom  is  not  good ;  (2)  it  must  have  been 
continued  ;  (3)  peaceable,  and  acquiesced  in,  and  (4)  reasonable.  A 
custom  may  be  good  if  no  good  legal  reason  can  be  assigned  against 
it.  (5)  Customs  ought  to  be  certain,  and,  (6)  when  established,  com- 
pulsory and  (7)  consistent  with  each  other.  Moreover,  Blackstone  ex- 
pressly says,  in  regard  to  the  legality  of  a  custom,  that  if  it  is  not  good 
it  ought  not  to  be  longer  used. 

The  Proper  Application  of  the  Flts^damental  Principles. 

In  the  application  of  these  fundamentals  to  the  question  of  sewerage 
and  drainage  it  is  urged  that  practically  all  such  privileges  are  recent. 
The  time  when  the  custom  began  may  be  readily  defined  by  many. 
Again  it  is  unreasonable  for  one  human  being  to  turn  excrement  into 
streams  from  which  others  may  take  drinking  water.  The  matter 
looked  boldly  in  the  face  is  so  revolting  as  to  need  no  argument  es- 
tablishing its  unreasonableness.  Likewise  it  is  inconsistent  for  human 
beings,  either  individually  or  in  the  aggregate,  to  pollute  that  which 
for  their  own  uses  should  remain  unpolluted,  and,  finally,  when  we  un- 
derstand as  we  now  do,  the  serious  effects  of  such  pollution,  the  cus- 
tom of  turning  sewage  into  any  stream,  which  either  is,  or  may  in  the 
future,  be  the  source  of  a  public  water  sup]oly,  is  shown  to  be  so  ut- 
terly bad  as  to  be  worth}'  only  of  immediate  abatement  even  though 
the  custom  has  been  maintained  from  time  immemorial. 

*  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  sec.  iii.,  On  the  Laws  of  England. 

+  Customs  are  either  particular  or  general.  It  is  particular  customs  only  that  we  are  concerned 
with  here. 


THE   CASE   OF    LAKE    COCIIITUATE.  105 

Moreover,  tlie  question  of  the  ri.^ht  of  the  riparian  proprietors  to 
continue  in  the  enjoyment  of  a  right  of  pollution  of  which  they  may 
have  been  jjossessed  at  the  time  of  taking-  of  any  given  body  of  water 
as  the  source  of  a  public  water  supply,  has  been  the  subject  of  a  deci- 
sion in  the  case  of  the  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Boston,  which  may 
be  considered  as  marking  an  era  in  sanitary  history  in  this  country. 
The  case  referred  to  is  that  of  Augustus  P.  Martin,  Mayor  of  Boston, 
V.  Luther  E,  Gleason,  in  regard  to  which  the  following  preliminary 
statement  is  made  as  derived  from  the  city  of  Boston's  brief.* 

The  Case  of  Lake  Cochituate. 

In  1816  the  Legislature,  by  an  act  entitled  "An  act  for  supplying  the  city  of  Bog- 
ton  with  pure  water,"  authorized  the  city  of  Boston  "to  take,  hold,  and  convey  to, 
into  and  through  said  city  the  water  of  Longiwnd,  so  called  (now  Lake  Cochituate), 
in  the  towns  of  Natick,  Wayland,  and  Franiingham,  and  the  waters  which  may  tlo\y 
into  and  from  the  same,  and  any  other  ponds  and  streams  within  the  distance  of 
four  miles  from  said  Long  pond,  and  anv  water  rights  connected  therewith."  Acta 
of  1816,  Ch.  167,  ^  1. 

Pursuant  to  this  authority,  and  in  part  execution  thereof,  the  city,  in  August, 
181:6,  took' certain  water  and  water  rights,  described  as,  "all  the  waters  of  Long 
pond,  so  called,  and  other  brooks  and  streams,  whether  permanent  or  temi^orary, 
entering  into  the  same,  and  of  all  the  bays,  coves,  and  inlets  thereof,  and  of  the 
outlet  of  the  same,  and  all  the  water  rights  thereunto  belonging,  or  in  any  wise 
appertaining." 

August  li),  1816,  the  city  filetl  in  the  office  of  the  registry  of  deeds  for  the  cotinty 
of  Middlesex,  the  foregoing  description  of  the  taking,  and  a  statement  of  the  pur- 
pose for  which  taken,  as  recpiired  by  said  act  of  the  Legislature  (see  copy,  page  -it 
of  tlie  report)  ;  and,  as  soon  as  the  necessary  works  could  be  constructed,  pro- 
ceeded actually  to  use,  and  lias  ever  since  used,  said  waters  for  the  supply  of  its 
inhabitants.  Pegan  brook  is,  and  has  always  been,  one  of  the  sti'eams  entering 
into  Long  pond.      (Report,  i)age  1.) 

The  defendant  is  the  proprietor  of  a  hotel  in  Natick,  and  all  the  human  excre- 
ment discharged  from  the  water  closets,  and  all  the  sewage  of  his  hotel  are  dis- 
charged directly  into  said  brook  in  sufficient  quantity  to  contaminate  its  waters, 
(Report,  page  1.) 

The  city  of  Boston,  by  petition  of  its  Mayor  (St.  1881,  c.  151),  prays  for  an  in- 
junction to  restrain  the  defendant  from  polluting  this  water  sup2>ly. 

The  following  is  the  decision  of  the  Huprcme  Judicial  Court,  C. 
Allen,  J. 

Disregarding  punctuation,  as  may  propei'ly  be  done  in  construing  a  statute 
(Gushing  i\  Worrick,  9  Gray,  385),  and  looking  at  the  purpose  and  contemj^hited 
scope  of  Stat,  1H16,  c.  167,  the  city  of  Boston  was  authorized  by  Section  1  of  that 
statute  to  take  the  water  of  Long  pond,  and  the  waters  wliich  may  flow  into  and 
from  the  same,  and  any  other  pomls  and  streams  witliiii  the  distance  of  four  miles 
from  said  Long  pf)nd,  and  any  water  rights  connected  therewitli.  so  far  as  may  be 
necessary  for  tin;  preservation  and  purity  of  tlie  same,  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing 
a  supply  of  ]mre  water  for  the  said  city  of  iioston.  This  declared  purpose  ndates 
back,  and  illustrates  the  extent  of  the  authority  conferred.  Water-rights  may  be 
taken  so  far  as  may  be  noce.ssaiy  for  the  preservation  and  purity  of  the  water.  The 
words  "and  any  water  rights  connected  tiierewith  "  are  not  limited  to  the  immedi- 

*  From  0th  An.  Rei)t.  of  BoHton  W.  Rd.,  for  yr.  en.l.  Apr.  :J0,  1S8.'5,  pp.  7(5-7a 


106  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

ate  antecedent,  namely,  the  ' '  other  ponds  and  streams  "  there  referred  to,  but  they 
also  inchide  Long  pond  itself,  and  the  waters  •which  may  flow  into  and  from  the 
same.  It  was  designed  to  give  a  broad  and  comprehensive  authority  for  the  jjur- 
pose  of  furnishing  a  supply  of  pure  water  for  the  city,  and  to  confer  the  power  to 
take  everything  included  within  the  meaning  of  the  antecedent  words,  so  far  as 
might  be  necessary  for  the  preservation  and  purity  of  the  water.  Section  15,  im- 
posing a  penalty  for  wantonly  or  maliciously  diverting  the  water,  or  any  j)art  thereof, 
of  any  of  the  i)onds.  streams,  or  water-sources  which  shall  be  taken  by  the  city,  or 
corrupting  the  same,  or  rendering  it  imjjure,  confirms  this  view.  Under  this 
authority,  the  city  might  lawfully  take  any  water  rights  connected  with  the  waters 
flowing  into  Long  pond,  including  the  prescriptive  rights  which  the  plaintift"  con- 
tends that  he  then  had  to  discharge  sewage  into  Pegan  brook.  It  api:>ears  that  this 
brook  is  and  always  has  been  a  feeder  of  Long  pond ;  and  that  the  whole  of  it  is 
Avithin  four  miles  of  the  pond.  A  prescriptive  right  to  foul  the  waters  of  a  stream 
is  included  under  the  term  "water  rights."  This,  indeed,  is  asserted  by  the  de- 
fendant in  his  answer.  It  is  a  right  in  respect  to  the  water  of  the  stream;  and  the 
statute  conferred  power  to  take  all  water  rights  which  might  interfere  with  the 
purity  of  the  waters  taken.  It  is  contended  for  the  defendant  that,  if  it  was  neces- 
sary to  jireserve  the  brook  or  the  purity  of  the  water,  power  was  granted  to  the  city 
to  take  the  land  on  each  side  of  the  brook,  and  thus  cut  oft' any  use  either  of  it  or 
of  its  waters  ;  and,  indeed,  that  the  water-rights  could  not  be  taken  separately  from 
the  land.  But  it  does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  necessary,  even  if  it  was  competent, 
for  the  city  to  take  the  land  on  the  sides  of  the  brook  in  order  to  extinguish  any 
prescriptive  right  to  foul  the  water  of  it. 

Assuming  that  the  defendant  had  such  prescriptive  right,  it  is  further  contended 
that  the  city  did  not  take  it  ;  but  that  the  taking  of  the  waters  of  the  brooks  and 
streams  entering  into  Long  pond  only  apjiropriated  the  water  as  it  flowed  into  the 
pond  at  the  time  of  taking,  and  subject  to  all  legal  burdens  and  uses  then  existing. 
This,  however,  is  too  narrow  a  construction  of  the  description  of  what  was  taken. 
The  city,  after  reciting  the  whole  of  the  flrst  section  of  the  statutes,  took  all  the 
waters  of  Long  j^ond,  "and  other  brooks  and  streams,  whether  permanent  or  tem- 
porary, entering  into  the  same,"  "and  all  the  water  rights  thereunto  belonging  or 
in  any  wise  appertaining,  for  the  sole  use  and  benefit  of  said  city."  This  language 
does  not  exactly  follow  the  language  of  the  statute  ;  but  we  cannot  doubt  that  it  is 
broad  enough  to  include  Pegan  brook,  and  the  taking  of  "  all  the  water  rights 
thereunto  belonging  or  iu  any  wise  appertaining,"  includes  any  right  then  existing 
to  foul  its  waters.  It  is  urged,  by  way  of  illustration,  that,  if  a  mill  existed  on 
the  brook,  the  right  to  use  the  mill  was  not  taken.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  con- 
sider that  question  here.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  was  any  mill  on  tlie  brook. 
If  there  was,  the  use  of  the  water  for  turning  its  wheels  might  not  foul  the  water, 
and  might  therefore  be  consistent  with  the  purposes  and  rights  of  the  city.  But 
the  right  to  use  the  brook  as  a  discharge  for  sewage  in  large  quantities,  as  i^ractised 
by  the  defendant,  is  inconsistent  with  such  purpose.  If,  therefore,  the  defendant 
had  any  such  prescriptive  right  to  foul  the  water  of  Pegan  brook,  as  he  claimed, 
such  right  was  taken  and  extinguished  by  the  act  of  the  city  under  the  Statute  of 
18-46  ;  and  by  Section  6  of  that  act  the  city  was  liable  to  pay  all  damages  sustained 
thereby.  The  defendant,  if  he  sustained  damage,  might  have  applied  by  jieti- 
tion  for  the  assessment  thereof  at  any  time  within  three  years  from  such  taking. 
This  remedy  was  the  exclusive  one. 

It  was  not  seriously  contended  in  the  argument  that  the  defendant  has  acquired 
a  prescri|)tive  right  to  foul  the  waters  since  the  taking  by  the  city  in  1846.  Such 
prescriptive  right  could  not  be  acquired,  because  the  fouling  of  the  water,  since  the 
right  to  foul  it  ceased,  would  be  a  ]iublic  nuisance.  Morton  v.  Moore,  15  Gray, 
576.      Brookline  v.  Mackintosh,  183  Mass.,  125,  226. 

Finally,  it  was  contended  for  the  defendant  that,  by  reason  of  constructions 
erected  by  the  city  at  the  mouth  of  the  bi-ook,  since  the  taking  in  1846,  the  waters 
of  Pegan  brook  do  not,  iu  fact,  contaminate  the  water  of  the  pond  ;  and  that,  there- 
fore, the  city  is  not  injured.  It  appears,  however,  as  a  fact,  that  the  water  of  the 
brook  is  contaminated  by  the  acts  of  the  defendent.  The  city  has  a  right  to  be 
protected  against  the  necessity  of  maintaining  works  for  the  preservation  of  the 


Gould's  definition  of  prescription.  107 

purity  of  the  water  from  such  a  cause.  If  the  acts  of  the  defendant  in  fouling  the 
stream  have  made  it  necessary  for  the  city  to  resort  to  extraordinary  means  for  pre- 
serving the  purity  of  tlie  water  of  the  i)ond,  he  cannot  justify  the  continuance  of 
such  illegal  fouling  by  showing  that  the  city  has  thus  far  been  able,  by  the  main- 
tenance of  special  works,  to  prevent  the  natural  result  of  his  acts. 

The  result  is  that  the  jjetition  for  an  injunction  is  maintained. 

Injunction  to  issue. 

Chancellor  Kent's  Views. 

Kent  has  justly  observed  in  his  Commentaries  "that  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  right  acquired  by  prior  occupancy  of  a  running  stream 
becomes  frequently  an  important  and  vexatious  question  between  dif- 
ferent riparian  proprietors,"  *  and,  without  going  into  his  views  exten- 
sively in  this  connection,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  tendency  of 
American  law  as  indicated  by  the  decisions,  is  on  the  whole  in  the 
direction  of  an  abridgment  of  the  right  to  pollute  by  reason  of  ad- 
verse possession,  though  Kent  says  that  if  such  occupation  of  a  stream 
as  corrupted  it  in  quality  has  existed  for  so  long  a  time  as  to  raise 
the  presumption  of  a  grant  and  which  presumption  is  the  foundation 
of  a  title  by  prescription,  the  other  party  whose  land  is  below  must 
take  the  stream  subject  to  such  adverse  right. 


Gould's  Definition  of  Prescription. 

Gould  has  defined  the  law  of  prescription  in  its  ai^plication  to  water- 
courses in  this  country  with  great  clearness ;  and  his  numerous  cita- 
tions of  recent  cases  are  evidence  of  the  most  painstaking  thorough- 
ness. According  to  him  a  j^rescriptive  right  in  the  waters  of  a  stream 
can  onl}'  be  acquired  under  substantially  the  following  terms  and  con- 
ditions : 

(1)  The  enjoyment  must  have  been  uninterrupted,  adverse,  and 
under  a  claim  of  right,  and  with  the  knowledge  of  the  owner. 

(2)  The  user  must  have  been  inconsistent  with,  or  contrary  to  the 
interests  of  the  owner,  and  of  such  a  nature  that  it  is  difficult  or  impos- 
sible to  account  for  it  except  on  the  presumption  of  a  grant. 

(3)  The  adverse  use  must  be  attended  by  circumstances  of  such 
notoriety  that  the  person  against  whom  the  right  is  exercised  may 
have  reasonable  notice  that  the  right  is  claimed  against  him. 

(4)  Tlie  enjoyment  must  be  as  of  right,  and  not  by  license  or  merely 
permissive. 

(5)  Tlie  burden  of  proof  rests  with  the  person  claiming,  to  show  that 
the  use  was  adverse,  uninterrupted,  and  known  to  the  owner  of  the 
land. 

(6)  Prescriptive  rights  are  limited  in  extent  by  the  previous  enjoy- 

*  Kent  •.  ComraeiitaricB  on  American  Law,  sec.  446. 


108  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

inent  and  cannot  be  materially  varied  to  the  injury  of  others.  This 
amounts  to  saying-  that  one  proprietor  cannot  acquire  the  right  by 
prescription  to  pollute  the  stream  to  a  g-reater  extent  than  it  was  pol- 
luted at  the  commencement  of  the  20  years. 

Gould,  in  common  with  the  other  le^al  writers,  affirms  that  "  the 
right  to  pollute  a  stream  to  a  greater  extent  than  is  permissible  of 
common  right  may  be  acquired  by  prescription."  But  the  conditions 
as  defined  in  the  foregoing-  indicate  that  prescriptive  rights  to  polhit- 
ing  are  limited  in  this  country.  In  any  case  a  public  nuisance  cannot 
be  prescribed  for  howsoever  long  the  adverse  enjoyment  may  have 
existed. 

English  Cases. 

In  England  many  cases  have  arisen  where  riparian  proprietors,  ag- 
grieved by  the  ijollution  of  streams,  have  applied  for  injunctions 
restraining  the  offenders  from  continuing  the  pollution.  The  frequent 
success  of  such  attempts  are  stated  as  among  the  first  causes  which  led 
to  attempts  to  purify  sewage  and  manufacturing  wastes.* 

The  right  to  pollute  streams  has  been,  however,  in  some  cases  in- 
cluded by  prescription  in  the  easements  of  estates  on  the  banks  of 
streams  in  England.  Mr.  Slater  cites  the  case  of  a  calico  printer  who 
began  experiments  on  the  purification  of  the  waste  waters  from  his 
w'orks.  Shortly  after,  he  received  a  formal  letter  from  the  ground 
landlord  warning  him  that  by  so  doing,  he  was  emperilling  one  of  the 
prescriptive  rights  of  the  estate,  and  consequently  violating  one  of 
the  covenants  of  his  lease.  A  clear  case  in  which  a  misapplication  of 
the  law  has  led,  as  Mr.  Slater  remarks,  to  making  river  pollution  not 
only  facultative  but  a  clear  duty. 

The  English  courts,  however,  have  frequently  gone  to  extreme 
lengths  in  protecting  the  rights  of  parties  against  pollution.  Thus  in 
the  case  of  Goldsmid  v.  Tunbridge  Wells  Commissioners,!  the  plaintiff 
was  tenant  for  life  of  an  estate  in  which  was  a  pond  used  for  watering 
cattle,  and  in  winter  for  supplying  ice  for  domestic  use.  The  defend- 
ants were  commissioners  with  full  power  to  make  sewers  and  drains,  and 
turn  sewage  into  any  water-course.  The  sewage  was  discharged  into  a 
brook  flowing  through  the  town,  and  which  ran  into  the  plaintiff's  pond. 
The  town  grew  constantly,  and  thus  what  at  first  was,  in  the  language  of 
the  Court,  "  an  imperceptible  injury,"  had  so  increased  in  the  course  of 
years  that,  at  the  time  of  bringing  the  action,  the  water  in  the  plaintiffs 
pond  had  become  unfit  for  either  watering  cattle  or  furnishing  ice.  It  was 
held  that  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  of  the  town  into  the  brook  was  a 
nuisance  and  the  commissioners  were  restrained  from  continuing  it. 

*  J.  W.  Slater  :  Sewage  Treatment,  Purification,  and  Utilization,  p.  186. 
+  Goldsmid  v.  Tunbridge  Wells  Commissioners,  L.  R.  1,  Ch.  349. 


relation  of  legal  pr[nciple8  to  science.  109 

Oeiginal  Application  of  the  Doctrine  of  Ajjverse  Possession. 

The  arguments  and  cases  cited  in  the  preceding,  while  not  in  any 
sense  exhaustive,  will  serve  in  a  general  way  to  indicate  how  the  views 
in  regard  to  the  right  of  pollution  by  adverse  possession  are  likely  to 
be  modified  as  such  cases  become  of  more  importance  throughout  this 
country.  In  order  to  show  somewhat  more  clearly  the  further  origin 
of  the  doctrine  of  prescriptive  rights  in  natural  water-courses,  the  fol- 
lowing skeleton  of  the  subject  may  be  deemed  sufficient: 

As  already  noted,  the  doctrine  of  adverse  possession  in  its  first 
inception  must  be  considered  as  having  applied  to  land  only,  and  its 
application  later  to  rights  in  natural  water-courses  is,  as  also  noted, 
an  extension  of  the  doctrine  by  analogy.  In  the  case  of  laud  mere 
possession  does  not  suffice,  there  must  be  some  show  of  title,  and  as 
strengthening  the  show  of  title  the  person  claiming  may  be  deemed  to 
have  possessed  and  occupied  in  the  following  cases  :  (1)  When  the 
land  has  been  cultivated  or  improved ;  (2)  where  protected  by  a  sub- 
stantial enclosure ;  (3)  where  not  improved  it  has  been  used  for  the 
supply  of  fuel  or  fencing  material  ;  and  (4)  where  a  known  farm  or  de- 
fined lot  has  been  partly  improved,  the  portion  of  such  known  farm  or 
lot  that  may  have  been  left  uncleared  or  unenclosed,  according  to  the 
local  custom,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  been  occupied  for  the  same 
length  of  time  as  the  part  improved  or  cultivat«jd.  None  of  these  can 
in  the  nature  of  the  case  by  any  possibility  apply  to  rights  in  a  water- 
course, and  therefore  user  alone  must  be  deemed  the  all-sufficient 
reason  for  the  acquirement  of  a  prescriptive  title  in  a  water-course  by 
adverse  possession.  But  the  doctrine  of  ownership  by  mere  user,  even 
though  enjoyed  long  enough  to  justify,  in  the  absence  of  any  other 
proof,  the  presumption  of  a  title,  is,  as  we  now  understand  the  matter, 
in  its  ax^plication  to  streams  a  bad  custom,  and  may  be,  so  far  as  the 
right  of  pollution  is  concerned,  safely  abolished,  by  rulings  of  our 
courts  in  line  with  the  recent  additions  to  human  knowledge  in  the 
realm  of  bacteriological  science. 

The  Kelation  of  Legal  Principles  to  the  Development  op  Science. 

The  development  of  this  view  through  the  additions  to  knowledge 
which  have  followed  from  the  recent  studies  in  the  etiology  of  disease 
is  a  very  striking  illustration  of  how  after  all,  everything  in  the  mate- 
rial universe  is  relativ(\  So  long  as  mankind  looked  ujion  dis(>asf'  as 
an  infliction  of  Providence  there  could  bo  no  general  conception  of 
the  danger  arising  from  the  contamination  of  a  public  water  supply. 
Tliis  is  finely  illustrated  by  the  conditions  Avhich  exist  to-day  in  many 
parts  of  India.     The  natives  believe  tliat  the  causation  of  disease  is 


110  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITP:D    STATES. 

beyond  their  control  and  refuse  to  accept  any  explanation  of  an  epi- 
demic of  cholera  other  than  that  it  is  a  visitation  from  the  gods. 
Holding-  this  view,  they  see  no  objection  to  placing  their  privies  where 
the  contents  drain  into  reservoirs  from  which  water  supplies  are  drawn.* 
Nor  will  'they  yet  listen  to  the  plain  teaching-s  of  experience,  the  result 
being-  that  in  many  localities  where  such  conditions  exist,  cholera  is 
never  absent.  The  unsanitary  conditions  produced  by  the  Indian 
water  tanks  receiving  quantities  of  privy  drainage  and  other  objection- 
able org'anic  matter  is  intensified  by  the  climatic  conditions.  In  many 
localities  the  entire  water  supply  must  be  stored  through  many  months 
of  tropical  drought,  and  the  stored  waters  by  reason  of  the  develojj- 
ment  of  large  quantities  of  infusorial  and  cryptogamic  growth  become 
in  the  end  disgustingly  offensive. 

The  Mill  Acts. 

There  are  in  most  of  the  States  a  series  of  enactments  known  as  Mill 
Acts,  which,  founded  in  an  extension  of  the  doctrine  of  eminent  do- 
main, have  as  their  object  the  encouragement  of  the  erection  of  mills. 
In  order  to  understand  thoroughly  certain  modifications  of  the  com- 
mon-law principle  in  reference  to  the  pollution  of  streams,  which  are 
essentially  peculiar  to  this  country,  we  may  briefly  consider  the  funda- 
mental ai^plication  of  the  law  of  eminent  domain  to  rights  in  natural 
water,  together  with  the  cognate  extension  of  the  question  which  nat- 
urally arises. 

The  Law  of  Eminent  Domain. 

Eminent  domain  is  defined  as  the  right  which  the  government 
retains  over  the  estates  of  individuals  to  appropriate  them  to  public  use  ; 
but  the  exercise  of  this  right  has  nevertheless  attached  to  it  as  a 
necessary  attendant  condition,  the  principle  that  due  money  compen- 
sation shall  be  made  to  every  individual  whose  property  is  taken,  by 
operation  of  the  law  of  eminent  domain,  without  his  consent. 

The  authority  for  the  exercise  of  this  transcendent  power  can  only 
emanate  from  the  legislatures,  State  or  National ;  and  the  extent  and 
circumstances  under  which  it  may  be  exercised  are  among  the  most 
important  questions  which  can  arise.  In  England,  as  with  us,  there 
must  be  a  public  object  of  adequate  importance  in  order  to  justify  its 
use,  but  Parliament,  as  the  supreme  power  in  the  kingdom,  may  in 
express  terms  define  to  what  extent  the  right  may  be  transferred,  as 
to  corporations,  private  or  municipal,  etc. ;  and  may  also  by  statutory 
enactments  define,  in  a  general  way,  the  methods,  terms,  and  condi- 

*See  Blyth's,  A  Manual  of  Public  Health,  Fig.  53,  p.  596.  Tank  in  a  Calcutta  Bustee  with  Huts 
and  Privies  on  its  Edge. 


CHIEF   JUSTICE    BIGELOW    OX    EMINENT   DOMAIN.  Ill 

tions  of  compensation.  The  conservative  sj)irit  in  England  has,  how- 
ever, usually  led  to  embodying  adequate  compensation  clauses  in 
acts  authorizing  the  exercise  of  eminent  domain,  although  the  extra- 
ordinary powers  conferred  upon  some  of  the  English  railways  are 
without  precedent  here. 

In  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  it  is  defined  by  the  fifth 
article  that  ''  private  property  shall  not  be  taken  for  public  use  with- 
out just  compensation,"  and  if  any  legislature  should,  by  enactment, 
overstep  this  plain  constitutional  provision,  the  courts  could  step  in 
and  by  decision  nullify  such  act  as  not  within  the  constitutional  powers 
delegated  by  the  people  to  the  legislature.  Thus  the  legislature  has, 
within  reasonable  limits,  the  power  of  determining  whether  a  particu- 
lar use  is  public  or  private,  although  the  final  decision  in  a  doubtful 
case  may  rest  with  the  courts. 

Chief  Justice  Bigelow  on  Eminent  Domain. 

The  subject  of  definition  of  the  line  between  public  use  and  private 
use  was  treated  in  a  case  in  Massachusetts  by  Chief -Justice  Bigelow, 
in  the  following  manner  :* 

In  many  cases  there  can  be  no  tlifficnlty  in  determining  whether  an  appropriation 
of  jn-operty  is  for  a  public  or  private  use.  If  laud  is  taken  for  a  fort,  a  canal,  or  a 
highway,  it  would  cLuirly  fall  within  the  first  class  ;  if  it  was  transferred  from  one 
person  to  another,  or  to  several  persons,  solely  for  their  peculiar  benefit  and  advan- 
tage, it  would  as  clearly  come  within  the  second  class.  But  there  are  intermediate 
cases,  where  public  and  private  interests  are  blended  together,  in  which  it  becomes 
moi'e  difficult  to  decide  within  wliich  of  the  two  classes  they  may  be  properly  said 
to  fall.  Tliere  is  no  fixed  rule  or  standard  by  which  such  cases  can  be  tried  and 
determined.  Each  must  necessarily  depetul  upon  its  own  peculiai-  circumstances. 
Many  enterprises  of  the  highest  pul)lic  utility  are  productive  of  great  and  imme- 
diate benefits  to  individuals.  'A  railroad  or  canal  may  largely  enhance  the  value  of 
private  property  situated  at  or  near  its  termini,  but  it  is  not  for  that  reason  any  less 
a  public  work,  for  the  coiistrucfion  of  which  ])rivate  property  may  well  be  taken, 
.  .  It  has  never  been  deemed  essential  that  tlie  entire  community,  or  any  con- 
siderable portion  of  it,  should  directly  enjoy  or  participate  in  an  improvement  or 
enterprise,  in  order  to  constitute  a  public  use  within  the  true  meaning  of  the 
words  of  the  constitutional  limitation.  Such  an  interpretation  would  greatly  nar- 
row and  ci-ipple  tlie  authority  of  the  Legislature,  .so  as  to  deprive  it  of  the  power  of 
exerting  a  material  and  beneficial  influence  on  tlie  welfare  and  prosperity  of  the 
{state. 

In  a  l)road  and  conipreliensive  view,  such  as  has  been  heretofore  taken  of  the 
construction  of  this  clause  of  tlie  Declaration  of  Kights,  everything  which  tends  to 
enlarge  tlie  resources,  increase  the  indnsti'ial  energies,  and  jiromote  the  productive 
power  of  any  consideraVile  number  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  section  of  the  State,  or 
which  leads  to  the  growth  of  towns  and  the  creation  of  new  soui'ces  for  the  em- 
ployment of  ])rivate  ca])ital  and  labor,  indirectly  contributes  to  the  general  welfare, 
and  to  the  i)rosperity  of  the  whole. community  It  is  on  this  princijile  tliat  many 
of  the  statutes  of  this  commonwealth  by  wliich  private  ])ro])erty  has  been  hereto- 
fore taken  and  ap|)n)priat(Ml  to  a  snjipostMl  public  u.se  are  founded.  One  of  the 
earliest  and  most  familiar  instances  of  the  exercise   of  such  a  power  under  the 

*  BoBt(jn  and  Iloxbury  Mill.  Corp.  v.  Newman,  12  Pink.,  476. 


112  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Constitution  is  to  be  found  in  the  Mass.  St.  1795,  c.  74,  Sec.  1,  for  the  erection 
and  regulation  of  mills.  By  this  statute  the  owner  of  a  mill  had  power,  for  the 
purjiose  of  raising  a  head  of  water  to  operate  his  mill,  to  over  flow  the  land  of  su- 
per-riparian proprietors,  and  thereby  to  take  a  permanent  easement  in  the  soil  of 
another,  to  the  entire  destruction  of  it's  beneficial  use  to  him,  on  paying  a  suitable 
compensation  therefor.  Under  the  right  thus  conferred,  the  more  direct  benefit 
was  to  the  owner  of  the  mill  only  ;  private  pi'operty  was,  in  effect,  taken  and  trans- 
ferred from  one  individual  for  the  benefit  of  another,  and  the  only  public  use 
which  was  thereby  subserved  was  the  indirect  benefit  received  by  the  community 
by  the  erection  of  mills  for  the  convenience  of  the  neighborhood,  and  the  general 
advantage  which  accrued  to  trade  and  agriculture  by  increasing  the  facilities  for 
traffic  and  the  consumption  of  the  products  of  the  soil.  In  like  manner,  and  for 
similar  purposes,  acts  of  incorporation  have  been  granted  to  individuals,  with  au- 
thority to  create  large  mill-powers  for  manufacturing  establishments,  by  taking 
private  property,  even  to  the  extent  of  destroying  other  mills  and  water  privileges 
on  the  same  stream. 

The  Underlying  Principle  of  the  Mill  Acts, 

Having  defined  some  of  the  more  important  features  of  the  doctrine 
of  eminent  domain  we  may  now  proceed  with  the  discussion  of  the 
Mill  Acts,  and  their  effect  in  iiractically  modifying,  in  some  of  the 
States,  the  common-law  rule  in  reference  to  the  possible  public  nui- 
sance caused  by  polluting-  running-  streams.  The  exercise  of  the  j^re- 
rogative  of  sovereignty  in  their  enactment  can  only  be  justified  on  the 
ground  of  the  public  good,  and  their  original  inception  in  the  early 
colonial  period,  when  mills  for  grinding  corn  were  an  imperative 
necessity,  is  usually  urged  as  their  reason  for  being.  Their  effect 
in  authorizing  the  overflow  of  another's  land  contrary  to  his  wishes, 
on  iDayment  of  a  money  consideration,  has  been  to  nullify  to  some 
extent  by  statute  the  natural  right  which  every  riparian  proprietor 
has  to  the  natural  flow  of  a  stream. 

In  Massachusetts,  where  manufacturing  has  always  been  a  chief 
occupation  of  the  people,  the  statutory  law  encouraging  mills  is 
ancient ;  and  the  several  successive  enactments  in  that  State  may  be 
cited  as  showing  on  the  whole  the  best  development  of  this  particular 
phase  of  the  subject.  The  Massachusetts  acts  have  been  the  basis  of 
most  of  the  similar  laws  passed  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States, 
while  the  original  Virginia  act,  which  differs  very  materially  from  the 
Massachusetts,  has  been  the  basis  of  similar  acts  in  the  several 
Southern  States.  In  England  in  early  times  the  construction  of  mills 
was  encouraged  in  a  different  manner.  Mills  were  erected  by  lords  of 
manors  on  their  respective  domains  for  the  public  advantage,  the  gift 
being  fettered  by  the  condition  that  the  people  of  the  respective 
seigniories  bring  their  corn  to  be  ground  at  the  mills  so  built  ;  this 
custom  being  called  "  doing  suit "  to  the  mill.*  The  American  acts, 
however,  as  founded  in  the  broader  principle  of  the  public  good  and 

*  Woolrych  :  On  the  Law  of  Waters  and  Sewers,  70,  108. 


THE  VIEWS   OF   THE   MASSACHUSETTS   DRAINAGE   COMMISSION.    113 

as  extending-  tlie  doctrine  of  eminent  domain  to  the  acquisition  of 
rights  in  running  water  not  authorized  by  the  common  law,  are  purely 
a  development  from  the  conditions  of  interdependence  among-  the 
people  which  existed  in  the  early  colonial  days.  The  progressive  de- 
velopment  in  most  of  the  manufacturing  States  has  led  practically  to 
the  enunciation  of  legal  principles  somewhat  different  from  any  of 
those  derived  by  precedent  from  the  laws  of  England.  These  new 
principles  can  hardh"  be  considered  as  fully  established  in  all  parts  of 
the  couutr}',  although  clearly  in  the  line  of  the  immemorial  policy  of  a 
number  of  the  States.  Thus  New  York  State  may  be  cited  as  one  in 
which  no  Mill  Act  has  ever  been  enacted,  and  the  Supreme  Court,  in 
the  case  of  Hoy  v.  Cohoes  Co.,*  say  "  The  Legislature  of  this  State,  it  is 
believed,  has  never  exercised  the  right  of  eminent  domain  in  favor  of 
mills  of  any  kind.  Sites  for  steam  engines,  hotels,  churches,  and  other 
pul)lic  conveniences,  might  as  well  be  taken,  by  the  exercise  of  this 
extraordinary^  power."  The  prevalence  of  this  view  of  the  matter  in  the 
State  of  New  York  has,  however,  operated  to  materially  discourage 
such  development  of  manufacturing  interests  as  depend  upon  the  con- 
struction of  large  storage  reservoirs  at  points  remote  from  the  place 
where  the  stored  waters  are  required  for  use,  and  in  various  other 
ways. 

The  Principle  of  Permissive  Pollution. 

The  Mill  Acts,  Avliile  originally  intended  merely  to  secure  to  parties 
wishing  to  build  mills  the  right  to  How  the  lands  of  others,  have  never- 
theless led,  with  other  causes,  to  the  development  of  what  may  be 
termed  the  principle  of  permissive  iiollution. 

Again,  it  may  be  further  said  that  their  enactment,  by  tending  to  en- 
courage manufactures,  has  led  to  a  tacit  modification  by  statute  of  the 
common-law  rule  in  reference  to  moderate  nuisances. 

The  Views  of  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Comjhssion, 

The  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission  of  1884-5,  discussed  the 
various  questions  involved  so  broadly  that  we  can  hardly  do  better 
than  to  conclude  this  chapter  by  extended  quotations  from  their  report. 
The  Commissioners  say : 

Manufacturing?  industry  has  from  the  earliest  days  been  greatly  favored  by  the 
law-makers  of  ^lassacliusotts.  To  foster  and  encourapfo  it  tliey  long  ago  substanti- 
ally dedicated  the  unnavigable  running  waters  of  the  land  to  its  use.  Believing  its 
prosperity  essential  to  the  common  welfare,  the  Legislature  has  not  hesitated  to  stop 
to  the  veiy  verge  of  its  constitutional  power  to  stimulate  and  maintain  it.  For 
more  than  half  a  century  persons  have  been  authorized  by  law  to  dam  up  streams 

*  Hov  V.  Cohoes  Co.,  M  Barb.,  43. 

8 


114  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

and  flood  lands  of  others  for  their  own  i^rivate  mainifacturiut::  euds.  This  taking  of 
one  man's  property  against  his  will  for  the  individual  benefit  of  another  has  been 
justitied  as  a  proper  exercise  of  the  prerogative  of  eminent  domain,  on  the  ground 
of  the  advantage  inuring  to  the  public  from  the  imjn'ovement  of  water  jaower,  and 
the  importance  of  encouraging  manufactures.  It  has  been  supported  also,  ui)OU 
the  principle  which  iJermits  the  State  to  compel  the  several  possessors  of  a  common 
interest,  wliich  they  cannot  beneficially  enjoy  in  severalty,  to  submit  to  measures^ 
esssential  to  secure  a  full  and  profitable  use  of  their  property. 

As  a  general  proposition  of  law  it  is  laid  down  that  the  owners  of  the  bed  and 
banks  of  a  stream  have  the  right  to  use  the  running  water  in  common  from  its- 
source  to  its  outlet.  Each  one  has  an  equal  right  to  its  reasonable  use  as  it  flows- 
by  his  land.  This  right  of  each  is  limited  by  the  like  light  of  every  other.  But 
this  special  qualifled  property  of  the  individual  in  the  water  does  not  seem  to  ex- 
clude a  general  ijaiamount  interest  wliich  the  public  retains.  Consequently,  while 
no  one  can  justly  diminish  his  neighbor's  enjoyment  by  greatly  vitiating  the  water 
during  his  own  short-lived  tenure  of  it,  neither  may  he  destroy  or  greatly  impair 
the  public  property  in  it.  The  factory  or  the  mill  may  temporarily  monoi^olize  the 
flow,  but  they  do  so  under  an  implied  agreement  not  to  spoil  the  water  for  the 
ordinary  uses  of  the  people  in  general.  If  they  pollute  the  stream  unduly  they 
violate  their  license,  and  may  be  comijelled  to  abate  tlie  nuisance  they  have  made. 
Bnt  while  it  is  easy  to  lay  down  the  principle,  it  is  not  easy  to  insist  upon  its  rigid 
application  without  danger  of  working  injustice  and  of  frustrating  the  immenioiial 
policy  of  the  Commonwealth.  An  inflexible  enforcement  of  a  rule  forbidding  any 
defllement  whatever  might  ruin  many  mill-owners  and  stop  half  the  water-wheels  of 
the  State.  Some  diminution  of  j^urity  is  inevitable,  and  tolerable,  while  other  con- 
tamination is  uunece-ssary  or  excessive.  The  difliculty  lies  in  distinguisliiiig  the 
legitimate  from  the  destructive  usage.  A  satisfactory  definition  is  imjnacticable. 
Each  case  differs  a  little  from  the  next.  The  circumstances  may  be  utterly  unlike. 
All  will  agree  that  some  kinds  of  corruption  may  reasonably  be  sharjjly  dealt  with. 
No  one,  for  example,  pretends  that  he  can  rightfully  pour  human  excrement  and 
household  filth  into  the  water  below  his  dam.  Neither  can  he  justify  dumping  into 
the  river  waste  and  refuse  and  garbage.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  exacting- 
purist  might  not  care  to  complain  of  the  sediment  washed  from  some  bleacliings  or 
scouiings,  the  slight  taint  of  certain  kinds  of  harmless  chemicals,  or  the  evanescent 
stain  of  dyes  which  are  not  unwholesome.  The  task  is  to  discriminate  the  variety 
of  shades  of  impurity  which  occur  between  these  extremes. 

Then  there  is  a  class  of  cases  where  it  may  be  an  open  question  whether  it  is  not 
for  the  public  interest  to  abandon  a  stream  or  sheet  of  water  to  the  customary  pol- 
lution of  industry,  so  long  as  it  does  not  imijeril  the  public  health.  Unless  this  be 
admitted,  the  alternative  may  be  to  drive  away  thriving  communities,  and  destroy 
the  work  of  years  of  jiatient  labor  and  active  enterjirise,  undertaken  under  a  pre- 
sumed security  of  tenure.  In  such  dilemma,  if  the  water  is  not  required  for  drink- 
ing purposes,  a  considerable  contamination  may  be  suffered  without  inordinate  in- 
convenience. No  doubt  the  State  cannot  entirely  escape  responsibility  even  by  such 
a  relinquishment  as  this.  The  public  have  a  right  not  to  be  poisoned  by  the  air 
they  breath  any  more  than  by  the  water  they  drink.  There  is  a  foulness  which  is 
inadmissible  even  in  a  factory  stream,  which  may  embitter  the  life  and  undermine 
the  health  of  the  dweller  upon  its  banks.  In  such  cases  the  State  is  bound  to  in- 
tervene peremptorily  if  the  riparian  owners  remain  obstinately  deaf  to  the  publia 
protest.  Generally,  however,  before  this  stage  is  reached,  the  dirt  of  the  earlier 
usage  has  so  impaired  the  value  of  the  water  for  some  subsequent  taker  that  he 
insists  upon  an  abatement  of  the  abuse  above  him. 

We  think  it  will  be  enough  for  the  present  to  require  that  water  for  dwellings 
must  be  protected  from  every  avoidable  taint,  while  water  for  business  must  not  be 
ofi"ensive  or  dangerous.  All  wanton  ill  usage,  such  as  jirivies  over  the  stream  or 
cesspools  draining  into  it,  may  well  be  put  a  stop  to  ;  and  where  the  incidental 
injury  characteristic  of  an  industry  is  detrimental  to  the  next  user  or  to  the  i3ublic» 
it  should  be  scrupulously  restricted  to  absolutely  unavoidaVde  dimensions  bv  the 
adoption  of  the  most  approved  methods  of  remedial  treatment. 

But  even  if  it  should  be  thought  expedient  to  impose  some  such  restrictions  as  we 


THE    VIEWS    OF   THE    MASSACHUSETTS    DKAIXAGE    COMMISSION.     115 

have  indicate  J,  there  is  still  room  for  much  diflference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  method 
of  enforcing  whatever  regulation  is  adopted. 

There  are  several  wavs  which  naturally  suggest  themselves.  We  may  leave  the 
land  owners,  the  water  owners,  and  the  community  at  large  to  the  ordinary  courts 
and  to  the  common  law  to  define  and  protect  their  various  interests,  or  we  may 
erect  a  special  tribunal  and  prescribe  by  statute  the  scojje  and  method  of  its  over- 
sight and  jurisdiction,  or  the  Legislature  may  pass  upon  each  case  as  it  arises.  For 
reasons  w^hich  we  state  in  another  place,  we  are  inclined  to  recommend  that  the 
supervision  of  matters  jjertaining  to  water  supply,  sewerage,  and  the  pollution  of 
waters  generally,  be  assigned  to  some  board  which  shall  be  clothed  with  powers 
analogous  to  those  of  the  Railroad  Commissioners  and  Harbor  Commissioners,  to 
enable  it  to  introduce  system  and  method  in  these  important  departments  of  the 
common  welfare. 

We  take  it  that  no  one  will  controvert  the  general  i^roposition  of  law  that  every 
holder  of  property,  however  absolute  and  unqualified  be  liis  title,  holds  it  under  the 
implied  liability  that  his  use  of  it  may  be  so  regulated  that  it  shall  not  be  injuri- 
ous to  the  rights  of  the  community. 

The  Eight  of  the  Massachusetts  Lbgislatube  to  Presckibe  Etjles  for  the 

Protection  of  Streams. 

In  the  exercise  of  its  undoubted  prerogative  to  watch  over  the  general  welfare  and 
to  guard  the  j^ublic  rights  by  the  ample  police  powers  with  which  it  is  armed,  the 
Legislature  may  make  exactly  such  rules  respecting  the  pollution  of  streams  and 
ponds  or  other  inland  waters  as  it  may  judge  requisite  and  necessary  for  the  public 
welfare.  It  may  absolutely  prohibit,  under  suitable  penalty,  any  contamination  of 
any  water  within  the  borders  of  the  Commonwealth,  if  it  so  please.  It  is  a  question 
always  of  exjjediency  what  degree  of  interference  with  individual  liberty  is  required 
by  the  circumstances.  Thus  far  the  Legislature  has  been  content  to  forbid  any  jiol- 
lution  of  waters  used  directly  or  indirectly  for  a  water  supply  by  any  city  or  town 
within  twenty  miles  above  the  point  of  taking,  provided  this  prohibition  be  not  held 
to  impair  rights  by  statute  before  July  1,  1878,  or  prescriptive  rights  of  drainage, 
to  the  extent  to  which  they  lawfully  existed  on  that  date.  The  Merrimack  and 
Connecticut  rivers  and  so  much  of  the  Concord  as  lies  within  the  city  of  Lowell  are 
also  exempt  from  this  rule.  Nor  can  any  person  save  those  emjiloyed  in  getting  ice 
or  hauling  lumber,  drive  a  horse  on  any  pond  iised  as  a  water  su])ply  for  domestic 
purposes  by  a  city  or  town.  Xeither  is  bathing  permitted  in  any  such  pond.  The 
Legislature  seems  to  have  drawn  the  line  at  drinking  water.  Water  dedicated  to 
household  uses  is  protected,  within  certain  limits  and  to  certain  degree,  by  a 
speedy,  peremj^tory,  and  effectual  process.  Municipal  authorities  may  obtain  au 
injunction  at  any  time,  from  any  justice  of  the  supreme  or  sui)erior  court,  to  restrain 
any  person  from  violating  tlie  8()th  chapter  of  the  General  Statutes,  Mhioh  we  have 
r(>cited  above.  But  all  other  waters  are  left  to  the  ordinary  rules  of  the  common 
law.  We  think  that  a  comprehi'nsive  knowledge  of  all  the  facts  will  satisfy  any  un- 
bi.iss(!d  inquirer  that  under  this  kind  of  customary  guardianship  of  no  one  in  par- 
ticular, the  general  condition  of  our  waters  has  suffei'ed  a  steady  degradation,  or,  to 
b  irrow  the  language  of  the  State  Board  as  long  ago  as  1876,  "any  defence  against 
the  impurities  which  .so  conveniently  flow  into  our  waters  from  the  settlements  and 
works  on  their  l)anks  has  thus  far  been  merely  nominal ;  that  is,  the  law  can  be  used 
to  prevent  a  nuisance  from  continuing  to  be  poured  into  the  river,  but  it  is  not 
n:;ed,  because  the  process  is  too  slow,  cumbersome,  and  expensive."  The  lapse  of 
nine  years  has  only  sensed  to  jioint  and  emphasize  this  commentary.  The  growth 
of  population,  the  spread  of  modern  refinements  of  living,  the  increase  in  industrial 
establishments,  and  all  the  indefinite  multiplication  of  incidents  appertaining  to  a 
jjrosperous  and  progressive  community,  must  naturally  and  perlia]«  inevitably  tend 
to  vitiate  the  waters  of  its  rivers  and  lakes.  But  even  if  a  certain  degree  of  taint 
be  unavoidable,  there  is  a  vast  amount  wliich  is  wanton  and  preventable.  A  cursory 
ghuice  at  the  report  of  Mr.  Clarke  will  convince  any  onotliat  there  is  no  necessity 
whatever  for  a  large  part  of  the  abuse  to  which  our  water-courses  are  subjected.    It 


116  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

is  a  question  of  time  only,  and  that  not  a  long  time  either,  when,  if  we  hold  to  the 
path  we  are  travelling,  we  shall  find  ourselves  face  to  face  with  a  state  of  things  as 
intolerable  as  that  of  England  twenty-five  years  ago,  when  the  Sewage  of  Towns 
Commission  denounced  it  as  an  "  evil  of  national  urgency  requiring  the  earliest  and 
most  serious  attention."  The  condition  of  many  of  its  important  and  frequented 
streams  had  become  so  filthy  and  disgusting  that  a  universal  protest  arose,  and  large 
sums  of  money  had  to  be  expended  in  haste  to  mitigate  the  extremity  of  tbe  of- 
fence. Meanwhile  untold  misery  and  mischief  had  been  inflicted.  Now,  preventive 
measures  are  far  less  costly  and  much  more  effective  than  remedial  expedients. 
We  think  it  is  high  time  that  some  steps  should  be  taken  here  to  arrest  the  prog- 
ress of  rivers  pollution  at  the  point  it  has  reached  in  Massachusetts,  and  gradually 
to  retrieve  some  portion,  at  least,  of  the  ground  we  have  carelessly  yielded.  Im- 
pressed with  this  conviction,  we  yet  consider  it  impracticable  to  ask  for  a  summary 
enforcement  of  the  extreme  right  of  the  community  in  its  waters  now  for  the  first 
time.  Ajjart  from  technical  points  of  law,  and  taking  it  upon  broad,  equitable 
grounds,  it  would  be  felt  unfair  for  the  community  suddenly  to  insist  ujDon  a  rigid 
exaction  of  its  abstract  right  to  clean  waters  after  so  many  years  of  license  and  neg- 
lect. Even  if  it  be  law  that  no  one  can  prescribe  for  a  public  nuisance,  it  does  not 
necessarily  follow  that  it  is  policy  to  abate  all  nuisances  forthwith.  And  sui)posing 
such  a  project  of  law  to  have  been  enacted,  we  do  not  believe  that  the  statute 
could  or  would  he  enforced.  Certainly  the  existing  law  is  not,  then  why  should 
one  so  much  more  severe  ?  We  therefore  cast  about  a  good  deal  to  hit  upon  some 
principle  of  classification,  some  scheme  of  discrimination,  or  even  a  mere  frame  of 
fixed  regulations  to  guide  the  steps  of  a  guardian  of  iniblic  waters.  It  was  sug- 
gested that  schedules  might  be  made  of  streams  which  could  be  allowed  a  certain 
kind  and  amount  of  pollution,  to  be  carefially  defined,  either  in  general  or  for  each 
individual  case.  Certain  others  might  be  set  apart  and  reserved  for  the  standard 
purity  expected  for  drinking  water.  While  posssibly  a  few  might  be  left  to  take 
care  of  themselves,  at  least  for  the  present.  It  was  held  to  be  reasonable  to  forbid 
certain  more  dangerous  or  offensive  trades  from  seating  themselves  in  future  at  or 
near  the  fountain  heads  of  rivers  or  brooks.  It  was  urged  that  there  would  be  no 
hardship  in  compelling  a  newcomer,  whose  lal)ors  must  grievously  deteriorate  the 
quality  of  the  water,  to  go  below  the  industries  which  already  depended  upon  the 
water  as  they  were  getting  it,  and  could  not  endure  without  suffering  any  addi- 
tional impairment  of  its  purity. 

These  expedients,  and  many  like  them,  were  canvassed  and  weighed  in  turn, 
but  to  all  there  seemed  to  be  grave  objections.  After  much  consideration  it  was 
decided  to  j^ropound  a  plan  of  action  which  seemed  to  fit  the  exigency  as  well 
or  better  than  any  which  occurred  to  us.  It  had,  besides,  the  strong  recommen- 
dation of  shaping  itself  in  exact  conformity  with  precedents  which  have  stood 
the  test  of  time  and  have  proved  themselves  to  be  valuable  working  agencies. 
In  the  year  1879  the  Legislatiire  intrusted  the  care  of  "the  lands,  flats,  shores, 
and  rights  in  tide-waters  belonging  to  the  Commonwealth,"  and  the  supervision 
of  "  all  its  tide-waters  and  all  the  flats  and  lands  flowed  thereby,"  to  a  Board 
whom  it  empowered  "to  prevent  and  remove  unauthorized  encroachments,"  or 
whatever  "  in  any  way  injures  their  channels."  Every  work  done  within  tide- 
water, not  sanctioned  by  them  or  authorized  by  the  General  Court,  where  a 
license  is  required,  is  declared  to  be  a  nuisance,  and  the  Board  may  order  suits 
on  behalf  of  the  Commonwealth  to  prevent  it  or  stop  the  removal  of  material 
from  any  bar  or  breakwater  of  any  harbor.  This  legislation  is  strictly  in  line 
with  that  we  offer.  It  is,  indeed,  almost  identical  with  it.  Alter  its  wording 
but  a  little  and  it  woiild  suit  our  purpose  exactly.  Precisely  the  same  ininciple 
which  enjoins  a  watchful  care  over  tiie  exterior  waters  of  the  State,  would  seem 
to  call  for  at  least  an  equal  solicitude  concerning  the  abu.se  of  its  interior 
waters.  But  mindful  of  the  tenderness  with  which  Massachusetts  has  always 
treated  her  industrial  classes,  we  think  it  would  be  wise  to  embrace  in  the  enact- 
ment one  peculiarly  characteristic  feature  borrowed  from  the  act  establishing  a 
Eailroad  Commission,  and  which  has  proved  strong  enough  to  enforce  amply  all 
the  rights  of  the  public  in  that  class  of  highways  called  railroads.  This  distinc- 
tive   trait    is  the  use  of    advisory  as   distinguished  from  mandatory  power.     We 


THE   IMPORTANT   POINTS.  117 

think  it  would  be  well,  then,  for  the  Legislature  to  designate  some  one  or  more 
persons  to  look  after  the  public  interests  in  this  direction.  Let  these  guardians 
of  inland  waters  be  charged  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  actual  condition  of 
all  waters  within  the  State  as  respects  their  pollution  or  purity,  and  to  inform 
themselves  particularly  as  to  the  relation  which  that  condition  bears  to  the 
health  and  well-being  of  any  part  of  the  people  of  the  Commonwealth.  Let  them 
do  awav,  as  far  as  possible,  with  all  remedial  pollution  and  use  every  means  in 
their  power  to  prevent  further  vitiation.  Let  them  make  it  their  business  to 
advise  and  assist  cities  or  towns  desiring  a  supply  of  water  or  a  system  of  sew- 
erage. They  shall  put  themselves  at  the  disposal  of  manufacturers  and  others 
using  rivers,  streams,  or  ponds,  or  in  any  way  misusing  them,  to  suggest  the  best 
means  of  minimizing  the  amount  of  dirt  in  their  effluent,  and  to  experiment  upon 
methods  of  reducing  or  avoiding  pollution.  They  shall  warn  the  persistent  violator 
of  all  reasonable  regulation  in  the  management  of  water,  of  the  consequences  of 
his  acts.  In  a  word,  it  shall  be  their  esjDCcial  function  to  guard  the  public  interest 
and  the  public  health  in  its  relation  with  water,  whether  pure  or  undefiled,  with 
the  ultimate  hope,  which  must  never  be  abandoned,  that  sooner  or  later  ways  may 
be  found  to  redeem  and  preserve  all  the  waters  of  the  State.  We  pro]iose  to 
clothe  the  Board  with  no  other  power  than  the  power  to  examine,  advise,  and 
report,  except  in  cases  of  violation  of  the  statiites.  Such  cases,  if  persisted  in 
after  notice,  are  to  be  referred  to  the  Attorney-Geneial  for  action.  Other  than 
this,  its  decisions  must  look  for  their  sanction  to  their  own  intrinsic  sense  and 
soundness.  Its  last  protest  against  wilful  and  obstinate  defilement  will  be  to 
the  Genei'al  Court.  To  that  tribunal  it  shall  report  all  the  facts,  leaving  to  its 
supreme  discretion  the  final  disposition  of  such  ofi'enders.  If  such  a  Board  be 
able  to  commend  itself  by  its  conduct  to  the  approval  of  the  great  coi;rt  of 
public  opinion,  it  will  have  no  difficulty,  we  think,  in  materially  reducing  the 
disorders  and  abuses  which  are  threatening  to  give  great  trouble  in  future,  if 
not  speedily  checked.  If,  however,  we  err  in  this  expectation,  and  more  drastic 
measures  prove  indispensable,  the  mandate  of  the  State  can  always  be  invoked  to 
re-enforce  its  advice.* 

The  Important  Points. 

The  points  which  it  is  chiefly  desired  to  enforce  in  this  chapter 
are : 

1.  There  is  no  natural  right  to  pollute  a  water-course. 

2.  In  the  case  of  a  stream  which  either  is,  or  may  be  used,  as  the 
source  of  drinking-  water  by  any  of  the  riparian  proprietors,  prescrip- 
tion, with  the  present  understanding  of  the  causation  of  the  infectious 
communicable  diseases,  ought  not  be  urged  as  the  foundation  of  a  right 
to  pollute. 

3.  In  case  the  interests  of  all  the  riparian  proprietors  are  in  favor 
of  using  a  stream  as  a  common  receptacle  for  manufacturing  wastes, 
mutual  agreement,  either  actually  expressed,  or  implied  by  the  opera- 
tion of  custom,  may  dedicate  the  stream  to  such  use,  but  such  dedi- 
cation cannot  be  construed  to  justify  such  unreasonable  use  as  leads 
to  the  creation  of  a  common  nuisance. 

4.  The  Mill  Acts,  while  probably  not  in  their  original  inception  in- 
tended to  cover  the  specific  case  of  such  pollution  as  renders  the  water 

*  For  complete  text  of  the  Massachusetts  Act  which  has  been  enacted  as  the  result  of  the 
foregoing  recoininendations  of  the  Drainage  Commission,  see  Appendix  IV. 


118  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

of  a  stream  unfit  for  domestic  use,  have  still,  by  fostering-  manufactur- 
ing interests,  created  new  customs  and  conditions,  and  consequently 
tend  to  modify  the  strict  construction  of  the  common-law  rule. 

5.  From  the  Mill  Acts,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  development 
of  manufacturing  which  they  have  fostered,  has  come  a  recognition  of 
the  principle  of  permissive  pollution  under  State  supervision  as  exem- 
plified in  the  recent  Massachusetts  acts. 


CHAPTER  yn. 

QUANTITY  OF  SEWAGE  AND  VAEIATION  IN  BATE  OF  FLOW, 

Before  proceeding-  to  the  consideration  of  tlie  various  methods  of 
sewage  disposal,  which  experience  has  indicated  as  of  vahie,  we  may 
properly  inquire  into  the  question  of  quantity  and  variation  in  the 
rate  of  flow  of  the  sewag-e  which  it  is  proposed  to  treat. 

Dearth  of  Accurate  Information. 

Accurate  information  as  to  quantity  is  rather  difficult  to  obtain. 
But  few  observations  have  yet  been  made  in  this  country,  and  aside 
from  the  few,  the  subject  has  been  treated  from  a  purely  theoretical 
point  of  view.  In  Eng-land  extensive  observations  were  made  by  Mr. 
Haywood,  Sir  Joseph  Bazalgette,  and  by  the  Referees  in  reporting- 
upon  the  main  drainag-e  of  London.  Obviously  the  quantity  of  flow 
is  closely  related  to  the  amount  of  the  water  supply,  and  inasmuch  as 
the  water  supply  of  American  towns  is,  as  an  average,  at  least  double 
that  of  English,  the  experience  g-ained  by  gagings  there  do  not 
greatly  assist  in  determining  the  quantity  of  sewage  which  may 
reasonably  be  expected  in  towns  here.  We  may,  therefore,  consider  in 
some  detail  the  amount  of  water  used  in  American  towns,  but  it  must 
be  remembered  that  in  designing  sewage-disposal  works  general  dis- 
cussion can  only  be  of  use  for  indicating  tested  and  approved 
methods  of  procedure.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  that  each 
case  stands  by  itself  as  a  problem  for  special  solution. 

The  Use  of  Water  in  American  Cities. 

Table  No.  13  gives  the  average  daily  consumption  of  water  per  in- 
habitant for  nearly  200  of  the  348  cities  in  the-United  States,  which,  by 
the  census  of  1890,  had  a  population  of  over  10,000.  The  wide  varia- 
tion in  consumption  sliown  l)y  the  table,  it  will  bo  seen,  is  t)uly  in 
small  part  caused  ])y  the  diff"erences  between  the  populations  of  the 
various  cities.  One  of  the  chief  causes  for  the  variiition  in  consum])- 
tion  is  the  variation  in  the  proportion  of  tlu^  total  ]i()[)uluti()n,  which  is 
quite  clearly  shown  by  the  last  cohinin  of  Table  13,  giving  the  ]io]ni- 
lation  per  tap  for  each  city,  so  far  as  the  flgures  are  available.     Other 


120 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    TNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.   13. — Average    Consumption  of  Water    per  Capita  in  Cities  of  the 
United  States  with  a  Population  of  over  10,000  in  1890.* 


Bank  and  name  of  city. 


Population, 
1890.t 


Daily  consumption. 


Per  inhabi- 
tant. 


Population 
per  tap.J 


1  New  York,  N.  Y 

a  Chicago,  111.' 

■■i  Philaiielphi;i,  Pa.^ 

4  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.3 

.')  St.  Louis,  Mo 

6  Uoston,  Mass.< 

7  Baltimore,  MU 

is  Ran  Francisco.  Cal 

9  Cincinnati,  0.* 

10  Cleveland   0« 

11  Buffnlo,  N.  Y   

Vi  New  Orleans,  La 

13  Pittsburg,  Pa,T 

•  H  Washington,  D.  C.8 

1.5  Detroit.  Mich 

Iti  -Milwaukee,  Wis 

17  Newark.  N.  J,^ 

i'S  Minneapolis,  Minn 

19  Jersey  City,  N.  J  A" 

20  Loui.sville,  Ky 

21  Omaha,  Neb.  11    

2-i  Rochester,  N.  Y 

23  St.  Paul,  Minn 

24  Kansas  City.  Mo.  > ' 

2.5  Providence.  R.  I.i^ 

2t)  Denver,  Col 

2"  Indianapolis,  Ind 

28  Allegheny,  Pa 

29  Columbus,  O 

30  Syracuse.  N.  Y.i« 

31  Worcester.  Mas.-* 

32  Toledo.  O   

33  Richmond,  Va 

34  New  Haven,  Conn 

85  Paterson,  N.  J 

3fi  Lowell.  Mass 

87  -Nashville,  Tenn   

38  Fall  River.  Mass 

39  Cambridge,  Mass 

411  Atlanta,  Ga 

41  Memphis,  Tenn   

42  Wilmington,  Del 

43  Davton.  O 

44  Troy.  N.  Y 

45  Heading,  Pa 


,515.301 
,U99,85U 
,046.9(14 
806,343 
451.770 
448,477 
434,439 
398,997 
296,908 
261,353 
2.55,664 
242,039 

238,617 


230 
205, 
204, 
181 
164 
163. 
161 
140. 
l;i3 
133 
132, 
132, 
106, 
li5, 
105, 
88. 
88. 
84, 
81 
81 
81. 
78, 
77, 
76 
74 
70. 
65. 
64, 
61, 
61. 
60, 
58, 


,392 
,876 
,468 
,830 
,738 
,003 
,129 
,452 
,896 
,156 
716 
146 
,713 
,4:36 
,287 
,150 
143 
,655 
,434 
,388 
298 
347 
696 
,168 
,398 
,028 
533 
495 
431 
320 
956 
661 


121,000.000 
152,372,288 
137.736.703 
55.000.000 
32,479,000 
42,171100 
40,978,229 
18,359,000 
33,997.007 
27.787,158 
47,517.137 
8.976.715 
36,000,000 
11,.509,000 
36.,5S8.629 
33,208,067 
22,880,783 
14,079.793 
12,416,117 
19,.300,000 
11.874.688 
14.000,000 
8,800,000 
8,000.000 
12,000,000 
6.743,092 
£0.000.000 
7.500,000 
25,000,000 
6.882,333 
6,000.000 
4,971,;  40 
5.842,768 
l:  .597,103 
11,010,000 
10.000.000 
.5,127.199 
11,153,885 
2.136.182 
4,489.180 
2,359..'ifi4 
8,000,000 
6,934,912 
2.848.926 
7.608.468 
5,000.000 


79 
140 
132 

72 

72 

80 

94 

61 

112 

103 

186 

37 

144 

153 

158 

161 

110 

76 

75 

97 

74 

94 

66 

60 

71 

48 

187 

71 

238 

78 

68 

59 

72 

167 

]:» 

128 

66 

146 

29 

64 

36 

124 

113 

47 

125 

75 


13.9 

'e.i 

8  7 
14.8 
6.6 
5.8 
9.9 
8.5 
8.7 
6.3 
54.0 

'8".2 
6.5 
5.1 

11.1 
8.6 

16  5 

ii;9 

24  0 
5.4 
12.7 
15.3 
9.4 
7.0 

ao  6 

7  0 
11.5 
21  5 

8.9 
18.6 

7.9 

ii'8 

9.2 
14  9 
14  9 

6.6 
20  0 
11  9 

5.0 
20.1 
10.5 

5,8 


*  Compiled  from  official  returns  included  in  the  Manual  of  American  Water- Works  for  1890-91.  Edited  by 
M.  N.  Baker. 

t  P<ipnlations  are  according  to  the  1890  census,  and  for  the  whole  city,  regardless  of  the  proportion  of  the 

population  supplied. 

t  Tap  or  house  service  connection.  i, 

■  Chicago.     Fi.gures  are  for  mnin  city  works.     Estimated  populations  supplied  by  small  public  plant  built 

by  former  village  of  Washington  Heights,  and  of  former  village  of  Pullman,  supplied  by  a  company.     A  total  of 

l4,8,50  was  deducted  in  finding  averages. 

2  Philadelphia.     Estimated  ))oi)ulations  of  Holmesbnre  .ind  Tacony.  supplied  by  companies.  6  964. 

3  Brooklyn.     Long  Island  Water  Supply  Co.  supplies  Twentv-sixtli  Ward,  with  population  of  29,505. 

•«  l?oston"     Supplies  Somerville,  witlv population  of  40,152;  Chelsea,  27,909;  Everett,  11,068:  total,  527,606. 

^  Cincinnati.  Supplies  Avondale  and  Clifton,  with  populations  of  4,473  and  1,200,  latter  estimated  ;  total, 
802.581. 

'  Cleveland.     Supplies  Brooklyn  and  West  Cleveland,  with  populations  of  4. .585  and  4.117;  total,  270,055. 

'  Pittsburg.  Monongahela  Water  Co.  supplies  "South  Side,"  and  outside  towns  with  estimated  aggregate 
population  of  75.000. 

*  Washington.  Figures  are  for  July  1,  1891.  and  population  is  for  the  whole  District  of  Columbia,  the  gov- 
ernment of  which  and  of  Washington  is  now  coextensive. 

'  Newark.     Supplies  Belleville,  through  meter,  population  of  which  is  3.487  ;  total,  185,317. 

1"  Jersey  City.  Figures  are  for  1889.  Supplies  Bayonne.  population  of  19,033  ;  Harrison,  8.338,  and  Kear- 
ney. 7.064  :  total.  197,483.  Report  did  not  state  vhether  total  average  daily  consumption  includes  supply  to 
above  places,  but  it  is  assumed  that  it  did. 

11  Omaha.     Supplies  South  Omaha:  population.  8.026  :  total.  148.478. 

12  Kansas  City.     Supplies  Kansas  City.  Kan.,  with  population  of  38.316  ;  total,  171.032 

1'  Providence.     Supplies  population  in  adiaoent  towns,  estimated  at  7,854  ;  total,  140,000. 
I''  Syracuse.     Figures  are  for  December,  1891,  (approximate). 


THE    USE    OF    WATEK    IX    AMEKICAX    CITIKS, 


121 


Table  Xo.  13. — Continued. 


Rank  and  name  of  city. 


Population, 
1890. 


Daily  consumption. 


Per  inhabi- 
tant. 


46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

'    77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

87 

88 

89 

90 

91 

92 

93 

94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 

109 

110 

111 

112 

113 

114 

115 

116 

117 

lis 

119 

120 


Camden,  N.  J 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Lynn,  Mass 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Hartford.  Conn 

St.  Jo'ieph.  Mo , 

Des  Moines,  la 

Portliind.  Or 

Lawrence.  Mass 

Manchester,  N.  H 

Savannah,  Ga 

Peoria.  Ill 

New  Bedford,  Mass. . , 

Erie,  Pa     

Harrisburjr,  Pa 

Elizabeth.  X.  J 

Holyoke,  Mass , 

Binghainton.  N.  Y . . . 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 

Augusta,  Gh 

Youngstown,  O 

Yonkers,  N.  Y 

Springfield,  0 

Topeka,  Kan 

Salem,  Mass 

Altoona,  Pa 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 

Elmira,  N   Y 

Galveston,  Te.x  

Wiliiamsport.  Pa 

Bay  City,  Mich 

Houston,  Tex 

Canton.  () 

Birmingham.  Ala 

Little  kock.  Ark 

Taunton.  Mass 

La  Crosse,  Wis 

Springfield,  111 

Gloucester,  Mass 

Newton,  Mass 

Wichita,  Kan 

Rockford,  111  

Joliet,  111 

Ft.  Worth,  Tex 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

Muskegon,  Mich 

Burlington.  la 

Cohoes,  N.  Y 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.. 

Montgomery,  Ala 

Springfield,  Mo 

South  Bend.  Ind , 

Lowiston,  Me 

Lexington,  Ky 

Council  Blufifs,  la. . . . 

Hacine,  Wis 

Zianesville,  O 

Woonsocket,  R.  I 

York.  Pa 

MfKeesport,  Pa 

ChcHter,  Pa 

Wilmington.  N.  C... 
liloomington.  III.  .  . . 
Sfhcnectady.  N.  Y... 

Norrisf)wn,  Pa 

Lvnchburp,  Va 

Newport,  R.  I 

Nashua,  N.   H 

Bnngor.  Mo   

Waltham.  Mass 

New  Brunswick,  N,  J. 

Sandu."ky,  O 

Winona,  Minn 

San  Jose,  Cal 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 


58,313 

1        7,660,000 

57.458 

1       3.569,150 

55,727 

2,656.690 

5.5,154 

2..=i(lU.0U0 

53,230 

1.772,129 

52.-324 

2,500.000 

5(l,(i93 

2,7.5(1.(100 

46..3t3 

'.),415.(,i00 

44.654 

2.770.592 

44.126 

I,y32,(j73 

43,lti9 

5,851.610 

41.024 

4.000.(100 

40.7i3 

4.11611.20(1 

40.tm 

4.5-16.919 

.39,385 

5,S.5t;.937 

37,764 

2,500.000 

35,637 

2,54,s  U 15 

.35,005 

3.290.4'.K) 

34.522 

5,000,000 

33.300 

3,3^5,484 

33,220 

1.634.»i87 

32,033 

2.176, 3!(6 

31,895 

1,704.069 

31,007 

1,600.000 

3S,(M)1 

2,135.600 

30,337 

2.140.000 

30,217 

2..50-3,000 

29,718 

2.2.50.000 

29.084 

9  5,753 

27,932 

4,000.000 

27.8:39 

2.70S.963 

27,557 

3,750.000 

26.189 

1.200,000 

26.178 

4.250,000 

25,874 

3,000.000 

25,448 

796,716 

25.090 

2,162,196 

24,996 

2,571.223 

24,661 

300,000 

24.379 

985.396 

23.853 

2.400,000 

23,584 

2,373,100 

2.3,264 

1,747,134 

2:^.076 

3,000,000 

22,&36 

1,700,000 

22,702 

1,385.188 

22,565 

1,592,.509 

22,509 

3,000,000 

22.206 

l,6S0,.3fi2 

21,883 

800.000 

21,850 

1,217.000 

21,809 

1,87.3.65:5 

21,701 

2,462,231 

21,567 

800.000 

21,474 

2,000,000 

21,014 

484,-360 

21,009 

2,411.095 

20,8.30 

.326,455 

20,793 

1,250.000 

20.741 

2,864.763 

20,226 

.3,0(  0.000 

20,056 

431.. 374 

20,048 

799. 7:«) 

19.902 

2.246.967 

19,791 

2,250.000 

19.709 

2,462.042 

19,467 

1.500,000 

19.311 

2,067,819 

19,103 

2.500.000 

18,707 

6V.5,779 

18,6()3 

1.2.54..'M4 

18.471 

2.475.82:5 

18,208 

1.600,000 

18,060 

3,500,000 

17,853 

1,^96,600 

131 

62 

48 

45 

33 

48 

55 

203 

62 

44 

135 

97 

100 

112 

150 

66 

72 

94 

145 

102 

49 

68 

53 

52 

.56 

71 

83 

76 

31 

143 

97 

97 

46 

,  162 

116 

31 

86 

103 

12 

40 

101 

101 

75 

130 

75 

61 

71 

133 

76 

37 

56 

86 

114 

37 

93 

23 

115 

15 

60 

1.38 

148 

22 

40 

113 

114 

]:W 

77 

107 

131 

34 

67 

134 

88 

194 

107 


Population 
per  tap. 


6.0 
6.0 

38.0 
8.0 

27.0 


49.0 
32.0 


6.0 
6.0 
4.0 
10.0 
13.0 
8.0 


20.0 

11.0 

16.0 

20.0 

7.0 

5.0 

25.0 

15.0 

7.0 


23.0 
13.0 

9.0 
2:5.0 

8.0 
17.0 
14.0 
27.11 

5.0 
20.0 

9.0 


23.0 
20 .0 
13.0 
15.0 
11.0 
17.0 
15.0 
15.0 
10.0 
27.0 
11.0 
11.0 
6.0 
19.0 
5.0 
9  0 
4.0 
.33.0 
18.0 
14.0 

ii!6 

6.0 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 
9.0 
9.0 

14  0 
5.0 

14  0 


122 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  l;3.— Continued. 


Bank  and  name  of  city." 


121  Norwalk,  Conn 

122  Hamilton,  O 

123  Jacksonville,  Fla 

124  Decatur,  111 

125  Sheboygan,  \Vi8 . .  . 

12tj  Lafayette,  Ind 

127  San  Uiego,  Cal 

128  North  Adam.«,  Mass 

129  Lima,  O   

130  Belleville,  111 

131  Rome,  N,  Y 

132  Burlington,  Vt 

133  Austin,  Tex 

134  Keokuk.  la 

135  Atchison,  Kan 

136  Newbuiyport.  Mass 

137  Marlborough.  Mass 

1.38  New  London,  Conn 

139  Kock  Island,  III 

140  Port  Huron,  Mich 

141  Woburn,  Mass 

142  Madi-son.  Wis 

143  Steubenville,  O 

144  Vick>burg.  Miss 

145  Battle  Creek,  Mich 

146  Paducah,  Ky 

147  Passiiic,  N.  J 

148  Hannibal,  Mo 

149  .Manistee.  Mich 

150  Dover,  N.  H 

151  Raleigh,  N.  C 

152  Portsmouth,  O 

153  Brookline.  Mass 

154  Moline,   111   

155  Bay  City,  Mich 

156  .Shreveport,  La 

157  Saratoga  Springs,  N.  Y.'* 

158  Fort  Scott,  Kan 

159  Hazleton,  Pa  

160  Pensacola.  Fla 

](!1  Cheyenne,  \Vy 

ir,2  Charlotte,  N.  C 

163  Marinette.  Wis 

164  Nebraska  City,  Neb 

165  Muscatine,  la 

166  Bridgeton.  N.  J 

167  Streator,  111 

168  Chillicothe,  O   

169  Mahanoy  City.  Pa   

170  Stillwater,  Minn 

171  Auburn,  Me 

172  Leadville,  Col 

173  Ithaca,  N.  Y   

174  Denisoii,  Tex 

175  Ironton,  O 

176  .T;inesville,Wis 

177  Fresno,  Cal 

178  Michisan  City,  Ind 

179  Jacksonville,  111 

180  Butte  Ciry,  Mon 

181  Jeffersonville.  Ind 

IS'i  Menominee.  Mich 

183  Meridian.  Miss 

184  Auirusta,  .Me 

185  Baton  Roug  -.La 

186  El  Paso.  Tex 

187  Cairo.  Ill    

188  Danville,  Va 

189  Alton.  Ill     

190  Asheville.  N.  0 

191  Freeport,  111 

19S  Sioux  Falls.  S.  Dak 

193  Peibody,  Mass 

194  Nanticoke.  Pa 

195  Jackson,  Tenn 


Population, 

1890. 


17,747 

17,565 

17.201 

16,841 

16,359 

16,243 

16,159 

16,074 

15.987 

15,361 

1J.991 

14.590 

14,476 

14,101 

13.963 

13.947 

13,8(15 

1.3,7,57 

13.634 

13,534 

13,499 

13.426 

13.. 394 

13,378 

13,197 

13,076 

13.028 

12,857 

12.812 

12.790 

12.678 

12.364 

12,103 

12.000 

12,981 

11.979 

11,975 

11,943 

11.872 

11.750 

11.69(1 

11.. 557 

11.523 

11.494 

11,454 

11.424 

11.414 

11.21^8 

11.286 

11,260 

11,250 

11.212 

11,079 

10,958 

10,939 

10,836 

10.818 

10,776 

10.740 

10,723 

10,666 

10  630 

10.624 

10.527 

10.478 

10,338 

10.324 

10,  .305 

10,294 

10.2.-.5 

10.189 

10.177 

10,15  ■< 

10,044 

10,039 


Daily  consumption. 


1,200,000 

751.082 

991,194 

1,650.000 

450,000 

1,500.(00 

651.286 

1,510,000 

609.371 

800  ( (iO 

2,(  63,648 

7.o6,401 

2,.'^.0  1.000 

1,100.000 

600.000 

40J.000 

:^47.885 

1.500.0'  0 

1.750.000 

1.992.567 

775,963 

535.480 

1,500.000 

312,625 

410.001' 

400,000 

400.000 

1,130,000 

625,000 

436,846 

375,000 

1,500,000 

884.000 

850.000 

2,708.9(i3 

1,159,115 

3,(00.(00 

50U.000 

I.ICO.OOI) 

350  (  00 

1,500,000 

500.000 

600.000 

200.1  00 

400.000 

362.000 

5(.0.(I00 

750.000 

400,000 

1,000.000 

500.000 

1.000.000 

200,(00 

450.000 

1.700.000 

202.705 

2.500.000 

1,000.000 

500,000 

850.000 

150,000 

565.000 

800.000 

1,01  O.OOO 

200,000 

600,000 

800,000 

1,000,(100 

400.(100 

.3.^,0.000 

70(1.00(1 

600.000 

826.940 

2,000,000 

72.5,000 


Per  inhabi- 
tant. 


6S 
43 
68 
98 
27 
92 
40 
93 
38 
52 
138 
52 
173 
78 
43 
29 
25 
109 
128 
147 
58 
25 
112 
24 
31 
31 
31 
82 
49 
34 
30 
121 
73 
71 
209 
97 
251 
42 
93 
30 
128 
43 
52 
17 
35 
32 
44 
66 
36 
89 
44 
89 
18 
41 
155 
19 
23 
93 
47 
79 
14 
53 
75 
95 
19 
58 
77 
97 
39 
34 
69 
59 
81 
199 
72 


Population 
per  tap. 


14.0 

13.0 

16.0 

23.0 

22.0 

13.0 

7.0 

16.0 

12.0 

34.0 

12.0 

6.0 

7.0 

18.0 

17.0 

9.0 

8.0 

7.0 

12.0 

6.0 

6.« 

11.0 

4.0 

32.0 

14.0 

11.0 

19.0 

11.0 

14.0 

9.0 

26.0 

9.0 

6.0 

27.0 

8.0 

22.0 

5.0 

8.0 

4  0 

18.0 

14.0 

h'.b 

22.0 
29.0 

8.0 
22.0 
12.0 

8.0 
19.0 
10  0 
11.0 
23.0 
16.0 

9.0 
17.0 

5.0 
30.0 
20.0 

m'.b 

12.0 
17.0 

58^6 
13  0 
15.0 

31  !6 
20.0 
15.0 
24.0 
6.0 
8.0 
13.0 


'5  The  summer  population  is  much  greater  thnn  th.at  given  in  the  Table. 


THE   USE   OF    WATER   IN   DIFFERENT   TOWNS. 


123 


conditions  affecting-  the  consumption  of  water  are  the  character  of  the 
population,  whether  requiring-  much  water  for  other  than  domestic 
uses  ;  the  use  of  meters  and  other  efforts  to  reduce  waste ;  the  source 
and  mode  of  supply,  whether  from  a  source  of  unlimited  capacity, 
through  a  proper  supply  and  distributing  system,  or  otherwise,  and 
whether  by  gravity  or  pumping,  the  current  expense  for  the  latter 
sometimes  tending  to  keep  down  consumption.  Some  of  the  figures 
for  consumption  are  only  approximate,  but  all  were  originally  taken 
from  official  reports.  The  estimates  are  often  indicated  by  their  being 
an  even  number  of  millions  or  hundreds  of  thousands. 

The  Use  of  Water  in  Different  Towns  Does  Not  Follow  Any 

Special  Law. 

The  slight  relation  between  the  size  of  cities  and  their  daily  use  of 
water  per  capita  is  more  plainly  shown  in  the  summary.  Table  13A, 
where  the  number  of  cities  with  consumption  between  certain  limits  is 
shown  for  cities  of  five  different  classes  of  sizes.  While  this  summary 
shows  a  decrease  in  per  capita  consumption  with  the  decrease  in  size 


Table  13A. — Average   Daily  Consumption  op  Water  (Gallons)  Classified  by 
Amounts  and  by  Size  of  City. 


200  or 
over. 

100  to 
199. 

75  to  99. 

50  to  74  . 

25  to  49. 

Below  25. 

Population. 

1 

i 

s 

6 

d 

1 

d 

Pi 

1 

S 
u 

0^ 

d 

1 

d 

PM 

1 

1 

o 

0^ 

7 
29 
17 
19 
33 

1 

1 

d 

PU 

Total. 
No. 

Above  100,000 

1 

'i 

4 
3 
3 

10 
8 
9 
17 
10 

36 

34 
30 
35 
16 

7 
2 

7 
10 
13 

25 
8 
23 
21 
20 

8 
7 
8 
8 
11 

2S 
29 
27 
17 
17 

2 
7 
5 
9 
21 

4 

7 

11 

28 

50,0UU  to  100,000 

25,UUI)  to  50,000 

24 
30 

15,000  to  25.000 

48 

10,000  to  15,000 

2 

64 

Totals 

4 

2 

54 

28 

39 

20 

42 

22 

44 

23 

11 

5 

194 

200  or 
over. 

100  or 
over. 

75  or 
over. 

50  or 
over. 

25  or 
over. 

Population. 

d 

1 

d 

d 

1 

d 

1 

1 

d 

i 

1 

d 

6 

3 

o 
6 

ToUL 
No. 

Above  100,000 

1 

'i 

■1 

h 

3 
2 

11 
8 
10 
17 
12 

58 

40 
31 
33 

;i5 

19 

lo^ 

18 
10 
17 
27 
25 

"i»7~ 

65 
•12 
56 
.56 

:m 

50 

26 
17 
25 
35 
36 

139 

03 
71 
83 
Ti 
56 

72 

28 
24 
30 
44 
57 

183 

100 
100 
100 
92 
89 

95 

28 

50,00(1  to  100,000 

2.5,0110  U)  ,50,000 

24 
SO 

15,000  to  2.5,000 

48 

10,000  to  16,000 

2 
4 

64 

TotnlH 

194 

1-24 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN  THE   UNITED   STATES. 


of  the  city,  tliere  are  so  many  exceptions  that  the  rule  can  be  accepted 
only  in  a  very  general  way. 

That  there  is  a  quite  general  increase  in  the  population  per  water 
tap,  with  the  diminution  in  the  size  of  the  city,  is  shown  by  Table  13 
B,  but  the  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  numerous. 


Table  13B. — Population  per  Water  Tap*  Classified  by  Numbers  and  Size  op 

City. 


Population. 

4  to 

6 
'A 

10. 

s 

Ph' 

11 1< 

d 
'A 

)20. 

1 

d 

21  to  30. 

"3 
1 

d   .'i 

'A       h 

.31  to  40. 

1 

d       ". 

'A       fe 

50  to  58. 

Total. 
No. 

Above  100,000 

14 
10 
10 
15 
22 

59 
46 

4« 

m 

36 

7 

9 

8 

23 

26 

29 
41 
36 
51 
42 

1 
2 
3 
5 
9 

4 
9 
14 
11 
15 

1 
1 
1 
2 
3 

4 
4 
4 
5 
5 

1 
•i 

4 
2 

24 

50.000  to  100,000 

22 

25,000  to  50,000 

22 

15,0(10  to  25.000 

45 

10,000  to  15,000 

61 

Totals 

71 

41 

73 

42 

20 

11 

8 

5 

2 

1 

174 

Population. 


10 

or 

20 

or 

less 

less. 

, ^ , 

, ^_. 

a 
o 

'■ 

d 
'A 

d 
"A 

e 
P 

Above  100,000. . . 
60,000  to  100,000 
25,000  to  50,000  . 
15,000  to  25,000.. 
10,000  to  15,000. 

Totals 


14 

59 

21 

10 

4(i 

19 

10 

46 

18 

15 

33 

38 

22 

36 

48 

71 

41 

144 

30  or 
less. 


r 

50 

or 

less,       1 

— - 

• ' ■[ 

o 

a 

P^ 

6 
'A 

o 

Total. 
No. 


23 

96 

22 

110 

22 

1(10 

45 

U)0 

60 

9^ 

172 

99 

♦In  American  water- works  parlance,  the  word  "taps"  denotes  the  number  of  times  the  street  water  dis- 
tribution main  is  "  tapped  "  with  service  pipes  to  houses  or  other  buildings. 


The  arrangement  of  cities  by  size,  in  Table  13,  is  intended  to  make 
more  plain  the  variation  in  consumption  per  capita  regardless  of  the 
size  of  the  cities  in  question.  This  variation  is  still  further  illustrated, 
as  is  the  effect  of  meters  to  reduce  consumption,  in  Table  13  C,  which 
gives  the  average  daily  consumption  per  capita  of  the  fifty  largest 
cities  in  the  United  States,  arranged  in  the  left  half  by  consumptions 
greatest  to  least,  the  rank  of  the  city  in  size  and  in  consumption  being 
given. 

New  York,  the  largest  city  in  the  United  States,  ranks  twenty-third 
down  the  scale  in  water  consumption  per  capita,  while  Allegheny, 
having  the  highest  consumption,  ranks  twenty-eighth  down  the  scale  in 
size.     There  are  a  few  cases  of  exact  coincidence  in  rank  of  size  and 


THE   USE    OF    WATER   IN    DIFFERENT   TOWNS. 


125 


Table  13  C. — Consumption  of  Water  (Gallons)  and  Use  of  Meters  in  the  Fifty 
Largest  Cities  of  the  United  States. 


Consumption,  greatest  to  least. 


Rank  in: 

•2  2 

11 

p.  5 

Alleghany 238 

Buffalo     18H 

Richmond 167 

Detroit IBl 

Washington 158 

Pittsburg  (Co.) 158 

Nashville . .  \46 

Pittsburg  (Pub.) 144 

Chicago 1-10 

Now  Haven 135 

Philadelphia 132 

Camden 131 

Paterson 128 

Troy 125 

Memphis 124 

Wilmington 113 

Cincinnati 112 

Milwaukee 110 

CU^veland 103 

Jersey  City 97 

Baltimore 94 

Omaha 94 

Boston 80 

New  York  79 

Columbus 78 

Newark 76 

Reading 75 

Minneapolis 75 

Louisville 74 

Toledo 72 

Brooklyn 72 

St.  Louis 72 

IndianapoliB 71 

Kansas  City 71 

Syracuse 68 

Lowell 66 

Uochcster  ....    66 

Cambridge 64 

Trenton 62 

San  Franciseo.., 61 

St.  Paul 60 

Worcester 59 

Providence  48 

Dayton 47 

New  Orleans .37 

Atlanta 36 

Kail  River 29 

(!rand  Rapids  (Co.) 

Grand  Rapids  (Pub. ) 

S(Tanton  (Two  Co.'s) 

Albany  

Denver  (Two  Co.'s) 


Ui 

o 

28 

1 

11 

2 

84 

3 

15 

4 

14 

5 

13 

6 

38 

7 

13 

8 

2 

9 

35 

11) 

3 

11 

49 

12 

36 

13 

46 

14 

43 

15 

44 

16 

9 

17 

16 

18 

10 

19 

19 

20 

7 

21 

21 

21 

6 

22 

1 

23 

30 

24 

17 

25 

48 

26 

18 

26 

2!) 

27 

33 

28 

4 

28 

5 

28 

27 

29 

24 

29 

31 

30 

37 

31 

22 

31 

41 

32 

50 

33 

8 

34 

23 

35 

32 

36 

25 

37 

45 

38 

12 

39 

42 

40 

40 

41 

47 

47 

39 

2<) 

26 

Cities  arranged  in  order  of 

Taps  metered,  least  to  greatest. 


small 
0.8 
0.2 


0.3 
small 
small 
3.9 
3.7 
0.2 
4.1 
31.9 
5.8 
1.2 


0  1 
19  4 

5 
20.2 

6.4 

2.4 

0.1 

6.3 

5.9 

9.4 

2.5 

8.2 

7.6 
17.6 
14.6 
22.9 
11.4 

2.4 
small 
41.4 

4.2 
89.4 
62.4 

3.8 

0.4 
89.6 
74.6 
15 
12 


SS 


7 

6.3 
7  9 
5.1 
6.5 
8.2 
14.9 


6.1 

ii!8 

10.5 
11.9 

5 

8.5 
11.1 

8.7 

'5.8 

24 

6.6 

13.9 

11.5 

8.6 

5.8 

16.5 

11  9 

18.6 

8.7 

11.8 

35.6 

15.3 

21.5 

9.2 

5.4 

6.6 

6 

9.9 
12.7 
8.9 
9.4 
20.1 
54 
20 
14.9 


0.4        6.2 


Rank  in:  x  ^i  o 

2-  a  a  ^ 

*     .  o  c3 

.J  £  S"2  -Si 

gS  BS  -So 

I.  S  c—  = 

Allegheny 0  2.38  7 

C  Camden small  131  .... 

I  Paterson small  128  118 

1  Trenton small  62  6 

[  I'ittsburg  (Co.) small  1.53  8.2 

Reading 0.1  75  5  8 

Baltimore 0.1  94  5.8 

Fitt-burg  (Pub.) 0.2  144  .... 

Buff;ilo 0.2  186  6.3 

Wilmington 0.2  113  5 

Philadelphia 0.3  132  6.1 

Washington 0.3  158  6.5 

New  Orleans 0.4  37  54 

Albany 0.4       6.2 

Na>hville 0.8  146  14.9 

♦Denver 0.8  

Jersey  City 1.2  97 

Richmond 1.4  167  7.9 

Detroit 2.1  161  8.7 

Cambridge 2.4  64  6.6 

Newark 2.4  76  8.6 

Brooklyn 2.5  72  8.7 

Memphis 3.7  124  11.9 

Dayton 3.8  47  20.1 

Troy   3.9  125  11.5 

Cincinnati 4.1  112  8.6 

St.  Paul 4.2  60  12.7 

Boston 5  80  6.6 

Cleveland 5.8  103  8.7 

Louisville 5.9  74  119 

Minneapolis   6.3  75  16  5 

Columbus 6.4  78  11.5 

Indianapolis 7.6  71  35.6 

St.  Louis 8.2  72  11.8 

Toledo 9.4  72  18.6 

Rochester 11.4  66  5.4 

Grand  Rapids  (Pub.) 12 

Syracuse 14.6  68  21.5 

Grand  Rapids  (Co.) 15  

Kansas  City 17.6  71  15.3 

Omaha 19.4  94  24 

New  York 20.2  79  13.9 

Lowell 22.9  66  9.2 

Milwaukee. 31.9  110  11.1 

San  Francisco 41.4  61  9.9 

Providence 62.4  48  9.4 

Fall  River 74  6  29  14.9 

Worcester 89.4  59  8.9 

Atlanta 89.6  36  20 

New  Haven 135  

Scrnnton 

Chicago 140  


•  Denver  City  Water  Co. 


consumption,  but  the  two  columns  sliowinj?  percentag-e  of  taps  metered 
and  population  per  tap,  Table  13C,  should  always  be  examined  in 
this  connection. 

Th(!  riprht-hand  half  of  Table  13C,  showin"-  cities  arranj^cd  in  order 
of  percentage  of  taps  metered,  least  to  greatest,  illustrates  the  impor- 


126 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


tauce  of  the  water  meter  as  a  factor  in  cities  having  sewag-e  purifica- 
tion plants.* 

The  tendency  of  the  per  capita  consumption  of  water  to  increase 
with  the  population  is  shown  by  Table  14,  which  gives  the  consump- 
tion for  a  few  cities  at  scattering  dates  from  1860  to  1890. 

Table  No.  14.  — Increase  in  Daily  Consumption  op  Water  (Gallons  per  capita) 

IN  A  Number  op  Cities,  f 


Year. 

Buffalo, 

Cincin- 

Cleveland, 

Detroit, 

Jersey 

Milwau- 

Trov, 

Toronto, 

Wilming- 

N. y. 

nati,   0. 

0. 

Mich.t 

City,  N.  J. 

kee,  Wis. 

N.  y. 

Ont. 

ton,  Del. 

1860 

30 

14 

52 

77 

1864 

22 

57 

18fi8 

25 

67 

1870 

58 

40 

33 

64 

84 

1874 

60 

55 

45 

87 

86 

Iii78  

66 

51 

113 

55 

59 

1880 

105 

75 

65 

125 

106 

58 

65 

80 

1882  

106 

76 

68 

149 

124 

71 

94 

1884 

130 

82 

144 

106 

134 

95 

96 

1886  

1^2 

74 

91 

178 

137 

113 

133 

96 

92 

1888 

153 

107 

210 

1890 

186 

112 

103 

161 

97 

110 

125 

100 

113 

+  From  a  Report  on  Additional  Water  Supply,  Rochester,  N.  y.  (1889),  by  A.  Fteley  and  J.  T.  Fanning.   Sup- 
plemented by  figures  from  the  Manual  of  American  Water- Works  for  1890-91. 
t  See  Table  14A. 

The  increase  in  water  consumption  at  Detroit  from  1853  to  1892  is 
shown  in  detail  by  Table  14A,  in  which  the  consumption  per  family  is 
the  basis  of  comparison.     The  table  also  shows  the  effect  of  efforts  to 


Table  No.  14A. 


-Water  Pumped  per  Family  at  Detroit,  Mich.,  in  Each  op  the 
40  Years  from  1853  to  1892,  Inclusive.§ 


, — Water  pumped 

Families 

Ti>tal 

Years. 

supi>lied. 

quantity. 

1853 

4.2S3 

303.531.743 

1854 

4,619 

376.265,126 

1855 

5.28-2 

.542, 807. 364 

1855 

5.70K 

692,124.305 

1857 

6,189 

6»7.19()..523 

1858 

6,474 

718.001.207 

1859 

. . .      6.794 

782.112.n87 

18K0 

6.750 

87(i,(l3(i.151 

18fil 

7,128 

89.5.1 29,423 

1862 

7,275 

90.|.iW5.829 

lSti3 

7,699 

1.035.798.043 

18fi4 

7,993 

1.01'.l.3«0.2.56 

]8(i5 

8.351 

1.040.514.887 

1866   

9,08'.» 

1,196.317.922 

1S()7   

10,242 

1,42.5,535.230 

isr,8 

11,544 

1,666,545.125 

18R9   

12.774 

1,046.810,325 

1870 

i:i,722 

1.866,060.068 

1871 

14,896 

2,300,150,605 

1872.... 

16.085 

2,782.292.576 

gals.-> 

Per 
family. 
70.868 
84.4.50 
102.765 
121,297 
112.659 
110.919 
115.118 
125,185 
125.579 
136.762 
134,534 
127,410 
12.5.675 
l:'1.622 
139.184 
144.364 
152.400 
136,000 
154,414 
173,513 


Families 

Years.  supplied. 

1873 17,019 

1874 18.853 

1875 19.606 

1876 20,102 

1877 20.345 

1878 20.603 

1-79 21,341 

1880 22.465 

1881 23,749 

1882 25.442 

1883 27,415 

1884 29.424 

1885 30..533 

1886 31.946 

1887  34.486 

1888 .36.863 

188911 39.1.'S8 

1890 41,467 

1891 43,933 

1892 46,400 


.—Water  pumped. 
Total 
quantity. 

3,198.393.948 

3.289.872.635 

4.207,454.260 

4,065,134.470 

4.213.239.790 

4,345,743.330 

5.129.599.110 

5..5.52,06:>,31U 

6..54.3.127.9r,8 

6,284.000.742 

7.379  :;27.788 

8.510.611.440 

9  9T0,829..58O 
10.576.571.2.54 
13.168.8.59.808 
14,380.166,670 
12.875,334,453 
12.120.944.532 
12.0.57.261.236 
12,276,612,482 


gals.-> 

Per 
family. 
187.930 
174.511 
214,660 
202.225 
207.090 
210,927 
240.348 
247.183 
270  722 
243'062 
260.170 
289,260 
.326.886 
331,070 
381.869 
390,098 
328.880 
292.300 
274.470 
264.582 


§  This  table  is  taken  from  the  report  for  1892  of  L.  N.  Case,  Secretary  of  the  Detroit  Water  Commissioners. 
II  Commenced  metering. 


*  Table  13C  was  originally  designed  to  show  the  effect  of  meters  upon  the  consumption  of  water,  and  is 
taken  from  the  Introduction  to  the  Manual  of  American  Water-Works,  for  1890-91,  p.  xxvii.  This  table, 
with  a  somewhat  extended  discussion  of  the  ri'lation  between  the  use  of  meters  and  water  consumption,  may  be 
found  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  63  (Jan.  16,  1892). 


NECESSITY    FOR   CONSIDERING   FUTURE   GROWTH. 


127 


reduce  a  highly  excessive  waste  of  water  by  the  use  of  meters,  which 
were  introduced  iii  1889,  and  not  only  at  once  lowered  the  total  yearly 
water  consumption,  but  also  the  consumption  per  family,  so  that  the 
total  yearly  consumption,  or  pumpage,  for  1892  was  over  two  billion 
gallons,  or  some  14  per  cent.,  less  than  in  1888, 

Necessity  for  Considering  Future  Growth. 
In  designing  sewage  disposal  works  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  into 
account,  the  same  as  in  designing  the  pipe  system,  the  future  growth 
of  the  town  ;  and  by  wa}'  of  indicating  what  is  now  taking  place  in  this 
particular  in  the  United  States  Tables  15  and  16,  deiived  from  Census 
Bulletin  No.  52,*  are  inserted. 

Table  No   15. — In'cke.\se  in  Population  in  Ten  Years  in  a  Number  of  Cities  and 
Towns  of  the  United  States  with  from  8,000  to  50,000  Inhabitants  in  1890. 


Names  of  cities  and  towns. 

Population. 

Increase. 

Ib90. 

1880. 

Numlier. 

Per  cent. 

Adams,  Mass 

9,213 

8.756 

27.601 

11,165 

14,3:J9 

25,228 

11.28;i 

10,294 

30.337 

9.798 

17.:!.;6 

10,741 

9,431 

9.998 

11,869 

8,.347 

10,235 

8.338 

8,639 

13,0.55 

25.85-f 

33.300 

27.839 

19,033 

35.005 

48.866 

27,294 

12,103 

13.619 

22.5119 

15.. 353 

17.303 

17.004 

37.:i71 

.•!8,067 

9,416 

9.2.59 

8.424 

9,069 

39.:i85 

11.079 

16,038 

23.264 

9.025 

1.3,102 

44,654 

5..591 

7,849 

16.512 

5.708 

13,659 

18.063 

6,1,53 

8,975 

19.710 

3,355 

9.466 

4,126 

8.061 

942 

8,005 

1.012 

2,616 

4.445 

ti,U99 

5.477 

21,924 

21,891 

20.693 

9.372 

17,317 

27,643 

13.608 

8,0.57 

9,052 

19.416 

10.036 

10.123 

13.843 

29,720 

10,358 

7,248 

6,2-35 

4,988 

7.464 

30,762 

9.105 

9.3.^7 

11.657 

5.651 

8.319 

39.151 

3,622 

907 
11,089 
5.4,57 
680 
7.165 
5,1.30 
1.319 

10,627 
6,443 
7,870 
6.615 
1,370 
9,056 
3.864 
7.3.35 
7.619 
.3.893 
2,540 
7,578 
3,934 

11.409 
7,146 
9,661 

I7,«i88 

21.223 

13.686 
4.046 
4.. 567 
3.093 
,5,317 
7.18) 
3.161 
7,651 

27,709 
2,168 
3,004 
3.436 
l.tK)5 
8,623 
1,974 
6,681 

]1,M17 
3,:W4 
4.783 
5,503 

64.78 

Adrian,  Mich 

Akron,  0 

11.56 
67  16 

95.60 

4.98 

AUentown,  Pa 

39  67 

Alpena,  Mich 

83.37 

Altim,  111 

14.70 

Altoimi,   P.a 

53  92 

192.04 

Am';tenl;im,  N.  y 

Anders'>n,  Ind 

Ann  Arbor,  Midi 

83.14 

160.32 

17  00 

961  36 

48  27 

724.80 

Asheville,  N.  C 

291 .25 

Ashtabula,  O 

87.58 

41.65 

Atlantic  Citv.  N.  J 

138  .36 

17  94 

52.12 

Buy  City,  Mich 

34  53 

103.08 

Bintrhamton,  N.  Y 

Bridi^eport.  ('onn   

102.14 
76.78 
100.57 

Br.iokline,  Mass 

Clinton,  la 

.50.22 
.50.45 

Cohoe^,  N.  Y 

Columbia,  S.  C 

15.93 
5-.'  9S 
7(1  93 

Concord.  N    H 

2>  tKi 

25.74 

Dall.-is.  Tp^   

267. 51 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y 

29.91 

48.18 

Gardner.  M.isi 

(irccn  Hnv,  Wis 

68.89 
21   50 

Hiirri^buri;,  Pa , . . . 

Ithaca.  N.  Y 

28.03 
21.68 

.lami-itiiwii,  N    Y 

71.40 

Joliei.  Ill           

99.57 

Kankakee.   Ill 

Lnnsinir.  Mieh   

59.71 
57.49 
14.06 

*  Urban  Populations  in  1.890.     April  17,  181>1. 


128 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  16. — Inckease  in  Population  in  Ten  Years  in  Cities  of  the  United 
States  of  over  50,000  Inhabitants  in  1890. 


Name  of  city. 


Population. 


Allegheny,  Pa 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Baltimore,  Md 

Boston,  Mass 

Brooklvn,  N.  Y 

Bufifalo.  N.  Y 

Cainbiidge.  Mass  . . . 

Caiiuten,  N.  J 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Chicatio,  111 

Cincinnati,  O 

Cleveland,  O 

Columbus,  O 

Dayton,  O 

iJenver,  Col 

Des  Moines,  la 

Detroit,  Mich 

Evansville.  Ind 

Fall  River,  Mass  . . . 
Grand  Rapiiis,  Mich 

Hartford,  Conn 

Indianapolis,  Ind. .. 
Jersey  City,  N.  J..  . 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Louisville,  Ky 

Lowell,  Mass 

Lynn,  Mass 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Minneapolis,  Minn. . 

Newark,  N,  J 

New  Haven.  Conn.. 
New  Orleans.  La . . . 

New  York,  N.  Y 

Omaha,  Neb 

Paterson,  N.  J 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Pittsburg.  Pa 

Providence,  R.  I 

Reading,  Pa 

Richmond,  Va 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Scranton,  Pa 

Syracuse.  N.  Y 

Toledo,  O 

Trenton,  N.  J 

Troy.  N.  Y 

Washington,  D.  C. . 

Wilmington,  Del 

Worcester,  Mass  .   . 


1S90. 


105,287 

65,5.33 

434,439 

448,477 

806,343 

255,664 

70,028 

58,313 

54,055 

,099,850 

296,908 

261,353 

88,150 

61,220 

106,713 

50,093 

205,876 

50,756 

74,398 

60.278 

5:12.30 

10.5,436 

163,003 

132,716* 

55,154 

50,395 

161,12!t 

77.696 

55,727 

64,495 

204,468 

164,738 

181,830 

81,298 

242,039 

,515,301 

140,452 

78,347 

.046,964 

238,617 

132,146 

58,661 

81,-388 

1.3.3.S96 

52,324 

451,770 

133.156 

298,997 

75,215 

88,143 

81.434 

57.4.58 

60.9,56 

230,.392 

61,431 

84,655 


1880. 


78,682 

37.409 

332,313 

362.839 

566.663 

1.^5,134 

52,669 

41.659 

49.984 

503,185 

255,1.39 

160,146 

51,647 

38.678 

35.629 

22,408 

116,340 

29.280 

48,961 

32.016 

42,015 

75.056 

120,722 

55,785 

1.3,003 

11,183 

123.758 

59.475 

.38,274 

33,592 

115,587 

46.887 

136,.508 

62,a^2 

216,090 

1,206.299 

.30,518 

51,031 

847,170 

156,389 

104,857 

43,278 

63.600 

89,  .366 

.32.431 

350,518 

41.473 

233,959 

45,850 

51,792 

50,1.37 

29.910 

,56,747 

177,624 

42,478 

58,291 


Increase. 


Numbers. 


26,605 
28,124 

10>.126 
85,6KS 

239,680 

100,530 
17,359 
16,6.-4 
4.971 

596,665 
41,769 

101.207 
36,503 
22,542 
71,084 
27,685 
89,536 
21,476 
25,437 
28,262 
11,215 
30,.3S0 
42,281 
76,931 
42,151 
39,212 
37.371 
18,221 
17.453 
30,903 
88,881 

117.851 
45,322 
18.416 
25.949 

309,002 

109,934 
27,316 

199.794 
82,228 
27,289 
]5,.38:i 
17,788 
44.530 
19.893 

101,252 
91.683 
65,038 
29,.365 
36,351 
31,297 
27,548 
4,209 
52,768 
18,953 
26,.361 


.33.81 
75.18 
30.73 
23.60 
42.30 
64.80 
32.06 
.39.98 
9.95 
118.58 
16.37 

63  20 
70.68 
58.28 

199.51 

123.55 

76.96 

73.35 

51.95 

88.27 

26.69 

40.48 

.35.02 

1.37.91 

324.16 

350.64 

30.20 

30.64 

45  60 

92  00 

76.90 

251 .35 

33.20 

29.29 

12  01 

25  62 

.360.23 

53  .53 

23.58 

52  58 

26.02 

35.54 

27.97 

49.83 

61.34 

28.89 

221 .07 

27  80 

64  05 
70.19 
62.42 
92  10 

7.42 
29  71 
44.62 
45.83 


•  Includes  13,048  population,  which  by  recent  decision  of  Missouri  State  Supreme  Court,  is  now  outside  the 
limits  of  Kansas  City. 


Table  No.  15,  of  cities  and  towns  with  populations  ranging-  from 
8,000  to  50,000  in  1890,  includes  onlj^  a  portion  of  those  given  in  the 
complete  list  in  Census  Bulletin  No.  52.  Only  enough  have  been 
selected  to  indicate  in  a  perspicuous  manner  the  rapid  increase  of 
population  in  such  towns  at  the  present  time.  An  analysis  of  the 
complete  list   in  the    Bulletin   shows   that   of  the  total  number  of 


TO    DETERMINE   THE    LAW    OF    INCREASE    OF    POPULATION.       129 

nearly  400  such  towns  about  25  per  cent.  liav,c  more  than  doubled  in 
population  in  the  last  decade.  Moreover,  the  towns  showing  this 
Irt-rg-e  increase  are  situated  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  many  of  them 
being-  in  the  older  settled  States,  where  it  might  be  considered  that 
fixed  conditions  are  mostly  attained.  In  the"  same  way  it  is  found 
that  a  considerable  number  of  towns  of  the  class  indicated  have 
increased  in  the  period  from  50  to  100  per  cent. 

If  we  examine  the  list  of  cities  of  over  50,000  population  in  1890, 
we  find  that  of  the  56  which  are  listed  in  Table  No.  16,  only  14  per 
cent,  exhibit  an  increase  of  more  than  100  per  cent.,  likewise  the 
number  increasing  from  50  to  100  per  cent,  is  proportionately  smaller 
than  in  the  class  of  towns  illustrated  in  Table  No.  15. 

How  TO  Determine  the  Law  or  Increase  of  Population. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  elucidate  the  law  governing 
increase  of  population  in  towns,  but  thus  far  none  of  them  can  be 
considered  wholly  satisfactory.  The  problem  presents  itself  with 
new  features  in  nearly  every  town,  and  the  decision  of  what  the  popu- 
lation may  be  at  any  future  period  becomes  largely  a  matter  of 
judgment,  based  upon  the  special  conditions.  To  assist  the  judgment, 
the  census  returns  for  each  ten-year  period  may  be  tabulated  as  in 
Tables  No.  17  and  18  following  : 

Table  No.  17.— Population  of  a  Number  of  the  Smaller  Cities  and  Towns  of 
THE  United  States  at  Each  Ten-Year  Period  from  1800  to  1890. 


Population. 

Name. 

lifOO 

4,971 

1810. 

1820. 

1830. 

1840. 

1850. 

1860. 

1870. 
13..570 

lo.om; 

1880. 

1890. 

7,227 

8,218 

8,241 

8,459 

8,734 
3,266 

12.fi.52 
3,477 

1:3,659 
16.512 

14,-^39 

Akron,  0  

27.600 

Aubnrn,  N.   Y 

9,548 

10,986 

17,22.'-. 

21,924 

25,858 

Augti-ita,   Ga 

6,403 

10,217 

12,493 

15,3.s9 

21,^91 

33,:500 

Bay  City.  Mich 

1,51S3 

7.0(i4 

20,693 

27,8:59 

Burlington,  Vt 

815 

l,(i9(l 

2.111 

3,525 

4,271 

7,  .585 

7,713 

14.387 

11.365 

14.590 

Binghamton.  N.  Y 

8,325 

12,692 

17.317 

:3o,005 

Chflsea,  Mas« 

2,.390 

6,70i 

13.395 

18.54: 

21.782 

27,909 

957 

1.056 

657 

817 

1,790 

l.K(i7 
4,229 

4.6:^1 
8,800 

9.485 
15,:«7 

14.997 
19.416 

20.226 

Oohoes.  N.  Y 

22,. 509 

Dallas'.   'Vox    

10.:558 

.38  067 

Dov.T,   N.  H 

5>,0H2 

3,18(1 
1,39(1 

2.228 
3,fi06 
1.5t;«? 

2,»71 
3,873 
l,73(i 

...  )4i* 
4.331 
2,169 

6.4.58 
4.. 504 
2,()04 

8.196 
5,964 
5,120 

8,502 
7.234 

7,81)5 

9.294 
8.7.53 
11.260 

11,687 
1 1 ,66« 

12.790 

Daiiburv,  Conn 

l(i.552 

FitchbuTL',   Maiw 

12.429!  ■i'ism 

Hamilton,  O 

3,210 

7.2.W 

ll.Of^l 

12.122    ]7,.5f.5 

.lack-ionvilli'.    Fa 

1,045 

2,118 

6.912 

^e.'iO!  ,7  .^)oi 

Lanr  ister.   I'a 

4.292 

5.405 

6,633 

7,704 

6,417 

12,-369 

17.603 

20,233 

2.5,769;  ;«.01l 

Mulilen,   Mass 

1,059 

l,:«M 

1.731 

2,l'l(i 

2,51-1 

3..520 

5.^65 

7..370 

12,017,  2.3.031 

M  inche>t.!r,  N.  H 

761 

Kr7 

3.23?> 

13.932 

20.107 

2:5,536 

.32.(30   44.126 

Norrislown.  Pa   

827 

1.089 

2,937 

6,02-1 

s,S48 

10.7.5.3 

13.063   l!t,791 

KHi 

413 

'  2,5:59 

715 
2,937 

4,247 

5.Wt5 
6,140 

10,046 
(i.154 

15.0S7 
S.107 

20.4-33  24,918 

Slenln-nvillo,  0 

12.093  i:j,:w4 

San  Antonio,  Tex 

3.48.^ 

8.235 

12.256 

20.5.50   37,673 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa 

SS5 
131 

1,226 
:j44 

024 

2,232 

1.718 
1,363 

2.723 
1,615 

4.2.S3 
6,664 

10.174 
16,0.30 

2:5,:«9|  :57,718 

18,9341  27.132 

1 

130 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX     IIIK    CMTED    STATES. 


Table  No.  18. — Population  of  a  Numbeii  of  the  Largest  Cities  of  the  United 
States  at  Each  Ten-Yeak  Period  prom  1800  to  1890. 


Population. 


Baltimore.  Md 2ti,514 

Boston,   Mass 24.93' 

Brooklyn.  N.  Y 2,3TS 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.  . 

Chicago,  111 

Cincinnati,   O. . 

Cleveland,  O 

Detroit,  Mich 

New  York,  N.  Y 60,515 


Philadelphia.  Pa 
Rochester,   N.  Y . . 
St.  Louis,  Mo. .    . . 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Worcester,  Mass.. 


41,220 


3,210 
2,411 


1810. 


46,555 

33,250 

4,402 


2,540 


1820. 


62,738 
43,298 

7,175 


96.373 
53,722 


9,642 

606 

1,422 

123,706 

63,802 


1830. 


80,620 

61,393 

12,406 

8,668 


1840.        1850. 

1860. 

8.208 
2,577 


10,049 

13,247 

2,962 


24.831 

1.876 

2,222 

197,112 

80,462 
9,207 

14.125 

18,826 
4,17;; 


102,  .31 3 
93,383 
•36,233 
18,213 

4,470 
46,338 

6,071 

9,102 
312,710 
93,665 
20.191 
16,469 
23,364 

7.497 


169,054 

136,881 

96,838 

42.261 

29,963 

115,435 

17,034 

21,019 

515,54 

121.376 

.36,403 

77,860 

40,C01 

17,049 


212,418 

177.840 

266.661 

81,129 

112.172 

161.014 

43.417 

45,61'.l 

805.6,58 

565,529 

48,2114 

160.773 

61,122 

24,96U 


1870. 


267,354 
250.526 
396.(199 
117.714 
298.977 
216,2.i9 

92.829 

79.577 
942,292 
671.022 

62,386 
.310,8(i4 
109,199 

41,105 


1880. 


1890. 


332,313 

362.  a39 

566.663 

155,134 

5U3,1^5 

■-'.5.5,139 

160,146 

116,34(1 

1,206.299 

847.170 

^9.363| 

S50,.518 

177,6241 

58,291 


434.43» 

448,477 

8(16,343 

255  664 

1.099,8.50 

296.908 

2til  ,353 

205,876 

1,515..;01 

1,046,964 

r«,896 

457.770 

230,392 

84,655 


By  plotting"  the  series  for  any  given  town,  the  population  curve  is 
approximately  determined.  With  the  census  record  complete  from 
1800  to  1890,  this  curve  may  be  usually  projected  from  10  to  20  years 
ahead  with  considerable  probability  of  deducing  results  accurate 
enough  to  assist  an  engineer  in  determining  what  provision  for  future 
population  may  be  reasonably  made  in  designing  works  at  any  given 
place.* 

Fig.  5,  derived  from  the  Preliminary  Report  of  the  Chicago  Drain- 
age Commission,  illustrates  the  practical  utility   of  such  a  method. 


1880  1890  1900  1910    1920  1930 

2.500.000 


Z.OO0.00O 


1790  1800   1810    1820  1830   1840  I8S0    I860  1870  1880   i890  1900  1910    1920  1930 

Fjg.  5. — Diagram  Illustrating  the  Rate  of  Growth  op  City  Populations. 

*  For  an  excellent  example  of  the  analytical  method  of  treating  such  a  problem,  see  a  Report 
on  an  Additional  Water  Supply  for  Boston,  by  Joseph  P.  Davis,  city  engineer.  City  Documents, 
No.  29,  1874.  Mr.  Davis  there  forecasts  the  population  of  Boston  in  1890  as  about  423,000 ;  the 
census  returns  show  it  to  be  448,477,  while  in  1870,  the  last  return  available  at  the  time  of  mak- 
ing the  computation,  the  population  was  2.50,.526. 


THE   INFILTRATIOX    OF    GROUND    WATER.  131 


Generalizations. 

The  tabulations  here  submitted,  although  hardly  exhaustive,  are 
sufficient  to  indicate  how  one  may  proceed  in  deducing  the  future 
population  as  the  basis  of  rational  design  of  permanent  public  works. 
As  a  rapid  generalization,  subject  to  exception  in  many  cases,  we  may 
say : 

(1)  That  in  American  towns  under  50,000  population,  the  present 
rate  of  increase  may  be  taken  at  about  100  per  cent,  in  from  15  to  20 
years. 

(2)  That  in  the  larger  towns  the  increase  will  be  say  50  per  cent,  in 
the  same  time. 

In  connection  with  these  generalizations,  it  is  again  strongly  insisted 
that  special  studies  in  detail  are  required  in  each  case. 

Cause  of  Variations  in  Quantity  of  Sewage. 

The  foregoing  Tables  13  to  13C  showing  the  daily  Avater  consump- 
tion per  capita,  may  be  considered  as  affording  an  approximate  indi- 
cation of  the  jjrobable  diy-weather  flow  of  sewage  projDer  in  the  several 
towns,  except  that  varying  proportions  of  the  population  supiDlied 
with  public  water  also  enjoy  sewer  connections.  Variations  in  quan- 
tity from  the  tabulated  indications  will  be  due  chiefly,  in  addition  to 
the  above,  to  (1)  infiltration  of  drainage  water,  and  (2)  to  leakage  from 
the  sewers,  both  of  which  may  be  expected  to  frequently  take  place. 

Of  these  two  sources  of  variation  infiltration  w411  operate  the  most 
disastrously  upon  the  success  of  disposal  works,  while  leakage  from 
the  sewers,  with  its  consequent  pollution  of  the  subsoil  water,  may 
injuriously  affect  the  public  health. 

The  Infiltration  of  Ground  TVater. 

In  reference  to  the  amount  of  ground  water  likely  to  find  its  way 
into  sewers  definite  information  is  rather  sciinty.  In  Boston,  accord- 
ing to  a  discussion  by  Frederick  P.  Stearns,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E., 
chief  engineer  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  the 
amount  of  ground  water  finding  its  way  into  the  sewers  of  the  main 
drainage  system  is  about  45  gallons  per  inhalntant  per  day.  The 
question  of  infiltration  into  the  sewers  of  Boston  and  also  into 
separate  sewer  systems  from  which  storm  water  is  excluded,  is 
discussed  at  some  length  by  Mr.  Stearns,  and  it  is  sufficient  for 
present  illustration  to  merely  point  out  the  more  iiiqiortant  facts  of 
the  discussion.*     It  may  be  remembered,  however,  that  many  of  the 

*  Special  Report  by  Frndorick  P.  Stearns,  chief  enirineor,  in  Report  of  State  Hoard  of  Health 
upon  the  Sewage  of  the  Mystic  and  Charles  River  Valleys,  pp.  '.)U-%. 


132  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

older  sewers  of  Boston  are  of  such  open  construction  as  to  admit  of 
relatively  larg-e  infiltration  of  ground  water.  Some  of  them,  more- 
over, follow  the  threads  of  old  water-courses,  which  further  leads  to 
large  contributions  of  ground  water. 

At  East  Orange,  New  Jersey,  a  separate  system  of  sewers  was 
carried  out  in  1886-88.  In  the  latter  part  of  November,  1893,  there  were 
about  33  miles  of  sewers  in  use,  with  1,685  house  connections.  Many  of 
the  sewers  are  laid  at  such  depths  as  to  be  over  20  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  ground  water.  At  a  number  of  points  quicksand  was  unex- 
pectedly encountered,  and  the  necessity  for  using  about  4,000  feet  of 
brick  sewer  on  account  of  size  required  at  the  most  unfavorable  loca- 
tions for  making  tight  work,  still  further  complicated  the  problem. 
The  infiltration,  as  measured  before  any  house  connections  w^ere  in 
use,  was,  for  the  vitrified-tile  sewers  (25  miles  completed  at  the  time  of 
the  measurement),  2.5  gallons  per  second  ;  for  the  brick  sewer,  5  gallons 
per  second,  the  total  infiltration  amounting  at  these  rates  to  650,000 
gallons  per  day.  The  flush-tank  flow  is  estimated  at  30,000  gallons 
per  day,  and  the  house- sewage  flow  from  a  contributing  population  of 
nearly  15,000  at  620,000  gallons  per  day.  The  infiltration  is  thus  found 
to  be  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity.  Since  the  above  measure- 
ments and  estimates  were  made  it  is  stated  that  the  infiltration  of 
ground  water  lias  been  decreasing.  Sewage  disposal  works  are  in  use 
in  connection  with  this  system  of  sewers,  and  we  will  further  consider 
the  eifect  of  this  amount  of  ground  water  in  describing  the  methods 
of  disposal  used  at  East  Orange  in  Part  11.* 

Concluding  this  part  of  the  subject,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  results 
obtained  under  the  extremely  unfavorable  conditions  existing  at  East 
Orange  of  a  leakage  of  only  2.5  gallons  per  second  (216,000  gallons  in 
24  hours)  from  25  miles  of  vitrified  tile  sewers,  with  66,000  joints,  is 
indicative  that,  under  favorable  conditions  and  with  careful  workman- 
ship, a  system  of  such  sewers  may  be  made  nearly  impervious,  though 
in  designing  disposal  works  it  will  probably  be  safe  to  allow  for  an 
infiltration  of  perhaps  15  per  cent,  of  the  flow  of  sewage  proper. 

Provision  for  Eainfall  in  Combined  System. 

Where  combined  systems  are  in  use  it  will  be  necessary  in  design- 
ing sewage  disposal  works,  to  provide  furthei  for  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  the  rainfall,  and  just  what  proportion  will  be  provided  for 
must  depend  upon  a  number  of  considerations,  as  for  instance  : 

(1)  T^Tiether  tlie  outfall  sewers  are,  or  can  be  arranged  with  refer- 

*  See  paper  on  Inland  Sewage  Disposal,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  East  Orange,  N.  J., 
Works,  by  Carroll  Ph.  Bassett,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  in  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  xxv.,  p. 
125.     Mr.  Bassett  was  engineer  of  the  works  at  East  Orange. 


PROVISION   FOR   RAINFALL   IN   COMBINED   SYSTEM.  133 

ence  to  storm  overflows,  and  if  so  arranged  whether  any  portion  of 
the  storm  water  will  go  to  the  disposal  works. 

(2)  If  any  proportion  of  the  storm  water  is  to  go  to  the  disposal 
works,  then  what  proportion. 

(3)  The  proportion  of  the  total  of  any  given  rainfall  which  is  likely 
to  reach  the  sewers,  the  amount  reaching  them  depending  upon  the 
slope  of  the  area  drained,  and  its  relative  imperviousness,  as  whether 
fully  built  up  and  paved. 

It  thus  appears  that  when  the  rainfall  is  taken  into  account,  the 
disposal  problem  is  considerably  complicated,  and  aside  from  the 
modifying  circumstances  pointed  out  in  the  chapter  on  The  Infectious 
Diseases  of  Animals,  the  conclusion  is  reached  that  when  some  form 
of  purification  is  to  be  provided,  a  separate  system  of  sewerage  appears 
preferable  to  the  combined  system  by  reason  of  not  only  the  greater 
ease  with  which  the  more  uniform  flow  of  the  separate  system  can  be 
treated,  but  also  by  reason  of  the  materially  reduced  expense  of  such 
treatment. 

We  will  consider  briefly  the  efi'ect  on  the  cost  of  sewage  disposal 
works  of  actually  providing  for  treating  the  whole  of  that  portion  of 
the  rainfall  which  runs  oif  into  the  sewers  of  a  combined  system  as 
well  as  the  sewage  proper. 

In  the  first  place,  it  may  be  assumed  that  a  considerable  increase  in 
capacity  of  disposal  works  would  become  inevitable  in  order  to  treat 
the  rainfall,  whatever  the  method  of  purification.  Again,  in  order  to 
prevent  too  great  increase  in  capacity  of  disposal  works,  storage  for 
the  storm  flow  would  naturally  be  provided  with  a  view  to  extending 
the  time  of  treatment  of  the  excess  flow  of  storms  as  much  as  possible. 
"Without  going  into  a  discussion  of  the  elements  of  the  special  problem 
of  the  ])roporti()nate  amount  of  drainage  which  may  be  expected  from 
the  partially  imi)ervious  areas  of  large  northern  towns,  we  will  assume 
as  sufticient  for  an  illustration  that  50  per  cent,  of  a  24:-hour  rainfall 
may  be  expected  to  run  off  immediately  ;  and  that  in  towns  with  com- 
bined sewerage  systems  a  treatment  of  the  whole  flow,  including  the 
rainfall,  would  require  the  provision  of  storage  for  nearly  one-half  of 
the  greatest  rainfall  which  can  be  expected  in  24 .hours.  This  large 
allowance  will  only  provide  for  a  summer  rainfall,  and  a  winter  rain 
may  occur  when  the  whole  area  is  imiicn-vious  from  the  eftect  of  frost ; 
if  such  a  rain  occurs  when  the  ground  is  further  covered  with  snow  we 
may  have,  because  of  melting  of  the  snow,  an  amoitnt  of  water  flowing 
from  a  givcni  area  even  greater  than  the  total  rainfall  for  the  assumed 
unit  of  time  of  24  hours.  A  provision  of  storage  for  50  per  cent,  of 
the  largest  24-hour  rainfall  must,  therefore,  be  considered  conservative 
for  our  northern  climates.  In  the  South,  with  moderate  winters  of 
little  or  no  snow,  we  may  take  the  percentage  flowing  off  as  somewhat 


134 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


less,  say  at  40  per  cent.  Southern  towns,  too,  are  built  with  more 
open  space  than  northern,  from  which  it  follows  that  the  impervious 
area  is  relatively  less  in  proportion  to  the  Avliole  area,  whence  we  de- 
rive another  reason  for  using-  a  smaller  per  cent. 

Assuming'  a  town  with  an  area  of  5,000  acres  and  maximum  24-hour 
rainfall  of  2  inches,  the  storage  required  would  be  130,000,000  gallons. 

If  we  apply  these  figures  to  larg-er  areas  we  find  that  in  the  great 
cities  the  quantity  of  water  derived  from  the  rainfall  is  so  great  that 

Table  No.  19. — Heaviest    Rainfalls    in   24   Hours  at  Milwaukee,    Wisconsin, 

1871  to  1892,  Inclusive.* 

(From  8  p.  M.  to  S  p.  M.) 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec  . 

Year. 

1871         

2.50 
.21 

1.49 
.84 
.43 

1.90 

1.18 
.8:! 
.82 
.87 
.71 
.14 
.88 
.80 
.71 

1.18 
.85 
.87 
1.00 
1.23 
1.3H 
2  50 

.78 
.12 
.Oti 
.80 
.45 

1.07 
.Ofi 

1.7t) 
.69 
.99 

1.01 

1.06 
.91 
.82 
.12 
.48 
.84 
.15 
.36 
.72 
.47 
.75 

1.76 

.50 
.16 
.88 

1.04 
.48 
.85 
.88 
.75 
.25 
.72 

1.79 
.61 
.06 
.64 
.09 
.99 

1.00 
.50 
..32 
.64 
.88 
.74 

1.79 

1.70 

.42 

.62 

1.68 

1.03 

1.85 

2.92 

1.55 

1.58 

1.26 

.21 

.45 

.26 

1.05 

1.02 

.86 

.52 

1.05 

.80 

1.05 

2.00 

.76 

2.92 

1.10 

.67 

1  00 

1.17 

2.70 

1.82 

.36 

1.06 

.80 

1.19 

1.88 

.71 

.95 

.34 

.19 

.94 

.75 

..58 

1  20 

1.25 

1.14 

1..55 

2.70 

1.02 
1.43 

.74 
1..39 
2.14 

.84 
1.42 
1.28 

.98 
1..56 
1.07 
1..36 

.49 
2.08 
1.81 

.99 

.28 

.94 
1.94 
1.07 
2.58 
1.04 
2.14 

1.06 

.90 

.77 

1..% 

.86 

2.10 

.98 

.94 

1.07 

.81 

1.82 

.66 

1.17 

1.44 

.85 

.85 

2.98 

1.25 

1.01 

1.07 

1.44 

.61 

2.98 

.91 

.80 

2.08 

.57 

.87 

2.71 

1.63 

..32 

1.30 

.65 

.49 

2.17 

.16 

.41 

2.09 

1.95 

.82 

1.00 

.  52 

.88 

1.01 

2.52 

2.71 

.16 

8.74 

1.24 

1.27 

1.85 

.77 

.26 

1.48 

.84 

.86 

.70 

.63 

.89 

1.29 

1.74 

.68 

1.14 

.88 

.32 

.30 

.14 

1.20 

3.74 

1.45 
.22 
.72 

1.52 
.83 
.54 

1.09 

1.25 

1.05 
.17 

1.61 
.79 
.67 
.48 
.81 

1.25 
.89 
.51 
.20 
.46 
.98 
.92 

1.52 

1.15 
1.05 

.99 
1.06 

.34 
1.80 

.!f3 
.86 

.87 
.47 
.44 
.45 
.75 
.54 
.88 
.47 
.82 
.36 
.68 

l!37 
.49 

1.80 

1.41 
.21 
.f8 
.48 

1.13 
.81 

1.04 
.22 
.59 
.20 
..5(i 
.41 
.81 
.72 
.72 
.37 
.82 

1.18 
.45 
.16 
.65 

L41 

2..50 

1S72  

.■;.74 

1878 

2.03 

1874 

1  63 

1M7.5 

187f)  

2.70 

2  71 

1877  ...                

2.92 

1S78 

1879 

1880 

1881    

1.76 
1  58 
1  56 
1.79 

1882 

1888 

2.17 
1.17 

1884 

1885 

1886  

2.(8 
2.0'.^ 
1  95 

18N7.    ...   

1888 , 

2.98 
1.25 

188S 

1.94 

189U 

1891   

1.25 
2.53 

1892     

2.52 

8.74 

*  Amounts  are  expressed  in  inches. 


Table  No.  20. — Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hours  at  Detroit,  Michigan,  1871  to 

1892,  Inclusive. 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

1..55 

.22 

..36 

.60 

.43 

.86 

1.57 

119 

1.16 

1(14 

1  15 

.37 

.bl 

.68 

.63 

.99 

1.46 

1.46 

.80 

1.51 

1.43 

1.15 

1.57 

Dec. 

Year. 

1871 

.85 
.68 

1.61 

1.81 
.22 
.47 
.47 

1.48 
.37 
.54 
.66 
.58 
.43 
..35 
.58 
.45 
.31 
.50 
.39 
.95 
.58 
.42 

1.61 

1.25 
.81 
.11 
.56 
.60 

2.41 
.02 
.60 
.42 
.25 

1.17 
.66 

1.12 
.55 
.68 
.34 

1.24 
.70 
.24 
.55 

1.32 
.52 

2.41 

1.05 
.46 
.40 
.82 

1.25 

1.15 

1.13 
.49 
.35 

1.85 
.93 
.93 
.75 
.41 
.24 
.47 
.49 
.77 
.83 
.47 

l.UO 
.78 

1.25 

.72 
.42 

1.72 
.63 
..56 
.69 

1.22 
.97 
.48 

1.57 
.75 
.45 
.61 
.41 
.75 

2.41 
.58 
.71 
.46 
88 

1.10 
.71 

2.41 

1.09 
2.06 

.89 
1.00 
2.12 
1.65 

.34 

.96 
1.78 
1.61 
l.(!9 
1.68 
1.20 

.54 
1.28 

.76 
1.02 

.60 
2.  .57 
1..50 

.52 
2.22 
2.57 

1.05 

1.27 

.55 

1.87 

1.39 

.38 

1..85 

1.16 

1.03 

1.66 

1  62 

.99 

.68 

.81 

1.08 

.69 

1..51 

.70 

124 

.99 

.82 

3.. 39 

3.39 

.21 

.58 
1.00 

.76 
1.44 
1.68 

.87 
2.48 
2.05 
1.68 
2.25 

..53 
1.31 
1.35 

.84 
2.  .31 

.66 
1.27 

.62 

.94 
1.(14 
1.07 
2.48 

.41 
1.06 

.05 

.89 
1.88 
1.09 
2  02 
1.08 

.60 
1.20 
1  10 
1.06 

.26 

.86 
1.16 

.54 
1.06 
4.42 

.10 
2.72 

.83 
1.P9 
4.42 

.60 

.81 

.96 

.25 

1.31 

.46 

.12 

.98 

.3.21 

2.08 

1.38 

.86 

.53 

.67 

.65 

.94 

1.18 

.68 

..37 

.67 

.97 

2  75 

3.21 

.46 

.40 

.86 

.43 

1.05 

.90 

2  02 

1.08 

.34 

].:0 

1.95 

.82 

..51 

.91 

..33 

..34 

..50 

.67 

.61 

1.29 

1.19 

.16 

2.02 

1.00 
.22 

1.58 
.25 

1.01 
.54 
.30 

1..35 

1.09 
.24 

1.15 
.42 
..55 
.63 

1.04 
.60 
.71 
.58 
.88 
.58 
.54 
.42 

1.58 

1.5.5- 

1872 

2.06 

1873 

1.72 

1-74 

1875                

1.87 
2.12 

1876 

2.41 

1877 

2.02 

1878   

2.48 

1879 

1880 

3.21 
2  08 

1.^81 

2.25 

1882 

1883 

1884  . .  ■. 

1.68 
1.31 
1.35 

1885 

1  28 

1886 

2.41 

1887 

1.51 

1888 

4.42 

1889 

2.57 

1890 

1891 

1892 

Period 

2.72 
1.43 
3.39 
4.42 

PROVISION    FOR   KAINFALL    IX    COMBINED    SYSTEM. 


135 


to  liold  it  in  storag"e  and  treat  it  becomes  a  practical  impossibility. 
As  a  compromise,  then,  we  could  only  hope  to  provide  for  treating 
the  first  flow  of  rain  water,  which,  as  contaiiiing  the  bulk  of  the  street 
washing's,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  most  important.  In  this  view 
we  would  provide  for  perhaps  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  24- 
hours  rainfall. 

In  order  to  illustrate  this  phase  of  the  question,  several  tables  of 
maximum  rainfalls  in  different  parts  of  the  countr}'  are  included. 

Table  No.  21. — Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Houks  at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1871  to  1892, 

Inclusive. 


Year 

1871 

1872 

1878 

Ib74 

187.T 

1876 

1877 

1878 

1879 

18«0 

1S81 

1882...   ,    ... 

188:j 

1884 

ISa'i 

lS8fi 

1887 

18S8 

188i> 

1890 

1891 

1892 

Period 


.Jan.      Feb.      Mar.      Apr.     May.  ;  June.    July.     Aug 


.1(5 

lOi 

1.20 

.24 

.64 

.(10 

.27 

.27 

.59 

.91 

48 

.78 

.66 

1.23 

1.00 

..54 

l.:« 

.38 

.36 

.66 

.45 

.26 

.91 

.61 

1.06 

.27 

l.fi6 

.65 

.43 

2.10 

80 

.07 

1.32 

1.04 

.25 

HR 

.55 

1.13 

.70 

.82 

71 

.64 

.59 

.58 

..54 

59 

1..32 

1.08 

1.06 

1.01 

91 

.72 

.53 

.42 

.16 

74 

.87 

1.08 

.70 

1.04 

49 

3.62 

.34 

.65 

1.40 

.S9 

1.22 

.35 

.71 

1.:^ 

44 

.57 

.24 

.85 

1.16 

89 

.46 

.43 

.74 

.36 

.30 

1.46 

.77 

.73 

.94 

84 

.54 

.>6 

.84 

1.13 

81 

.27 

1.42 

.60 

1.88 

70 

1.28 

1.02 

.58 

1.16 

74 

1.45 

.75 

.29 

1.58 

73 

.71 

1.23 

.79 

1.70 

85 

3.62 

1.42 

1.23 

2.10 

1.55 

1  26 

211 

1.65 

1.26 

1.28 

1.34 

.44 

.90 

1.86 

3.01 

1.89 

.93 

2.28 

2.12 

.27 

.58 

1.00 

.43 

1.43 

1.S9 

1.17 

3.01 


1.19 
2.32 

>5 
2.13 

.45 

.69 
1.05 
2.46 
2.69 
2..51 

.41 
2. 06 

.74 
2.02 
1.02 
1.42 

.46 
1.38 
1.30 
1.65 

.47 
1.28 
2.69 


3.14 

1.35 

.75 

1.28 

1.55 

145 

2.59 

1.34 

2.59 

.87 

.12 

.Sii 

1.78 

.82 

1.14 

.53 

1.44 

.87 

.40 

.90 

1.21 

1.41 

3.14 


Sept. 

Oct. 

.27 

.28 

1.00 

.67 

.66 

.88 

1.13 

.34 

1.87 

.80 

1..53 

l.,56 

1.40 

1.39 

2.30 

1.23 

.66 

.45 

.a5 

.66 

.97 

2.45 

2.09 

.60 

.95 

1.41   I 

1.2S 

..50 

.72 

.78  ! 

1.43 

01) 

1.21 

.70 

.66 

.81 

.84 

.70 

1.95 

.84 

1.37 

.57 

.78 

.27  1 

2..30 

2.45 

Nov.      Dec.    Year. 


1.05 
.30 
.46 
.53 

1.00 
.59 
.91 
.72 
.74 

1.36 

1.41 
.44 

1.07 
.50 

1.49 

1.39 
.84 
.84 
.80 
.97 

2.19 
.85 

2.19 


.55 
.52 
1.87 
1.09 
.66 
.73 
.45 


3.14 
2..32 
2.1! 
1.65 
1.87 
1.66 
2.59 


.70  I   2.4fi 
.86      2.69 


.31 
1.22 
.91 
.44 
.30 
.67 
.91 
.57 
.26 
.54 
.33 
.75 
.33 
1.87 


2.51 
3.01 
2.  (19 
3.62 
2.  (.2 
2.13 
1.43 
1.46 
•].:!8 
1.88 
1.95 
2.19 
1.70 
3.63 


Table  No. 22. —Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  IIouus  at  Rochesteii,  New  York,  1873 

TO  1892,  Inclusive. 


1872... 
1.S73  .. 
1874... 
1875  . . 
1876... 
1877  .. 
187.S... 
1879  .. 
18S0  .. 
1S81 . .  . 
1882... 

isa3  .. 
lasj... 

]8>5... 
1886... 
1887... 
1888... 
1889... 
IMtO... 
IWII . . . 
1892.  . 
feriod. 


.58 
.91 
.43 

1.46 
.22 

1.45 
.91 

1..37 
.76 
.49 
.45 
.33 
.52 
.81 

1..57 
.30 
.40 
.81 

1.3(1 
.59 

1.57 


.67 

2. 01 
.53 
.93 
.97 
.67 

1.56 
.57 
..38 

1.52 
.53 
.68 

1.(19 
.18 
.79 
.26 
.54 
.58 
.67 

1.25 
.68 

2.01 


April. 


.50 

1.15 

1.31 

.55 

.42 

1.05 

.85 

.21 

.58 

.60 

.51 

.48 

.55 

1.48 

1.80 

1.40 

.32 

1.18 

.75 

..56 

.34 

1.80 


May. 

June. 

.44 

2.28 

.86 

.62 

1.02 

1.16 

..58 

.69 

.45 

1.67 

.70 

.69 

.71 

.65 

.62 

1.29 

1.77 

.46 

1.30 

.68 

1.06 

.88 

1  92 

1.00 

1.80 

..55 

1.67 

.76 

1  56 

.68 

.42 

.40 

1.66 

1.92 

1.49 

1.32 

.74 

.47 

1.04 

1.34 

2.00 

1.92 

228 

July.    Aug. 


.79 

2.10 

1.75 

.69 

.90 

2.05 

1.14 

1.27 

.75 

.79 

.44 

1.87 
1.29 
.25 
.73 
.54 
.92 

.m 

1.42 
2.10 
2.10 


.59 
1.16 

.26 
1.90 

.25 
1.13 
1.14 
2.65 
1.75 

.69 
1.07 

.92 
.65 

3.:^4 
.56 

1.20 
.63 
.48 
.70 

1 .32 

3.34 


Sept.  ■  Oct 


..55 
1.45 

.90 
1.29 
1.30 

.73 

.30 

.82 

.88 

.a3 

.47 

.92 
.84 
.83  I 
.29  I 
.80  ! 
.78  I 

2.10 
.39  I 
.38  I 

2.10 


1.74 
3.77 

.62 

.78 

.21 

95 

2. 3  J 

.25 
l.!H) 

.61 

.39 

.55 
1.03 

r2 

.70  I 
.34  I 
.68  I 

1.82  1 

1.07 

1..52 
.34 

8.77 


Nov. 

Dec. 

..'6 

.70  1 

.76 

.98  1 

.53 

.49 

.68 

.59  1 

.99 

.31   ! 

1.15 

.92  I 

1.87 

1.64 

1.46 

.67 

.76 

.46  . 

•:^:  I 


."6 
.63 
.44 
.51 

1.15 
.27 
.46 

1.37 

2.26 
.(iS 
.90 

2.26 


■^8 
.30 
.48 
..52 
.73 
..58 
.52 
.59 
.4S 
..57 
.itO 
.32 
1.64 


2.28 
2.10 
1.75 
1.90 
1.67 
2.05 
2.34 
2.65 
1  '.«) 
1..52 
1.07 

l'..S7 
1.67 
3.34 
1..57 
1.66 
1.92 
2.26 
1..52 
2.10 
3.34 


136 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE    TNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  23.— Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Houusat  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1871  to  1893, 

Inclusive. 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

2.00 

.88 
1.39 

.57 
2.03 
1.89 

.!tO 
1.22 
2.(i8 
1.88 

.29 
2.01 

.76 

.87 
2.69 
1.17 

.94 
2.46 

.13 
2.66 

.81 
1.07 
2.68 

Sept. 

Got. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Year. 

1871         

.60 

.55 

.58 

1.20 

,57 

2.95 

1.09 

1.01 

.66 

1.16 

1.27 

1.16 

.78 

.49 

1.69 

.99 

.77 

.72 

.as 
i.;i3 

1.31 
1.62 
2.95 

2.00 

.55 

1..53 

2.73 

.m 

.66 

.39 

.59 

.95 

1.81 

1.50 

2.27 

1.96 

2.50 

1.39 

.55 

2.98 

.50 

.60 

1.24 

1.18 

2.83 

2.83 

1.40 

.65 

.55 

1.47 

1.U2 

1.04 

2.13 

1.83 

1.70 

1.39 

.54 

2.54 

1.73 

.81 

.18 

.70 

.88 

1.27 

.36 

1.06 

1.21 

.53 

2.54 

.80 
1.73 

.61 
1.06 
1.00 
1.90 

.67 
1.19 

.72 
1.93 

.89 

.56 
1.32 
1.02 

.86 

..58 
2.21 

.88 

.98 
1.09 

.44 
178 
2.21 

.50 

1.36 

.95 

.60 

1.41 

.38 

.49 

.86 

2.98 

2.18 

1.21 

2.47 

1.76 

1.43 

.45 

1.28 

1.00 

1.06 

1.54 

1.16 

.54 

l.M 

2.98 

DO  data 

1.58 

.65 

.82 

1.13 

1.51 

1..39 

2.06 

2.05 

3.12 

1.90 

1.26 

.97 

.69 

.78 

1.6S 

1.79 

.57 

1.14 

1.55 

.96 

.96 

3.12 

.90 

1.81 

.92 

1.70 

1.50 

1.43 

1.24 

.94 

.62 

1.54 

1.74 

.91 

.72 

.61 

.40 

.88 

.58 

.97 

2.40 

1.16 

2.43 

.77 

2.40 

1.05 

.93 

1.12 

1.14 

.35 

.61 

.82 

.63 

1.75 

.73 

.'.14 

.78 

.91 

1.31 

1.25 

M 

..57 

1.(1 

1.50 

1.00 

1.57 

2.02 

2.02 

.30 

1.18 
.80 
.81 
.81 

2.64 
.61 
.57 
.36 

1.27 

2.29 
.78 

3.06 
.55 
.58 
.42 
.37 
.63 
.95 

1.25 
.75 
.17 

3.06 

1.85 

.85 

2.75 

1.82 

2.28 

.70 

.97 

1.35 

1.51 

1  50 

1.67 

.46 

2.93 

.52 

.92 

1.39 

.81 

1..35 

1.10 

.80 

1.59 

.54 

2.75 

2.50 

.85 

2.75 

1.07 

1.68 

.45 

1.41 

.90 

1.93 

3.10 

1  60 

1.10 

2.60 

1.27 

.90 

.71 

.98 

.45 

.93 

.72 

.93 

.m 

3.10 

1872 

1873 

1.81 
2.75 

1874 

1875 

1876 

2.73 
2.28 
2.95 

1877 

1«78 

2.13 
2.06 

1879 

2.98 

IbSO 

3.12 

1881 

2.29 

1S82 

2.54 

1883 

1884 

3.06 
2.50 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888 

1889 

:s9(i     

2.62 
1.68 
2.98 
2.46 
2.40 
2.66 

1891    

2.43 

1892 

2.83 

3.12 

Table  No.  24.— Heaviest  Rainfalls  in  24  Hochs  at  Atlanta,  Georgia,  1879  to 

1892,  iNCLrsivE. 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Ape 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Year. 

1879 

1.28 
1.10 
2..i5 
1.23 
4.03 
1.87 
1.56 
2.62 
1.05 
1.24 
1.16 
1.08 
1.61 
3.28 
4.03 

1.75 
2.10 
2.98 
1.69 

.58 
1.22 
1.18 

.33 

.81 
1.34 
1.65 

.98 
1.53 
1.28 
2.98 

1  25 
1.71 
3.89 
1.66 

.98 
2.12 
1-79 
7..S6 

.50 
1.76 
1.18 
120 
2.35 
2.01 
7.36 

1.59 

1.78 

1.30 

2.11 

3.08 

2.41 

.44 

1.2t 

.85 

.63 

1.26 

.56 

.83 

3.19 

3.19 

1.42 

2.Fi6 

.57 

.65 

.99 

.42 

1.43 

2.77 

1.08 

3.28 

1.68 

3.90 

.96 

.41 

3.90 

2.23 
1.16 

.85 
1.45 

.80 
1.42 
1.58 
1.69 

.65 
1..S7 
1.27 

.43 
1.93 
2.59 
2.59 

1.27 

1.14 

.20 

1.80 

.46 

.85 

.98 

1.13 

3.51 

.73 

2.32 

2.17 

1.61 

1.06 

3.51 

1.13 
.95 

1.54 

1.05 
.53 
.84 

4.22 
.62 

1.51 
.90 

1.^0 
.76 
.59 

1.56 

4.22 

1.04 
3.17 
2.12 
2.30 

.38 

.05 
1.64 

.34 
1.86 
3.00 
2.00 
2.07 

.61 

2.:?!' 
.3.17 

1.48 

.76 
2.66 

..55 
1.06 

.39 
1.38 

.02 
1  06 
1.22 

.68 
2.01 

.02 

.34 
2.(6 

1.63 
2.19 

.95 
1  49 
1.89 

.88 
1.18 
1.03 

.16 
1.80 
1.21 

.09 
1.43 
1.71 
2.19 

3.76 
1..33 
2.14 
1.30 
1.27 
3.74 
1.25 
1.11 
1.47 
2.60 

.41 
1.65 

.97 
1.57 
3.76 

3.76 

1880 

1881 

3.17 
3.89 

1882 

2.. SO 

188:3 

4.03 

1884 

3  74 

1885 

1S86 

4.23 
7.36 

1S87       

3  51 

1888 

3.28 

1889  

2.32 

1890 

1891   

3.90 
2.35 

1892 

Period 

3.28 
7.36 

The  two  following-  tables,  Nos.  25  and  26,  sliow  the  actual  length  of 
iime  of  a  number  of  heavy  rainfalls  at  two  jjlaces  in  the  Southwest, 
"where  very  heavy  rainfalls  are  common. 


Table  No.  25. 


Dates. 


-Rainfalls  in  Excess  of  2.5  Inches  in  24  Hours  at  Vicksburg, 
Mississippi,  1872  to  1892,  Inclusive. 


Duration. 


April  2,  3, 187-3. . . 
April  5.  6.  1872. . . 
May  23,  24,  1872  . 
Dec.  IS,  19,  1872. 

April  8,  1874 

April! 5.  1874  . 
April  IS.  19.  1874. 
Julv  4.  .5.  1S74  . . . 
Sept.  25,  1874  . . . 
.Ian.  2.3.  24,  1875. 
Marcn  31,1875... 
April  9.  10.  1875.. 
Sept.  17,18,  1875. 


From 
5.40  p.m. 
8.40  a.m. 
3.54  p.m. 
11.40  p.m. 
5.30  a.m. 
6  a.m. 
•S.POp.m. 
5.(0  p.m. 
4.15  p.m. 
8..30  a.m. 


To 
9.50  a.m 


9.. 35  a.m. 
1  p.m. 
4.45  p.m. 
6.1n  p.m. 
2.30  p.m. 
4.30  p.m. 
10.15  p.m. 
during  night 


4.00  p.m.  9.40  p.m 
8..30  p.m.  2.15  p.m 
7.45  a.m. 


2.62 
3.33 
5.  .36 
5.05 
4.46 
4.18 
4.86 
2.73 
2.95 
3.76 
3.26 
2.63 
4.99 


Duration. 


Date.«. 

Nov.  28,  1880 

Nov.  30.  1880 

Dec.  1.  1880. . 
Dec.  19,  20.  1882. 
April  6,  lSts3 
N..V.  10  &  11, 1883 
Nov.  22,  1883.... 
Dec.  29.  .SO,  1883. 

Sept.  3.  1S84 

Dec.  29,  1884   ... 
Jan.  15.  16,  1885. 
April,  6.  7,  1885.. 
April  27,  28,  1886. 


From  To 

during  night  10,04  p.m. 
during  night> 
durine  night/ 

.5.00  a.m.  12.30  a.m. 

8.40  a.m.  3.45  p.m. 

during  night  11. .30  p.m. 

.     12.50  a.m.  2..55  p.m. 

11  p.m.  9.20  p.m. 

1.45  p.m.  5.10  p.m. 

.     12.20  a.m.  1..30  p.m. 

.       5..S3  p.m.  8.30  p.m. 

3.15  p.m.  7.00  a.m. 

.       7.20  a.m.  10.20  a.m. 


Amonnt. 

2.93 

2.92 
3.78 
4.25 
4.79 
4.02 
4.51 
2.69 
4.07 
3.68 
4.29 
2,79 


THE   OCCURRENCE   OF   MAXIMUM    AND    MINIMUM    FLOW. 


137 


Table  No.  25. — Continued. 


Duration. 


Dates. 

March  0.  1876. . . . 

May  7, 1876 

Dec.  2:i,  24.  1876. 
April  7.  8,  1877... 
Oct.  17,  18.  1877.. 

Nov.  1.  1877 

Nov.  7,8,1877... 

March  9,  1878 

April  23,  1878  ... 
Sept.  1,  i.  1879... 

May  3»i,  188U 

Oct.  4,  1880 

Nov.  24,  25,  1880. 


From  To 

11.45  a.m.     S.OO  p.m. 

.during  night  6.0U  p.m. 

.  11.45  a.m.     10.00  a.m. 


.  8.10  a.m. 
.  11.15  p.m. 
.  4..35  p.m. 
.  3.35  p.m. 
.  8.30  a.m. 
.  2.15  p.m. 
.  8.25  a.m. 
.during  night  9.45  p.m. 
during  night  11.45  a.m 
.     7.20  a.m.     8  00  a.m. 


during  night 
9.40  p.m. 
8.45  p.m. 
7.35  a.m. 
11.40  p.m. 
12  midnight 
during  night 


2.84 

3.40 
3.70 
3.53 
2.97 
2.50 

2.  as 

4.46 
2.63 
.3.97 
4.27 
2.71 
3.18 


Dates. 

Feb.  19.  20,  1887  . . 
Sept.  14.  15,  1881.. 
Oct.  27,  28.  18S1... 

Nov.  11,  1881 

March  3,  4,  1888... 
Aug.  l!l,  20,  1888.. 
June  11,  12,  1889.. 

Jan.  15,  1890 

March  11,  12,  1890. 

May  2,  3,  1890 

March?,  8.  1891.. 
Nov.  21,  22,  1891.. 
Feb.  19,20,1892.... 


Duration. 


From  To 

12.50  p.m.     during  night 
during  night    6.20  a.m. 
10.30  a.m.     3.1U  p.m. 
12..30  p.m.    9.2.i  p.m. 
8.25  p.m.    8.00  p.m. 
11.50  p.m.     4.10  p.m. 
Unknown 
6..')0  a.m.     4.40  p.m. 
10.30  p.m.     10.30  p.m. 
5.30  p.m. 4,     30  p.m. 
during  night  during  night 
Unknown 
Unknown 


Dates  on  which  1.00  inch  or  more  of  precipitation  occurred  in  one  hour  or  less. 


April  15.  1874 3.30  p.m.  6.15  p.m.  3.40 

May  2:^,  1879 5  38  p.m.  6  55  p.m.  1.42 

June  13.  1879  7.19  p.m.  8.15  p.m.  1..30 

Oct.  2,  1879 5.25  p.m.  6.20  p.m.  1.25 

Nov.  28,  1879 4.00  a.m.  .5.20  a.m.  1.81 

Aug.  17.  1880 3.30  p.m.  6.10  p.m.  2.22 


Sept.  26.  1881 . 
July  17,  18S8  . 
May  2.  189C... 
Mav  .3,  IMIQ  .. 
July  8, 1890... 


3.45  p.m. 
5.00  p.m. 
5.45  p.m 
11.30  .a.m. 
3.50  p.m. 


4.50  p.m. 
6.16  p.m. 
6.45  p.m. 
12.30  p.m. 
4.40  p.m. 


2.53 
3.85 
6.95 
3..32 
2.82 
2.75 
2.  .50 
2..5:i 
2.7* 
3.42 
6.47 
4.28 
2.70 


1.31 
1.38 
1.20 
1.00 
1.12 


Table  No.  26.— Heaviest  Rainfalls,  With  Actual  Duration,  at  Shreveport, 
Louisiana,  1872  to  1891,  Inclusive. 


Duration. 

Duration. 

Date. 

Amount. 

Date. 

Amounts 

From 

To 

From 

To 

Jan.  5.  1872... 

9.30  a.m. 

during  night. 

3.19 

Nov.  8.  1881  . . 

.During  night 

8.15  p.m. 

2.50 

.May  2-3.  1872.. 

.     11.35  p.m. 

10.a5p.mT 

24"* 

3.21 

Dec.  13,  1881.. 

.       5.20  p.m. 

3.00  p.m. 

14" 

2.55 

Oct.  28,  1872.. 

8.05  p.m. 

1.00  p.m. 

29" 

2.71 

Dec.  19,  1881.. 

7.15  a.m. 

7.00  a.m. 

20" 

2.72 

Dec.  1,5,  1872.. 

.     11.15  p.m. 

8.15  a.m. 

16" 

2.,53 

Feb.  2.  1882. . . 

.       4.30  p.m. 

3.00  p.m 

3" 

3.12 

Nov.  22,  1873  . 

4.40  p.m. 

4.40  p.m. 

2-3" 

4.10 

July  18,  1882.. 

.During  night 

5.45  p.m. 

2.8.? 

July  9,  1874. . . 

.     10.25  p.m. 

11.50  a.m. 

1(1" 

3..;6 

Oct.  17,  18S2.. 

.     11.00  p.m. 

12.00  p.m. 

18" 

4.17 

Aug.  9,  1875 

6.27  a.m. 

6.27  a.m. 

10" 

2.62 

Nov.  10,  1883  . 

8.00  a.m. 

7.00  a.m 

11" 

4.83 

Sept.  17,  1875. 

2.00  a.m. 

2.00  a.m. 

18" 

7.00 

Mav  21.  1884.. 

.     10.10  p.m. 

8.40  a.m. 

22" 

5.45 

Dec.  21.  1875. 

.     10.50  p.m. 

10.40  p.m. 

2i" 

4.66 

Nov.  22.  1884  . 

.       7.12  a.m. 

7.20  p.m. 

3.13 

Mar.    11.  1876. 

2.30  p.m. 

6.30  p.m. 

2.81 

Dec.  27,  1884.. 

7.00  a.m. 

7.00  a  m. 

28" 

2.8.3 

.Mar.  19.  1876  . 

.     10.00  a.m. 

7.00  a.m. 

20" 

4.46 

Dec.  28,1884.. 

7.00  a.m. 

7.00  a.m 

29" 

4.0S 

May  6.  1876. . . 

.      3.30  p.m. 

12.00  noon 

27" 

7.37 

Dec.  29,1884.. 

.       7.00  a.m. 

7.0(1  a.m. 

30" 

3. 78 

Sept.  3,  1877.. 

8.30  p.m. 

11.30  p.m. 

6.87 

Jan.  13, 1!<85.. 

.     11.00  p.m. 

11.00  p.m 

14" 

5.71 

Mar.  8,  1878  . . 

7.li0  p.m. 

10.30  a.m. 

9" 

4.50 

Jan.  14.  1885.. 

.     11.00  p.m. 

8.30  p.m. 

1.5" 

4.27 

April  15,  1878. 

.       1.00  a.m. 

9  00  a.m. 

2.92 

April  22.  18  5. 

7.0Uia.m. 

7.00  a.m. 

23" 

4.16 

July  23,  1878  . 

.     12.20  p.m. 

5.0(1  p.m. 

2.56 

June  10,  1885. 

.       3.00  p.m. 

3.00  p.m 

11" 

2.5» 

April  1.5,  1879. 

2.45  p.m. 

10,30  p.m. 

4.64 

Sept.  .5.  1885  . 

.     11.15  a.m. 

during  night  6" 

2.87 

April  23.  1879. 

.       1.48  p.m. 

10.40  a.m. 

24" 

.3.11 

Oct.  25,1885.. 

.       7.00  a.m. 

7.(0  a.m. 

26" 

2.98 

Aug.  23,  1879  . 

.       9.53  p.m. 

8.00  p.m. 

22" 

3.47 

Mar   2(i.  l&S<i. 

8.05  a.m. 

7.30  a.m. 

27" 

2.71 

Feb.  1,  1880... 

5..30p.m. 

3.00  p.m 

2" 

3.(!0 

Sept.  1.3.  1886 

.     12.20  a.m. 

11.15  p.m. 

2.73 

April  28,  1880. 

6  20  p.m. 

5.54  a.m. 

29" 

2.55 

Oct.  2.3.  1887.. 

.     10..30  p.m. 

9.30  p.m. 

24" 

2.92 

July  27,  1880.. 

.       3.30  p.m. 

1..54  p.m. 

28" 

5.00 

Nov.  24,  1887. 

8.10  p.m. 

8.10  p.m. 

25" 

2.90 

Sept.  12,  1880., 

6.35  a.m. 

9.15  p.m 

2.84 

Dec.  6.  1887... 

3.00  p.m. 

3.00  p  m. 

7" 

3.18 

Feb.  .5,  1S81... 

1.00  p.m. 

9  00  a.m. 

6" 

.3.48 

April  13,  1889. 

.     10.15  a.m. 

10  00  a.m. 

14" 

2.68 

May  8.  1881,.. 

.     12.45  p.m. 

9.10  p.m. 

2.70 

Nov.  6.  1889.. 

8.35  a.m. 

8.35  a.m. 

7" 

2.57 

Sept.  14,  1881., 

.During  night 

7.25  p  m. 

4.06 

Jan.  1,  1890,.. 

.     10. ;»  p.m. 

10.30  p.m. 

2" 

2.62 

Oct.  2.3,  18H1 . . 

.During  night 

4.50  p.m. 

2.63 

Sept.  27,   1891.. 

.     10.40  p.m. 

2.35  p.m. 

28" 

4.01 

Oct.  27,  1881 . . . 

.     12. .30  am. 

6.20  p.m. 

3.80 

Dec.  22,  1891.. 

8  00  p.m. 

6.30  p.m. 

23" 

4.64 

*  The  minute  (")  sign  in  this  table  indicates  the  day  of  the  month  when  the  rain  stopped. 


The  Time  of  OccuiiKEXcE  of  Maxlaium  and  Minimum  Flow. 

The  foref2:oing  tables  indicate  that  there  is  a  larg-e  variation  in 
the  flow  of  sewaofe  from  combined  systems,  by  reason  of  irreg-ular 
and  uncertain  accessions  dne  to  tlie  rainfall.  In  such  a  system,  tlio 
sewers,  in  a  majority  of  cases  presumably,  will  not  be  even  approxi- 
mately impervious  ;  the  minimum  quantity  of  flow  will  occur,  probably, 
in  times  of  droujiht,  when  not  only  intiltration  from  the  surrounding- 
soil  is  at  its  lowest,  but  leaka<,'"e  is  at  a  maximum.     On  the  other  hand. 


138 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


in  separate  systems,  where  the  sewers  have  been  made  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible absolutely  impervious,  assuming  that  roof  water  and  cellar  drain- 
age are  excluded,  the  maximum  flow  may  be  expected  either  in  hot, 
dry  weather,  or  in  extreme  cold  weather,  at  both  of  which  times  the 
maximum  consumption  of  water  for  domestic  purposes  will  be  taking- 
place.  Separate,  or  more  properly,  modifled  separate  systems  are,  for 
sanitary  reasons,  frequently  designed  with  reference  to  taking  cellar 
drainage  together  with  the  whole,  or  a  portion,  of  the  roof  water,  and 
Avhen  so  arranged  the  amount  of  the  special  inflows  should  be  allowed 
for.  In  a  discussion  of  this  kind,  as  has  been  stated,  no  more  can  be 
done  than  to  point  out  tlie  main  factors  controlling,  and  the  foregoing 
are  enough  to  indicate  the  leading  conditions  in  the  problem  to  be 
solved. 

By  way  of  further  illustrating  the  use  of  water  for  domestic  and 
manufacturing  purposes.  Tables  Nos.  27  and  28,  showing  the  use  of 
water  in  the  cit}'  of  Rochester,  are  included. 

Table    No.  27.— Total  Avkragr  Daily   Use  of  Water  in  Gallons  in  the  City 
OF  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  for  the  Years  Indicated,  the  Population,  etc. 


Hemlock  Lake  TVater. 

Average 
daily  use  of 
Holly  vi'ater, 
per  head  of 
population, 
in  gallons. 

Total 

April  1  to  April  1. 

Population. 

Total 

average 

daily  use, 

in  gallon.s. 

Average 
daily  use 
per  head 

of  the 
population, 
in  gallons. 

daily  use 
per  head  of 
population 
from   both 
systems,  in 
gallons. 

1876-7 

83,600* 

85,150 

86.700 

88,4.30 

90.930 

93,100 

95,().50 

99.850 

104,200 

108,500 

113.900 

119.700 

126.500 

2,500,000 
3,280,0110 
3,675.000 
4,510,000 
5,040.000 
4,925,000 
5.260,0(0 
5,590,000 
6.160,000 
.5.990,000 
6.6(iO,000 
6,930,000 
7,25lt,000 

30.3 
38.9 
42.4 
51.0 
55.4 
53.0 
55.0 
56.0 
59.1 
55.2 
58.5 
57.9 
57.3 

1877-8 

1878-9 

1 879-80 ? 

1880-1 

1881-2 

1882-3 

1883-4 

12.6t 

12.8 

12.4 

11.2 

11.9 

12.2 

12.5 

67.6 
68.6 

1884-5 

71.5 

188.5-6 

66.4 

1886-7 

70.4 

1887-8  

70.1 

1888-9 

69.8 

*  Official  population  in  1875,  81,722  ;  in  1880,  89..366  ;  in  1890,  133.896.  No  additions  to  territory  during  the 
period  covered  by  this  table.  The  reports  for  the  years  1889-90,  1890-91,  and  1891-92  do  not  give  the  consump- 
tion of  Hemlock  lake  water  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  inclusion  here.  The  consumption  of  Holly  water  did  not 
vary  much  from  the  above  figures. 

+  Holly  water  in  use  from  about  January,  1874.  but  no  record  kept  previous  to  the  year  ending  April  1,  1883. 
The  figures  here  given  are  based  upon  pump  displacement  with  allowance  for  slip. 


In  explanation  of  these  two  Rochester  tables  it  may  be  stated  that 
the  water  Avorks  of  that  city  are  a  dual  system,  including  a  gravity 
supply  for  purely  domestic  and  special  manufacturing  purposes  from 
Hemlock  lake,  while  for  other  purposes,  such  as  additional  fire  pro- 
tection in  the  business  district,  street  sprinkling,  the  furnishing  of 
light  power  for  motors,  the  flushing  of  water-closets  in  a  few  large 
blocks,  water    is  taken   from  the  Genessee   river   by  a  direct   press- 


THE    OCCUHKENCE    OF    MAXIMUM    AND    MINIMUM    FLOW. 


189 


Table  No.  28. —Approximate  Use  of  Water  from  the  Hemlock  Lake  System,  by 
Hours,  on  Three  Different  Days  in  1890,  as  Detei{mined  by  the  Outflow 

FROM  THE  Mt.  HOPE  RESERVOIR  OF  THE  WaTER-WoRKS  OF  ROCHESTER,  N.  Y.* 


Hours. 

7  a.m.  to  7  p.m.,  Satur- 
day, July  5.  1890     (12- 
hour  period). 

7  a.m.  Sunday.  Aue.  10, 
to  7  a.m.  Monday,  Aug. 
11  (24-hour  period). 

7  a.m.  Monday,  Aug.  25, 
to  7  a.m.  Tuesday,  Aug. 
26  (24-hour  period). 

Hourly  out- 
flow, gal. 

Outflow 

in  six  hotirs, 

gal. 

Hourly  out- 
flow, gal. 

Outflow 

in  six  hours, 

gal. 

Hourly  out- 
flow, gal. 

Outflow 

in  six  hours, 

gal. 

7  a.m.  to   8  a.m 

330,56.3 
374,220 
394,238 
306.163 

217,907 
260,911 
277,490 
285,393 
250,098 
25>S,079 
248,800 
239,6r0 
204,907 
161,936 
212,638 
204.707 
169,426 
186.026 
151,926 
118,004 
151,505 
111,676 
67,222 
134,146 
1.50.7.57 
100,326 
217.105 
266,463 

4,647,118     1 

1,549;878 
1,272,658 

'  936.6i9 

392,041 
355.035 
389.125 
386.659 
333,590 
332,493 
.348,811 
330,245 
277.078 
345,676 
292,693 
291.818 
205,479 
143,816 
170,626 
170.326 

8    '•           9    '•    

9     "          10     •■    

10    •'         11     ■•    

11     ••         1-^     "    

392.583          

330,497     j    2,188,264 

.373,238     i     

363,562     '     

2,189,943 

1  p.m.  to   2  p.m 

2     •'            -.i     '•    

■3     ••           4     ■'    

:345,789 
345,877 
341.381 

4     "           5     "    

5     "           fi     '•    

(i    "           7     "    

326,262    1    2,096,109 


......     !      ....... 

1,886,321 

7     ■'           8     ••    

8     '•           9     '•    

9     "         11)     ••    

10    "         11     ••    

11     "          i-i     ••    

102,063 
135.925 
135,685 
]01,f,43 
118,485 
1.35,204 
185,607 
9RH  n.tn 

928,235 

1  a.m.  to    2  a.m 

2     ••           3     ••    

3     '•           4     "    

4     "           5     •'    

5     ••           H     "    

€     •■           7     "           

Totals        

4.284,373 

4.284,.373 

4,647,118 

*             ' 

*  Tables  N.-  s.  27  and  28  are  from  a  paper  by  Mr.  Rafter,  On  the  Measures  for  Restricting  the  Use  and  Waste  of 
Water  in  Force  in  the  City  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  in  Trans.  Am,  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  xxvi.,  pp.  2.3-76.  (January, 
1892.) 

ure  Holly  system.  With  this  explanation  the  significance  of  table 
No.  27  will  be  easily  imderstood. 

In  Table  No.  28  we  have  the  use  of  water  from  the  Hemlock  lake 
system  by  hours  on  three  ditt'erent  days — namely,  for  Saturday,  Sunday, 
and  Monday.  The  Saturday  record,  unfortunately  for  really  satis- 
factory comparison,  is  only  complete  for  the  12  hours  from  7  A.  M.  to 
7  r.  M.  If  we  till  it  out  by  comparison  with  the  Monday  record  we  see 
that  in  the  summer  of  1890  the  use  of  water  for  all  purposes  from  the 
Hemlock  lake  system  was,  on  week  days,  roundly  0,000,000  g-allons  a 
day,  or  f(n-  a  population  of  133,896  (amount  as  per  United  States  Cen- 
sus) we  obtain  a  daily  use  of  about  44.8  gallons.  On  Sunday,  when 
manufacturing  establishments  are  closed,  the  daily  use  of  say  4,650,000 
is  equivalent  to  about  34.7  gallons  per  head  of  poi)ulati(m  per  day. 
This  latter  figure  may  be  considered  as  representing,  therefore,  approxi- 
mately, the  purely  domestic  use  of  water  in  the  city  of  Rochester. 
The  difference  of  44.8  and  34.7,  equal  to  11.1  gallons  per  head,  repre- 
sents likewise  the  ordinary  manufacturing  use. 

Examining  the  figures  as  to  hourly  flow  Ave  find  the  minimum  to  be 


140  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

only  67,222  gallons  per  hour,  amounting-  at  this  rate  in  24  hours  to 
1,613,328  gallons.  The  maximum  hourly  flow  of  394,238  gallons, 
amounts  for  24  hours  to  9,461,712.  These  figures  are  sufficient  to 
show  the  considerable  variation  from  the  daily  mean  which  will 
take  place  at  different  times  of  the  day  in  a  system  where  the  amount 
of  sewage  is  approximately  represented  by  the  amount  of  the  water 
supply. 

At  the  time  of  making  these  observations  no  water  was  used  from 
the  Hemlock  lake  system  for  either  sprinkling  streets  or  flushing 
sewers,  and  the  figures  may  in  consequence  be  taken  as  ap]ilying  to 
the  problem  in  hand  without  material  correction  or  modification. 

Results  of  Sewer  Gagings. 

So  far  as  the  authors  are  aware  the  most  extended  series  of  gagings 
of  sewer  discharges  thus  far  made  in  this  country  are  those  of  Samuel 
M.  Gray,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  at  Providence,  R.  I. 

Table  No.  29,  from  Mr.  Gray's  Providence  report,  gives  the  results 
of  a  number  of  these  gagings.  In  reference  to  the  variations  per 
inhabitant  in  different  parts  of  the  city  Mr.  Gray  states  that  sewers 
laid  in  wet  localities  furnish  a  much  greater  quantity  of  sewage  per 
inhabitant  connected  than  do  those  laid  in  the  drier  part  of  the  city  ; 
due,  as  already  noted  in  Boston,  in  most  localities  to  spring  or 
ground  water  which  thus  finds  its  way  into  the  sewers. 

The  daily  use  of  water  per  cajjita  in  Providence  is  about  50  gallons, 
and  the  new  intercepting  sewers  are  designed  to  carry  60  gallons  of 
sewage  per  inhabitant  per  day  in  addition  to  ^^^  inch  of  rainfall  per 
hour  and  the  manufacturing  wastes.  The  manufacturing  wastes  are 
estimated  to  flow  off  in  ten  hours  ;  while  one  half  of  the  sewage  is  esti- 
mated to  flow  off  in  seven  hours. 

In  1885  George  S.  Pierson,  C.  E.,  made  a  series  of  weir  measurements 
of  the  flow  of  the  Water  street  main  sewer  in  Kalamazoo,  Mich, 
Readings  were  taken  on  Monday,  March  9,  1885,  from  1  A.  m.  to  12 
o'clock  midnight.  The  minimum  discharge  occurred  at  3  a.m.  and 
amounted  to  224  gallons  per  minute.  The  maximum,  amounting  to  287 
gallons  per  minute,  occurred  at  4  p.m.  The  mean  discharge  for  the 
wdiole  24  hours  was  254  gallons  per  minute.  Taking  the  mean  dis- 
charge at  100,  we  have  the  minimum  for  the  day  88  per  cent,  of  the 
mean  ;  the  maximum  113  per  cent,  of  the  mean.* 

In  January,  1891,  the  flow  of  the  main  outfall  sewer  of  the  State 
Insane  Hospital  at  Weston,  W.  Va.,  was  gaged  by  weir  measure- 
ment under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Rafter  for  a  period  of  48  hours. 
This  sewer  is  of  vitrified  tile,  12  inches  in  diameter,  and  probably  as 

*  For  detail  of  these  gagings  see  The  Separate  System  of  Sewage,  by  Staley  and  Pierson. 


RESULTS    OF   SEWKR   GAGINGS. 


141 


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142 


SEWAGP]    DISPOSAL    IN"   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


nearly  absolutely  impervious  as  sucli  a  sewer  can  be  made.  An  exam- 
ination of  the  joints  at  a  number  of  test  pits  indicated  that  neat  or 
nearly  neat  Portland  cement  had  been  freely  used  in  making-  the 
joints,  every  one  examined  showing  the  bells  well  filled,  with  large 
wads  of  cement  under  and  around  the  joints. 

The  tributary  population  at  the  Hospital,  including  patients,  offi- 
cers, attendants,  and  servants  is  almost  exactly  1,000.  In  addition  to 
sewag-e  proper  the  sewer  receives  some  roof  water,  but  at  the  time  of 
making  the  gagings  there  was  neither  rainfall  nor  melting  snow  to 
contribute  from  this  source.  The  sewer  received  the  water  of  con- 
densation from  the  steam  heating  apparatus  of  the  Hospital,  amount- 
ing in  January  to  about  10,000  gallons  per  day.  Aside  from  this 
addition  the  results  may  be  taken  as  representing  the  normal  amount 
of  sewage  of  the  institution.  Self-closing  fixtures  are  in  use  through- 
out the  building,  and  no  serious  sources  of  leakage  from  the  water 
fixtures  could  be  discovered.  The  total  mean  flow  for  24  hours  Avas 
found  to  be  101,047  gallons  ;  the  maximum,  amounting  to  6,696  gal- 
lons per  hour,  occurring  between  9  and  10  a.m.;  the  minimum,  of  2,079 
gallons  pev  hour,  occurred  between  1  and  2  a.m.  Deducting  the  esti- 
mated water  of  condensation  of  10,000  gallons  per  day  there  remains 
the  sewage  proper,  about  91,000  gallons  per  day,  which,  for  a  tributary 

Table  No.  30. — Results  op  a  Gaging  by  Weir  Measukement  of  the  Flow  of 
Main  Outfall  Sewer  op  the  State  Insane  Hospital  at  Weston,  West 
Virginia,  in  January,  1891. 


Day. 


Wednesday , 


Thursday. 


12  M. 

1  P.M. 

2  " 

3  '^ 

4  " 

5  •' 

6  " 

7  " 

5  " 
9  " 

10  " 

11  " 

12  •' 

1  A.M. 

2  " 

3  " 

4  •' 
.5  •' 

6  " 

7  " 

8  " 

9  " 

10  ■' 

11  " 

12  m.* 


Rate  in      Mean 
gallons     flow  in 
per      I  gallons 
minute.  1  per  hour. 


78.75 
93.60 
93.C.0 
75.6(1 
75.60 
7021' 
75.H(J 
75.60 
70.20 
58.50 
53.55 
44.55 
44.55 
44.55 
44.55 
44.55 
44..55 
49.05 
64.S-0 
75.60 
86.40 
105  80 

li7.no 

93.60 
93.60 


5.170 
5,616 
5.070 
4..536 
4.374 
4.374 
4.536 
4.374 
3.861 
3.C61 
2.943 
2,673 
2.673 
2.673 
2.673 
2.673 
2.806 
3,415 
4.212 
4.860 
5.7.51 
6.696 
6,345 
5,616 


Day. 


Thursday 


Friday . 


Rate  in 

Hour. 

gallons 

minute. 

12  m.* 

93.60 

1  P.M. 

99.45 

2     " 

86.40 

3     " 

93.60 

4     " 

75.60 

5     " 

93.60 

6     '■ 

81.00 

7    " 

93.60 

8     " 

5S.50 

9    •• 

53.55 

10     " 

53  b-i 

11     " 

44.55 

12     " 

44.56 

1  A.M. 

34.65 

2      " 

34.65 

3     " 

.39  60   ' 

4     " 

49  05 

5     '• 

49.05 

6     •' 

58.50 

7     " 

70.  SO 

8     " 

b.6..J0 

9    '■ 

105  3(1 

10     " 

86.40 

11     " 

86.40 

12  m. 

105.30   1 

Mean 
flow  in 

gallons 


5.792 
5.  .576 
5.400 
5.076 
5,076 
5.238 
5.238 
4.563 
3,3t;2 
3,.-;62 
2.943 
2,673 
2.3  6 
2.079 
2,228 
2.659 
2.943 
3.227 
3.861 
4.698 
5,751 
5,751 
5,184 
5,751 


'  Repeated. 


RESULTS    OF    SEWER   GAGIXGS. 


143 


population  of  1,000,  amounts  to  91  gallons  j^er  day.  Table  Xo.  30 
g-ives  the  details  of  these  g-agings. 

In  February,  1892,  William  B.  Landreth,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  gaged 
the  flow  of  the  main  sewer  of  Schenectady,  New  York,  for  a  period  of  24 
hours.  The  main  outfall  sewer  of  Schenectady  receives  the  drainage 
from  about  15  miles  of  lateral  sewers,  of  the  separate  system,  having 
1,500  house  connections. 

At  the  time  of  the  gagiugs  no  roof  water  was  flowing  into  the  sewers, 
but  they  were  receiving  50,000  gallons  in  24  hours  of  flush-tank  dis- 
charge and  60,000  gallons  by  seepage,  as  determined  before  the  house 
oonnections  were  made. 

Table  No.  31  gives  the  results.* 


Table  No.  31. — Houki.y  Flow  and  Pekcentage  of  the  Same  of  the  Total  Flow 
IN  the  M.\xx  Seweu  at  Schenectady,  New  York,  for  24  Hours. 


Feb.  5,  1892. 
Hour. 

Hourly  flow, 
gallo.is. 

Per  cent,  of 
total  flow. 

Feb.  5,  1892. 
Hour. 

Hourly  flow, 
gallons. 

Per  cent,  of 
total  Qovr. 

9  A.M 

39.800 
43.352 
37,475 
37,475 
38.6:« 
39.S00 
41.073 
38,632 
37,475 
36.42:! 
36.423 
36,423 
33,884 

4.63 
5.04 
4.36 
4.36 
4.49 
4.(W 
4.78 
4.49 
4. .36 
4.23 
4.23 
4.23 
3.94 

10   P.M.    - 

33,884 
33,8?4 
32,718 

32,718 
32.718 
30,294 
32,718 
.31,416 
31.416 
34,014 
36,423 

3.94 

10     ■• 

11  - 

12  •• 

3.94 

11     '•  ..   

3.80 

12  M    ... 

Feb.  6. 

2   •'    

2  " 

3  '• 

4  '• 

5  '• 

6  " 

7  " 

8  " 

i 

3.80 

3   •'    

3  80 

4   •'    

3.52 

5   •'    

3.80 

«   •'    

3.65 

3.65 

8   "    

4.00 

9  '•    

4.23 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  the  greatest  flow  was  at  10  a.m., 
when  5.04  per  cent,  of  the  total  daily  flow  of  about  860,000  gallons  was 
passing  through  the  sew^er.  The  minimum  floAv  of  3.52  jier  cent, 
occurred  at  3  a.m. 

Comparing  the  Schenectady  gagings  with  those  at  the  Weston  Asylum, 
it  appears  that  both  the  maximum  and  minimum  flows  occurred  later  at 
Schenectady  than  at  Weston,  which  is  probably  accounted  for  largely 
l»y  th(>  greater  distance  which  the  sewage  travelled  at  Schenectady. 

In  the  spring  of  1891  gagings  -were  made  of  the  flow  of  sewage  in 
several  sewers  at  Toronto,  Ont.  The  gagings  extended  over  three 
days.     The  results  are  given  in  Table  3lA.t 


*Eng.  News,  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  ?,0r,  (March  20,  1892). 

+  Kng.  Newg,  vol.  xxviii.,  p.  409  (Nov.  24,  1892).     This  table  originally  appeared  substantially  i 
here  given  in  the  report  of  the  City  Engineer  of  Toronto,  Ont.,  for  1891. 


144 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Table  31A. — Seweb  Gagings  at  Toronto,  Ontario,  in  1891. 


Size  of  sewer. 

> 
o 

.o 

la 
If 

< 

Population.* 

Discharge  in 

2 

o 
H 

a 

3 

**  a 

11 

U 
P. 

H 

3 

6 

11 

7 

ft.   6  in 
"    6     " 
"    9    " 

u    0     .. 

"    6    " 

"    0    " 
•'    9     ■' 
"    9     " 
"    8    " 
"    6    " 
"    6    " 
"    6     " 
"    8     " 
"    4    " 
"    0     ' 
"    3     ' 

Averag 

Totals 

2,485 
372 
360 

13 
101 

25 
350 
263 
160 
195 
740 
225 
271 
770 
311 
503 

15.7 
46.2 
,8.8 
44.0 
45.5 
41.8 
17.6 
42.3 
39.8 
42.4 
11.8 
43.7 
41.7 
9.4 
45.7 
38.3 

39,014 

17.186 

3.168 

572 

4,595 

1.045 

6,160 

11,125 

6.368 

8,268 

8,732 

9.S32 

11,300 

7.238 

14,213 

19,265 

278.09 
212.28 
31. oO 
16.74 
,32.C.5 
10.89 
57.50 
71.56 
67.20 
62.62 
82.25 
80.83 
70.94 
70.57 
117.10 
93.78 

.11 

..57 
.09 
1.29 
.32 
.43 
.16 
.27 
.42 
..32 
.11 
..36 
.26 
.09 
.38 
.19 

10.27 
17.78 
11.07 
42.14 
10.23 
15.00 
13.44 

9.26 
15.19 
10.90 
13.56 
11.84 

9.04 
14.04 
11.86 

7.02 

400,4EO 

305,683 

45,072 

24.105 

47,016 

15.682 

82.800 

103,046 

96,768 

90,168 

118,440 

116,395 

102,153 

101.616 

168,624 

135,043 

77 

;^ 

X   5  ft.  0  ins 

133 

.8 

X   2  "  6    " 

83 

9, 

X    3  "  0    " 

316 

91 

X   5  "  0    " 

77 

9. 

X   3  "  0     " 

113 

3 

X    2  "   6    •«          

101 

» 

X   2  "  6     " 

69 

9 

X   4  "  0     " 

113 

6 

X   5  "  0     " 

89 

a 

diam 

102 

3 

X   5  ft.  0   ins 

89 

9 

X    4  "  0     " 

68 

9 

X   3  "  6    " 

105 

4 

X   5  "  6    " 

89 

4 

53 

'es 



24.0 

.200 

11.62 

87 

6,794 

168,081 

1,356.30 

1,953,061 

*  Estimated  from  assessments  of  1890  and  census  of  1891. 

A  Yeab's  Daily  Sewage  Pumping  Eecords  at  Atlantic  City,  New 

Jersey.* 

One  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  subject  under  discus- 
sion is  the  daily  sewage  pumping  records  in  connection  with  the  sew- 
age purification  works  at  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey,  given  in  full  for 
one  year  and  discussed  in  detail  below. 

Daily  records  of  pumpage  and  coal  consumption  are  kept  by  the 
Atlantic  City  Sewerage  Companj\  The  pumjD  register  is  read  at  12  m, 
each  day,  allowances  being  made  for  slip  and  wear  of  the  plunger. 
The  diagram,  Plate  II.,  shows  the  pumpage  of  sewage  for  each  day 
from  December  1,  1891,  to  November  30,  1892.  The  diagram  also 
shows  the  rainy  days  of  the  year,  and  the  maximum  and  minimum 
temperature  of  each  month,  by  dates.  The  figures  from  which  the 
diagram  was  compiled  are  given  to  the  nearest  thousand  in  Table  31B. 
Sundays  and  rainy  days  are  indicated  both  in  Table  31  B,  and  the  dia- 
gram, Plate  II. 

For  an  understanding  of  the  diagram  and  the  accompanying  tables, 
it  is  necessary  to  state  that  there  are  two  seasons  at  Atlantic  City,  a 
winter  and  a  summer.  The  winter  season  begins  about  January  15, 
and  is  said  to  continue  often  until  June  15,  v/hen  the  summer  season 
opens.  In  July  and  August,  1892,  it  is  said  that  the  average  popula- 
tion was  100,000.     The  resident  population  is  at  present  about  15,000, 

*  Rearranged  from  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxi.x.  pp.  123-124  (Feb.  9,  1893). 


July 

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PLATE    II.     DAILY  PUMPAGE  OF  SEWAGE  AT  ATLANTIC  CITY,  NEW  JERSEY.  FROM    DEC    1,    1891,   TO    NOV.   30,    1892. 


Table  No.  31  B.— Daily   Pumpage   op  Sewage   in   Thousands   op   Gallons  at 
Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey,  prom  Dec.  1,  1891,  to  Nov.  30,  1892. 


Day  of  month. 

December. 

January. 

February. 

March. 

April. 

May. 

1 

1,642 
1,604 
1.529 
1,509  R 
1,638 

1.560  S 
1,547  R 
1.670 
1.698 
1,612 
1,662 
1.598 

1.561  S 
1,559 
1,509 
1,6:57  R 
1,530 
1.602 
1,.^30 
1.585  S 
1.561 
1,542 
1..540 
1.503  R 
1.579 
1.507 
1,527  S 
1,.563 
1,616  R 
1.7.^8  R 
1.623 

1,549 
1.749  R 

1.643  S 

1.6-^5 

1,615 

1.740  R 

1.702 

1.694 

1.681 

1.722  S 

1,504  R 

1,665 

1.794  R 

1,649  R 

1.712  R 

1,751 

1,T2SS 

1.777  R 

1.7.39  R 

1.807 

1.796 

1.740 

1.712 

1.608  S 

1.6:34 

1,8.30 

1.742 

1.739 

1.721 

1.700 

1 ,680  S 

1.728 

1,711 

1,681 

1,673 

1,719 

1,757 

1,682  SR 

1,633 

1.621 

1,623  R 

1,651 

1.6:32 

1,7!)0 

1.694  S 

1.709 

1.69S 

1 .655 

1 .681 

1.725 

1.726  R 

1,676  SR 

1,746 

1,728 

1,792 

1,765 

1.750 

1.708 

1,728  S 

1,874 

1,940  R 

1,872 

1,824 

1,807 

1,767 

1,647  S 

1,705 

1,740  R 

1,845 

1,751  R 

1,743 

1.758 

1,745  S 

1,732 

1,651 

1,604 

1,678 

1.892  R 

2,338 

2,208  S 

1,920 

2,004 

1,932  R 

1,974 

1,917 

1,824  R 

1,892  SR 

2.074 

1,9:33 

1,889 

1,824 

1,410 

1,229 

1,760  S 

1,842 

1,762 

1,871 

1,965 

2,083  R 

2.012  R 

1,858  S 

1,826 

1,822 

1,818 

1.911  R 

2,0.57  R 

2.062 

2,0.34  S 

1,921 

1.922 

1.847 

1.851  R 

2,451  R 

2,087 

1.985  S 

1,93:3 

1,989 

1,911 

1,821 

1,801  R 

1,896 

1,998  S 
1,996 

2,002 
1.997 
1  832 

2 

3  

4 

5 

6 

1,966 
1  897 

7 

8  

1,974  S 
1.893 
1  710 

9 

lU         

11 

2,214  R 
1  920 

12 

13 

2  082 

14 

1  "179 

15 

2.165  S 
2.515  R» 
2.401 
2.275 
2,184 
2,271  R» 
2.427  R 
2.260  SB 
2  382 

16 

17 

IS  

19     

20 

22 

23 

24 

2;.304 

2,264 

2.097 

2,191 

2.216 

2,132  S 

2,029 

2,048 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

Total  

49,l(fl* 
1,584  f 

52,748 
1.701 

49,  .556 
1,709 

57,419 
1,852 

56,735 
1,891 

65,622 
2,117 

Average 

Day  of  month. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September. 

October. 

November. 

1 

2,116 
2,08:3 

3.456  R 

3.390 

.3,185  S 

3,9:38  R2 

3.49S 

:3,106 

.3.087 

2.995 

2.879 

2,877  S 

2,7:30 

2.756 

2,852 

2,874  R 

2,820 

2,762 

2,865  S 

2,927 

2,775  R 

.3,466 

3,264 

3,091 

2.967 

2.955  S 

2.890 

.3,1.53 

2,881 

2.821 

2.811 

2.865 

2,998  SR 

2.925 

2.979 

2.999 

2.862 

2.822 

2,8:37 

2.880  S 

2,897 

2.9:36 

2.'.l(l7 

2.008 

2.932  Ri 

2,976 

3.004  S 

:3.181 

3.699 

.3.083 

2.915 

2.854 

2,912 

2,968  SR 

.3,147 

3,135 

3,207  R 

.3,168  R 

3,209 

:3,128 

3.1.50  SR 

3.054 

2.813 

2,82U 

2.851 

2.721 

2,614 

.3,W1  S 

2,897 

2,797 

2,681 

2,66;3 

2.657 

3,414 

2,517  S 

2,475 

2,477 

2.515  R 

2,486 

2,401) 

2,551 

2,392  S 

2,;382 

2.338 

2,.347 

2,313  R 

2,:391 

2,.389 

2,289  S 

2,475  R 

2,244 

2.285 

2,2:n 

2,278 

3,212 

2,250  S 

2.120 

2,208 

2,208 

2,200 

2,101 

2.207 

1.949  S 

2,175 

2,187 

2,119 

1,958 

1,947 

1.933 

1.920  S 

l.!»41 

1.9.50 

1,8^9 

1.952 

2.168 

2.037 

2,101  S 

2.061 

2,069 

2.020 

2.029 

2.074 

2,049 

2,014  S 

1,994 

1,941 

2,087 
1,990 
2,1:33  R 
1.932 
2,026  S 
1.928  R» 
2,0.59 
2,070 
2.298  R 
2,144 
2,472 
2,.550  S 
2.419 
2.600  R 
3.073  li 
2.999 
2.819  R 
2.3.58 
2,:3T4  S 
2.:362 
2.313 
2.  .332 
2.:343 
2,380 
2,297 
2.141  S 
2.351  R 
2.009  B 
2,019 

0 

.3 

2  OM 

4 

2.179 

2.218  S 

2.i:v3 

2.112 

2.018 

2.170  R 

2.5:37  R 

2,:382 

2,:309  S 

2,602 

2,416 

2.442 

2.509 

2,180 

2.291 

2.214  S 

2.293 

2.4.>3 

2,271 

2.293 

2,2:37 

2,:J55 

2.485  S 

2..387 

2.368 

2,-388 

2,369  R 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9  

10 

11 

12 

13  

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25  

26 

27 

2.S 

29 

30 

31 

Total   

68.870 
2,396 

93.935 
3.0.30 

92.997 
3,000  . 

76,102 
2,503 

64,171 
2.070 

68,719 
2,291 

Average 

S  =  Sunday.         R  =  Rain.         R'  =  Heavy  rain  previous  niglit.         R'  =  Rain  previous  night. 
*  Footings  may  not  corrcnpond  exactly  with  totals  given,  as  former  include  the  odd  figures  omitted  from  hun- 
dreds column. 


10 


145 


146 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN'    THE    I'XITKI)    ST.XTES. 


It  is  stated  that  there  are  over  GOO  hotels  and  1)oardmg-liouses  and 
nearly  4:,000  houses  in  the  city. 

That  not  all  of  the  building-s  are  supplied  with  water,  and  that  all 
so  supplied  are  not  connected  with  the  sewers,  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing: tisrures: 


Number  of  taps. 

No.  of  sewer 
connections. 

Excess  of  water  over 
sewer  connections. 

AUaiitic  Citv 
W.  \V.  Co." 

Consumers' 
Water  Co. 

Total. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

December,  1891 

2.273 
2,468 

500 
500 

2,773 
2.963 

1,849 
2,140 

924 

823 

50 

38 

The  relative  average  daily  amounts  of  water  consumed  and  of  sew- 
ao-e  pumped  from  December  1,  1891,  to  November  30,  1892,  are  shown 
in  Table  31  C,  the  figures  for  the  Consumers'  AVater  Company  not  be- 
ing based  on  accurate  records,  but  being  estimated  by  the  engineer  of 
the  company  for  use  in  this  connection. 

These  figures  show  that  the  excess  of  average  dail}'  water  consump- 
tion over  sewage  pumped  ranged  from  11  per  cent,  in  July  to  75  per 
cent,  in  September,  and  averaged  45  per  cent,  for  the  year.  As  stated 
above,  there  were  50  per  cent,  more  water  taps  than  sewage  connec- 
tions at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  and  38  per  cent,  at  its  close.  The 
relative  monthly  consumption  of  water  and  pumpage  of  sewage  is  also 
shown  graphically  by  the  diagram,  Fig.  6. 

Table  31   C. Average  Daily  Watek  Consumption  and  Sewage  Pumpage  by 

Months,  at  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey,  from  Dec,  1891,  to  Nov.,  1892. 


Average  daily  consunipti 

un  of  water. 

Average  daily 
sewage  pump- 
age. 

Excess  watei 
sewiige. 

over 

Month. 

Atlantic  City 
W.  W.  Co. 

Consumers" 
Water  Co. 

Total. 

Amount. 

Perct. 

1.863,575 
1.960.  .374 
2.162,669 
2.376.137 
2.  .543. 7.35 
.3.006.077 
2.604,730 
2.815.731 
3.. 550. 273 
3.S.54.7S1 
2,91!t,5.S4 
2,232,419 

330.000 
380,000 
450,000 
470.000 
500.000 
4t<0,0(  0 
518.000 
550.0(10 
540.0:)0 
535.01)0 
520,000 
475,000 

2,19.3,575 
2,340,374 
2,612,669 
2,846.137 
3,043,735 
3,486,077 
3.122.7.30 
3..365.73t 
4,090,273 
4.389,7S1 
3,439.584 
2.707,419 
3,142,682 

1,583,867 
1.701.537 
1.708.8.32 
1.852,237 
1.891.182 
2.116.8^3 
2.295,6.52 
3.030.1.56 
2.il99.913 
2,.5()3,404 
2.070.024 
2.290.624 
2,172,059 

6(19  708 

ti3S.h37 

'.l0-'i.b.37 

993.'.l(i0 

1,1525.53 

1,369.234 

827.078 

8S5.5T5 

1.09U.3»iU 

1,886,377 

1,369.560 

416.795 

97(1,623 

32 

37 

Febniaiy   

53 
54 

April 

May 

61 

July           

11 

August 

September 

36 
66 

18 

Year 

45 

The  greatest  amount  of  sewage  joumped  in  any  one  day  during  the 
year  was  3,937,720  gallons,  which,  it  is  interesting  to  note,  was  on  July 


A   year's    pumping    records    at    ATLANTIC    CITY,   N.  J.        147 

5,  ou  which  date  a  larg-e  crowd  of  people  generally  visits  the  city.  The 
least  piimiDage  on  one  day  was  on  April  2.  The  maximum  and  min- 
imum daily  pumjiage  for  each  month  in  the  year,  with  the  date  of  the 
same,  and  also  the  variation  between  the  two,  the  average  for   the 


4,500,000 
Oallons 


4,000,000 


3,500,000 


3,000,000 


2,500,000 


2,000,000 


1,500,000 


1,000,000 


/ 

y 

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Av 

Fio.  6.— Average  Daily  Water  Consumption  and  Sewage  Pumpage,  by  Months, 
AT  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey. 


month  and  the  number  of  sewer  connections  on  the  first  of  each  month, 
arc;  shown  by  Table  3lD. 

It  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  diagram,  Plate  II.  and  Table  31  B, 
showing  each  day's  pumpage  for  the  year,  that  nearly  every  rainy 
day  was  accompanied  or  followed  In'  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
sewag(\  The  foot  notes  to  Table  311)  show  that  for  six  months  of 
the  twelve  the  niaximiim  pumpage  was  preceded  or  accompanied  by 
rain,  but  the  same  was  true  of  the  minimum  pumpage  of  three  of  the 


148 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Table  31D. — Maximum  and  Minimum  Daily  Pumpage  of  Sewage,  by  Months 
AT  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey,  for  the  Year  ending  with  November,  1892. 


No.  .sewer 

connections 

first  of  each 

month. 

Average. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Vari- 

Mouth. 

Amount. 

Date. 

Amount 

Date. 

ation. 

1,849 
1,887 
1,892 
1,910 
1,912 
1,961 
2,001 
2.035 
2,051 
2,061 
2,081 
2,109' 

1,583,867 

1,701,537 
l,7U8,a32 
1,852.237 
1,891,182 
2,116.843 
2,295,652 
3,030,1.56 
2,999,913 
2,503,404 
2,070,024 
2.290,624 
2,172,059 

1,757,760' 

1,830,4322 

1,873,728 

2,328,1924 

2.4.50,784' 

2,515.5845 

2,601,888 

3,9:^7,7209 

3,()99,.344 

3,(101,440 

2„312,160 

3.072.864' 

3,937,720 

30 

26 

29 

19 

22 

16 

13 

4 

16 

4 

1 

16 

1,502,592' 
1,5(3,7443 
1,620,672 
1,603,584 
1,228,896 
1,710,112 
2.017,728 
2,730.144 
2,607.744 
2,230.656 
1,888.512'* 
1,937,584 
1.228,896 

24 

11 

9 
16 

2 
10 

8 
11 
11 
29 
19 

7 

255.168 

January 

326,688 
253,056 

714,608 

April 

May 

1,221,888 
805,472 
584,160 

July 

1,207,.576 

1,091,600 

770,784 

423,648 

November 

1,145,280 

1,708,824 

'  Rain  on  this  and  preceding  days.     '  Very  cold.     ^  Rain.     *  Rain  previous  day.     ^  Heavy  rain  previous  night. 
•  Rain  previous  night.     '  2,140  on  Dec.  1,  1892.     8  Rain  in  night. 

twelve  months,  thoug-h  no  heavy  rains  are  mentioned  in  connection  with 
minimum  as  with  maximum  pumpage.  The  separate  system  of  sewers 
is  in  use  at  Atlantic  City,  with  a  few  roof  connections,  principally  for 
flushing.  Some  leakage  would  be  expected  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances,  and  some  actually  occurs,  as  shown  above.  The  maxi- 
mum pumpage  for  January  occurred  on  a  day  reported  in  the  pumpage 
records  as  "  very  cold." 

In  order  to  see  what,  if  any,  effect  temperature  had  upon  the  amount 
of  sewage,  the  maximum  and  minimum  temperatures  of  each  month 
were  compiled  from  the  United  States  Monthly  Weather  Review, 
as  given  in  Table  31E,  and  tlieii  ijlotted  on  the  diagram,  Plate  II. 
Low  temperatures  in  winter,  through  waste  of  water  to  keep  plumbing 
from  freezing,  and  high  temperatures  in  summer,  might  be  expected  to 


Table  31  E. — Monthly    Temperatures    and   Precipitation    at    Atlantic    City, 
New  Jersey,  for  the  Eleven  Months  ending  with  October,  1892. 


Degrees  F. 

Month. 

Max. 

Date  of 
max. 

Min. 

Date  of 
min. 

Mean 
max. 

Mean 
min. 

Mean  max. 

and  min. 

+  2. 

Precipita- 
tion, ins. 

Av.  daily 

sewage 
pumpage. 

,56 
53 
57 
55 
76 
80 
89 
90 
86 
80 
80 

4 

2 

8 

7 

6 

16 

22 

28 

9 

25 

1 

15 
10 
10 
14 
28 
40 
51 
57 
61 
48 
33 

18 
21 
13 
15 
12 

8 
11 

8 
28 
27 
25 

48 
39 
40 
42 
53 
64 
74 
76 
79 
72 
63 

34 
26 
29 
28 
40 
51 
63 
64 
68 
59 
47 

41.0 

32.5 

34.5 

35.0     ■ 

46.5 

57.5 

68.5 

70.0 

73.5 

65.5 

55.0 

3.19 
3.02 
1.43 
3.69 
3.05 
5.51 
4.44 
4.23 
3.26 
1.08 
0.30 

1,583,867 

January 

February  

March   

April 

1,7('1,537 
1,708.832 
1,852,2.37 
1,891,182 

May   

2.11f>.S43 
2,295,652 

July   

3.030,156 

2,999,913 

2,503,404 

October . .   

2,070,024 

A   year's   pumping   records    at   ATLANTIC   CITY,  N.  J.        149 

cause  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  sewage,  and  doubtless  do ;  but  the 
fig-ures  compiled  and  plotted  have  a  bearing  upon  only  two  days  in 
each  mouth,  and  are  of  little  or  no  help  in  the  study.  Unfortunately, 
the  Weather  Review  does  not  give  daily  temperatures,  which  would 
be  of  interest  and  value  in  this  connection.  As  showing  something  of 
the  temperatures  of  the  whole  of  each  month,  the  mean  maximum, 
mean  minimum,  and  the  half  of  the  sum  of  the  two,  are  given  below  for 
the  year,  in  connection  with  the  maximum  and  minimum  temperatures 
and  their  dates.  The  total  monthly  precipitation  and  the  average 
pumpage  of  sewage  for  each  month  is  also  given  at  the  right.  The 
figures  for  November  were  not  available. 

The  cold  weather  during  the  first  part  of  Jauuarj^  1893,  seems  to 
have  had  a  marked  efi'ect  upon  the  amount  of  sewage,  the  temperature 
and  pumpage  for  each  of  the  first  20  days  of  the  month  having  been 
as  follows,  the  thermometer  and  j)ump  register  being  read  at  12  m. 
each  day  : 


January  1 
2 
3 
4 
6 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


Temperature, 

Pumpage, 

degrees  F. 

gallons. 

40 

2,179,584 

38 

2,199,936 

29 

2,194,944 

18 

2,250,528 

24 

2,1J3,776 

24 

2.152,472 

18 

2.173.fi.32 

22 

2.191.77H 

24 

2,208.2f<8 

14 

2,2r,8,9(i8 

7 

2,326,272 

January  12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19. 
20. 

Total . . . . 
Averages 


Temperature, 
degrees  F. 


22 

9 

12 

18 

4 

6 

10 

21 

It) 


19 


Pumpage, 
gallons. 


2..393,168 
2.401,344 
2.4'.I7.!62 
2,304.9(10 
2.29.5,360 
2.312,352 
2.343.360 
2,2-1(1.208 
2, 2C.  1,160 


45,.M3.250 
2,267,163 


The  average  daily  pumpage  for  January,  1892,  was  1,701,537,  against 
2,267,163  for  the  first  20  days  of  January,  1893,  and  2,172,059  for  the 
year  ending  November  30, 1891.  The  number  of  sewer  connections  in- 
creased only  about  16  per  cent,  between  January,  1892,  and  January, 
1893,  while  the  daily  amount  of  sewage  pumped  in  the  first  20  days 
of  January,  1893,  was  about  33  per  cent,  greater  than  the  average 
for  January,  1892.  For  the  year  ending  November  30,  1892,  the 
lightest  pumpage  was  in  the  month  of  January.  From  these  figures 
it  appears  that  the  cold  Aveather  of  January,  1893,  greatly  increased 
the  amount  of  sewage  at  Atlantic  City,  although  there  may  have  been 
other  causes  contril)uting  to  the  increase,  such  as  an  unusually  large 
number  of  visitors  in  the  city,  although  at  this  season  of  the  year  the 
latter  supposition  seems  hardly  probable. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

GENERAL   DATA   OF   SEWAGE   DISPOSAL. 

The  Constituents  of  Sewage. 

Oedinaiiy  city  sewag^e  contains  a  great  variety  of  ingredients,  as, 
for  instance,  urine,  fseces,  table  dropping-s,  and  the  waste  water  from 
kitchens,  baths,  laundi'ies,  and  other  domestic  offices.  In  manufactur- 
ing- districts  it  may  further  contain  the  refuse  substances  of  various 
manufacturing  processes,  the  whole  diluted  with  a  considerable 
amount  of  Avater,  to  which  in  rainy  weather  is  added,  in  towns  with 
combined  systems,  a  large  amount  of  sand,  earth,  and  organic  matter 
from  the  surfaces  of  the  streets.  With  a  separate  system  of  sewers  the 
street  washings  are  excluded,  and  the  sewage  has  in  consequence  a 
more  permanent  character  than  is  found  in  the  sewage  from  combined 
systems.  Sewage  from  separate  systems  may  be  therefore  considered 
somewhat  more  amenable  to  economical  treatment  than  that  from  com- 
bined systems,  not  only  because  of  its  permanent  character,  but  by 
reason  of  uniformity  of  quantity  ;  both  considerations  leading  to  de- 
crease in  first  cost  of  disposal  works  as  well  as  to  decrease  in  annual 
expense  of  operation. 

Sewerage  Systems — Separate  or  Combined. 

The  relative  advantages  of  the  two  systems  of  sewerage  have  been 
ably  discussed  in  American  sanitary  literature  by  Eliot  C.  Clarke,  M. 
Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  and  Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,*  and  oth- 
ers, and  the  subject  will  be  pursued  no  further  here  than  to  point  out 
that  the  recent  extensions  of  knowledge  of  the  causation  of  typhoid 
fever  and  the  other  water-borne  communicable  diseases  enforce,  some- 
what, the  argument  for  separate  systems  wherever  they  are  applicable, 
by  reason  of  the  greater  amenability  of  the  sewage  therefrom  to  puri- 
fication treatment. 

In  the  chapter  on  The  Infectious  Disease  of  Animals  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  excrements  of  animals  are  nearly  as  prejudicial  as  those 

*  The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage.  By  Eliot  C.  Clarke,  2d  An.  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Health, 
Lunacy  and  Charity,  Supp.  1880,  pp.  25-44. 

Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage.  By  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  etc.,  Chapter  III,  The  System,  Com- 
bined or  Separate,  pp.  28-53. 


SEWERAGE    SYSTEMS — SEPARATE    OR    COMBINED.  151 

of  man :  aud  Avitli  this  premise  admitted  it  would  appear  at  first  sight 
that  the  force  of  the  argument  in  favor  of  separate  systems  is  con- 
siderably modified,  in  consequence  of  the  large  amount  of  animal 
excrements  which  must  be  inevitably  washed  from  the  street  surfaces 
into  the  clean  water  conduits  with  every  rainfall.  This  objection  has 
some  force,  though  less  than  may  appear  at  first  sight.  To  begin  with, 
paved  streets  are  frequently  cleaned,  and  in  places  Avhere  this  work  is 
only  negligently  done  a  more  rigid  administration  of  street  cleaning 
departments  may  be  relied  upon  to  assist  in  reducing  the  evil.  Again, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  absolute  immunity  from  danger  cannot  be 
hoped  for ;  there  will  always  be  some  risk,  even  after  the  best  has  been 
done  that  is  possible  in  any  given  case.  Moreover,  so  far  as  public 
water  supplies  are  concerned,  the  true  remedy  lies  in  the  direction  of 
an  absolutely  uncontaminated  source. 

In  regard  to  the  treatment  of  storm  water,  the  Eivers  Pollution  Com- 
mission, after  reciting  the  standards  which  they  propose  for  liquids 
deemed  polluting  and  inadmissible  to  any  stream,  say :  * 

The  enforcement  of  these  standards  of  purity  would,  as  we  have  repeatedly  stated, 
inflict  no  serious  injury  upon  industrial  processes  and  manufactures,  nor  would  the 
remedies  required  involve  any  risk  to  the  public  health  ;  nevertheless  there  is,  in 
the  case  of  town  sewage,  a  condition  of  things  which  ought,  in  our  humble  opinion, 
to  be  takeu  into  careful  consideration  in  the  framing  of  a  legislative  enactment. 
The  condition  to  which  we  allude  is  that  caused  by  excessive  rainfall,  or  "  storm 
water,"  as  it  is  teclmically  called.  To  provide  for  the  exceptional  occasions  when 
this  condition  prevails  would  entail  in  many  cases  an  expenditure,  in  sewerage 
woi-ks,  many  times  greater  than  that  necessary  in  ordinary  weather.  We  are  there- 
fore of  opinion  that,  however  undesirable,  it  will  be  necessary  to  permit  storm  water 
to  flow  directly  into  rivers  and  streams  without  preliminary  cleansing.  Unfortun- 
ately, chemical  analysis  shows  that  storm  water,  so  far  at  least  as  its  earlier  portions 
are  "concerned,  is  more  polluting  than  dry  weather  sewage,  owing  to  old  deposits  in 
the  sewers  being  then  swept  to  the  outfall ;  and  it  will  be  very  important,  therefore, 
to  guard  against  any  unnecessary  use  of  this  excejitional  permission. 

On  the  question  of  separation  of  sewage  from  rainfall  and  the  rela- 
tion of  such  separation  to  purification  treatment,  Eliot  C.  Clarke  writes 
as  follows  in  his  report  to  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission : 

So  long  as  it  was  considered  sufficient  to  put  sewage  as  well  as  rain  into  streams 
or  bodies  of  water,  this  double  use  of  the  sewers  was  proper  and  economical.  When, 
however,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  purify  the  sewage  by  treating  it  in  various 
ways  before  permitting  it  to  escai)e,  it  was  found  that  such  operations  were  rendered 
verv  dirticult  when  the  sewage,  owing  to  tlie  presence  of  rain  water,  varied  greatly 
both  in  amount  and  character.  It  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to  design  works 
to  purify  a  regular  quantity  of  (say)  one  million  gallons  of  sewage  of  nearly  uniform 
quality.  It  would  be  almost  impossible  to  design  works  to  handle  and  purify  sew- 
age liable  to  vary  in  quantity  from  one  to  fifty  million  gallons,  and  also  to  vaiy 
greatly  in  its  chemical  constituents.  For  this  reason  tlie  proposition  is  generally 
accei)ted  at  ]>resent,  that  wherever  sewage  must  be  puriheil  by  any  mode  of  treat- 
ment, it  should  be  kept  sejjarate  from  the  rainfall  and  conveyed  in  sewers  which  are 
used  for  no  other  purpose.     In  such  cases,  when  it  is  also  necessary  to  remove  the 

*Tliir.l   R.j)t.,   p.  .05. 


162 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


rainfall  by  means  of  sewers,  a  distinct  system  of  such  structures,  devoted  to  that 
jjurpose  only,  nmst  be  built.  Such  a  double  system  of  sewerage  has  both  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages.  The  sewers  for  sewage  only  can  be  very  small,  and  will 
cost  only  al)out  two-lifths  as  much  as  do  those  designed  for  carrying  rain,  or  say 
$6,000  to  ^8,000  i)er  mile.  In  some  places,  where  the  removal  of  rain  is  not  a 
pressing  necessity,  and  the  cost  of  a  large  system  of  sewers  would  preclude  its  con- 
struction, small  sewers  for  removing  sewage  2)roper  can  sometimes  be  built  for  a 
sum  within  the  means  of  the  town.  When  the  system  for  removing  rain  must  be 
co-extensive  with  that  for  removing  the  sewage,  the  cost  of  the  double  system  will 
1)6  about  two-tifths  greater  than  that  of  a  single  one.  Usually,  however,  the  rain 
water  system  need  not  be  so  extensive  as  the  other,  and  the  rain  can  be  discharged 
at  less  distant  outlets  into  brooks  traversing  the  town,  where  it  would  not  do  to  2)ut 
sewage.  The  first  i)ortion  of  a  rainfall,  which  washes  yards  and  streets,  becomes 
very  dirty  ;  but  the  filth  contained  by  it  is  not  considered  so  dangerous  as  ordinary 
sewage,  nor,  coming  as  it  does  only  occasionally,  is  it  so  liable  to  cause  nuisances. 
Notwitiistanding  any  disadvantages,  the  necessity  for  keeping  the  sewage  by  itself, 
whenever  it  is  to  be  treated  in  any  way,  is  so  apparent  that  it  may  be  laid  down  as  a 
rule  that  it  should  be  done  where  practicable. 

The  foreg-oing  extract  is  of  considerable  interest  by  reason  of  em- 
bodying- the  views  of  Mr.  Clarke,  after  he  had  been  confronted,  in  his 
investig-ations  for  the  Drainage  Commission,  with  the  various  serious 
problems  of  sewage  purification  existing-  in  the  region  which  he  spe- 
cially studied. 

In  relation  to  the  impossibility  of  treating-  the  whole  flow  of  com- 
l)ined  systems  at  times  of  heavy  rainfall,  see  Chapter  VII.,  on  Quan- 
tity of  Sewage  and  Variation  in  Eate  of  Flow. 


The  Average  Composition  of  American  Sewage. 

In  American  cities  using-  from  60  to  100  U.  S.  gallons  of  water  per 
capita  per  day,  the  sewage  is  naturally  more  dilute  than  in  foreign 
cities  where  30  to  50  U.  S.  g-allons  per  capita  is  more  nearly  the  daily 
allowance.  As  appositely  remarked  by  Mr.  Mills  in  the  Special  Re- 
port of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  we  may  say  that  the 


Table  No.   33. — Average  Composition  of  the  Sewage  experimented  upon  at 
Lawrence  for  Four  Years. 

(Paris  per  100,000.) 


Year. 

Free 
ammonia. 

Albuminoid  ammonia. 

Chlorine. 

Oxygen  con- 
sumed. 

Bacteria  per  cubic 

Total. 

Soluble. 

Insoluble, 

1888 

1.5528 
1.8439 
1.8200 
2.ai96 

.6878 
.5540 
.fi8fi2 
.7295 

.1611 
.2919 
.3805 
.3446 

.5267 
.2631 

.30.57 
.3849 

5.19 
4.92 
5.45 

7.37 

3.25 
3.64 

1,000.000 

1889     

70S  000 

1890       

1,085,000 

1891 

693,00(1 

Average — 4  yrs.* 

1,8591 

.6644 

.2943 

.3701 

B.73 

3.44 

871,000 

*  As  may  be  expected  in  any  growing  town  which  has  not  yet  attained  approximately  fixed  conditions,  the 
strength  of  the  sewage  is  slowly  increasing,  the  avprage  total  nitrogen  for  1891  being  about  25  per  cent,  greater 
than  for  1888. 


RELATION    OF   AMERICAN    TO    ENGLISH    SEWAGE. 


lo3 


sewage  of  an  average  American  town  will  contain,  wlien  stronger  than 
ordinary,  say  998  parts  of  water,  1  part  of  mineral  matter,  and  1  part 
of  organic  matter.  The  mineral  matter  is  not  generally  harmful,  and 
the  object  of  sewage  purification  can  be  stated  as  chiefly  to  get  rid  of 
the  one-thousandth  part  of  organic  matter. 

The  composition  of  the  sewage  of  American  towns  may  be  taken  as 
averaging  fairly  with  the  results  in  Table  No.  32,  in  which  is  given  tlio 
average  composition  of  the  sewage  received  at  the  experiment  station 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  at  Lawrence  for  four  years. 
The  table  also  shows  the  relations  of  the  soluble  albuminoid  ammonia 
to  the  insoluble. 

The  Aveeage  Composition  of  English  Sewage. 

Table  No.  33  gives  the  average  composition  of  the  sewage  of  a  largo 
number  of  English  towns,  as  taken  from  the  Report  of  the  Elvers 
Pollution  Commission.  This  table,  while  containing  the  averages  of 
the  most  complete  series  of  analyses  of  English  town  sewage  that  has^ 
yet  been  made,  is  unfortunately  not  entirel}'  comparable  with  the  pre- 
vious table  on  account  of  the  use  of  a  different  system  of  chemical 
analysis.  If,  however,  we  bear  in  mind  (1)  that  free  ammonia  and  am- 
monia, albuminoid  ammonia,  and  organic  nitrogen  refer  to  the  same 
things  and  (2)  that  the  organic  nitrogen  is  usually  at  least  double  the 
albuminoid  ammonia,  we  are  able  to  make  comparisons  which  are  close 
enough  for  ordinary  purposes.* 

Table  No.  33. — Average  Composition  op  Sewage  op  English  TowNS.f 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


c 

i 

•a 

c 

Suspended  matters. 

s  o 

°1 

a 
o 

u 

a 
'c 
o 
E 

11 

8£ 

V 

a 
'C 

o 

Classes  of  towns. 

•5       1      .2 

a 

s 

^ 

JS 

a 

s 

s 

i 

< 

a  c 

o 

B 

p 

60 

H 

o 

o 

H 

s 

o 

Midden  towns 

82.4 

4.181 

l.il75 

5.435 

6  451 

11.54 

17.81 

21.30 

39.11 

72.2 

4.696 

2.205 

6.703 

7.728 

10.60 

24.18 

20.51 

44  69 

+  1st  Rep,  Riv.  Pol.  Com.,  pp.  28,  29. 

Relation  of  American  to  English  Sewage. 

Comparing  the  averages  of  Tables  32  and  33,  with  this  understand- 
ing, it  becomes  apparent  that  the  ordinary  sewage  of  English  towns  is 

*  Tliis  is  intended  as  a  general  statement  only.  It  is  derived  from  the  results  of  a  numlxr  of 
comparative  analyses  of  natural  waters  in  which  the  albuminoid  ammonia  was  determined  by  the 
Wanklyn  process  and  the  organic  nitrogen  by  the  Kjeldahl  method,  as  giveti  in  paper  On  the  De- 
termination of  the  Organic  Nitrogen  in  Natural  Waters  1)y  the  Kjeldahl  Method,  by  Thomas  M. 
Drown,  M.D. ,  and  Henry  Martin,  S.B. ,  Technology  Quarterly,  February,  188'.t.  No  comparisons 
were  made  with  the  combustion  process  of  Frankland  and  Armstrong. 


154  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

considerably  more  coneeutrated  than  that  of  American  towns.  This 
point,  let  us  say,  is  a  very  important  one  to  bear  in  mind  in  the  appli- 
cation of  English  data  to  American  conditions.  The  Massachusetts 
experiments  have  indicated  that  there  is  a  relation  between  the  purify- 
ing" capacity  of  different  filtering-  materials  and  the  amount  of  impurity 
to  be  removed  from  samples  of  sewage  of  varying-  strength.  This 
point  is  strongly  brought  out  by  the  several  series  of  experiments. 
From  all  of  which  it  follows  that  with  hig-h  g-rade  intermittent  filters, 
prepared  in  accordance  with  the  indications  of  the  Massachusetts  ex- 
periments, we  may  expect  to  filter  larger  volumes  of  average  American 
dilute  sewage  per  unit  of  area  than  has  usually  been  found  expedient 
in  English  practice.  The  use,  therefore,  of  English  intermittent  filtra- 
tion data,  without  reference  to  either  the  quality  of  the  filtering 
medium  or  the  material  filtered,  will  be  likely  to  lead  to  erroneous 
conclusions. 

The  Composition  of  London  Sewage. 

If  the  comparison  is  in  relation  to  the  average  sewage  of  London, 
somewhat  different  results  appear.  We  find,  indeed,  that  at  jjresent 
the  London  sewage  does  not  differ  greatly  in  composition  from  that  of 
American  towns.  This  conclusion  is  derived  from  Table  No.  33A  fol- 
lowing, in  which  are  given  the  means  of  a  large  number  of  analyses  of 
London  sewage,  as  made  by  AY.  J.  Dibdin  in  1883,  and  published  in 
detail  in  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Metropolitan  Sewage 
Discharge : 

Chaeacter  of  Drainage  from  Street  Surfaces. 

In  regard  to  the  drainage  from  street  surfaces,  the  following  analyses 
of  the  liquid  flowing-  from  two  different  classes  of  pavements,  situated 
in  the  centre  of  the  city  of  London,  may  be  taken  as  shoAving  the 
amount  of  pollution  which  such  drainage  will  acquire  in  streets  with 
large  traffic  :  * 

(In  imrts  per  1(K1,(I(1U.) 

Draiiinge  from  Drainage  from 

Composition.  wood  puvement.         Macadam  pavement. 

Appearance Dark  color  Slate  color 

Odor Strong  urine  Urine 

Chlorine 54.0                         24.4 

Free  ammonia 6.89                         3.54 

Albuminoid  ammonia 4.25                         2.47 

Oxvgen  absorbed  bv  matters  in  solution  in  15  min- 
utes  ' 0.68                         0.38 

Oxvgen  absorbed  bv  matters  in  solution  in  4  hours.  4.95                         2.81 

,    ,         ,,     ^  \  Mineral 952.00  2020.60 

Suspended  matter    -  ^^^^  ^^  -g^.^.^^^ ,^3^^  77  ^^ 

Mineral   462.10  178.60 


Dissolved  solids    ^  ^^^^  ^^  j^^^.^.^^^ jj^  -^q  gg  g^ 

*  From  paper,  Sewage  Treatment  and  Sewage  Disposal,  by  W.  Santo  Crimp,  Eng.  and  Bid 
Rec.  vol.  xxvii.,  p.  237  (Feb.  18,  1893). 


THE   DATA    OF   HUMAN    EXCREMENTS. 


155 


Table  No.   33A— Means  op  Analyses  op  London  Sewage  made  by  W.  J.  Dibdin 

IN  1883. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


Samples  from  southern  outfall , 
Samples  from  northern  outfall. 
Average  from  both  outfalls  . . . . 
Percentage  composition 


s  i 


109 
72 
181 


Dissolved  solids. 


88..3 
79.4 
83.9 
lOO.O 


fiO.9 
51.6 
56.2 
67.0 


27.4 
27.9 
27.7 
33.0 


4.16 

5.05 
4.60 


.523 

.584 
.553 


18.0 
12.4 
15.2 


Suspended  matter. 


37.5 

41.6 

39.6 

100.0 


16.7 
19.5 

18.1 
46.0 


20.7 
22.0 
21.4 
54.0 


It  will  be  noticed  that  the  drainage  from  wood  pavement  is  consid- 
erably more  polhited  than  that  from  the  Macadam,  but  whether  this 
is  due  in  any  degree  to  differences  in  the  pavements  themselves  or 
entirely  to  variations  in  traffic  is  not  stated.* 

The  Data  of  Hum.vn  Excrements. 

Tables  Nos.  34:,  35,  and  36  furnish  important  data  in  regard  to  the 
amount  of  the  solid  and  licpiid  excrements  from  a  mixed  population, 
together  with  the  proportion  of  organic  nitrogen  and  phosphates  in 
the  same."*" 

Excrements,  however,  do  iK^t  comprise,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
more  than  one-half  of  the  total  pollution  in  ordinary  sewage;  but 
even  with  this  understanding,  the  variation  in  quality  which  results 


Table  No.  34.  — Weight  in  Pou.nds  ok  the  Solid  and  Liquid  Exckements  of  a 
Mixed  Population  op  100,000  Persons  fok  a  Year. 


Fseces. 

Urine. 

Population  by  sex  and  age. 

"3 
1 

c    . 
.2  S 
3  p 

o 

t 

a. 
o 

■3 
0 
H 

'c   . 
la 

0 

03 

x: 
a 

.37,610  men   

4,521,664 

1,2:;7,040 

1,2.39,504 

274,736 

52,416 

2.s,0()0 
20,496 
6,270 

107,182 

98.672 

30,038 

18,122 

4,032 

45,217,782 

37,4.58,512 

6,42:5,670 

5,041,344 

4.52,144 

297,136 

53.872 

40,-^20 

843,472 

183,456 

34,630  women 

14,0ti(l  boys 

151,648 
24,304 

13,700  girls  

19,152 

Totals 

7,272,944 

1.50,864 

94,141,308 

.378,560 

*  Por  fliacussion  of  the  effect  of  different  kinds  of  pavements  upon  the  quality  of  the  w.iter 
draining  off,  together  vyrith  the  effect  of  much  or  little  traffic  on  streets,  see  Report  of  (Jeneral  Board 
of  Health  on  Metropolitan  Water  Supply.  Appendix  8,  p.  140.  Professor  Way,  who  made  the 
series  of  analyses  there  di.scussed,  has  also  given  some  of  them  in  his  paper  On  the  Use  of  Towu 
Sewage  as  Manure,  in  Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  Soc  ,  vol.  .xv,  pp.  14',t-l.')0. 

t  Ist  Rept.  of  Riv.  Pol.  Com.,  p.  27.     From  the  researches  of  Wolff  and  Lehmana. 


156 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  35.  —  Weight  in  Grains  of  the  Solid  and  Liquid  Excrements  per 
Person  per  Day,  and  the  Organic  Nitrogen  and  Phosphates  Contained 
Therein. 


Faeces. 

Uiine. 

Sex  and  age. 

"5 
1 

"3  . 

2  g 
c  ho 
m  p 

O 

10 

1 

o. 

§ 

111 

1 

'3  . 
o  g 

'c  M 

o 

1 

OS 

f 

04 

Men 

2,315 
694 

1,698 
386 

27 

16 

29 

9 

50 

17 

25 

6 

23,148 

20,8;i3 

8,796 

6,944 

231 

166 
73 
57 

94 

85 

33 

Girls             

27 

1,273 

20 

25 

14,930 

132 

60 

Table  No.  36. — Weight  in  Pounds  op  the  Solid  and  Liquid  Excrements  per 

Person  per  Year. 


Faeces. 

Urine. 

Sex  and  age. 

1 
o 

'a   . 
.2g 

he- 

o 

a 

o 

JS 

1 

'3  . 
.2  g 

C  M 
d  9 

■  O 

1 
a 
.c 

a 
O 

Men            

120.45 
36.08 
88.33 
20.07 

1.39 
0.80 
1.51 
0.46 

2.62 

0.86 
1.29 
0.29 

1,204.5 

1,083.9 

457.7 

361.3 

12.04 
8.61 
3.79 
2.95 

5.28 

4..38 

1.73 

Girls 

1.40 

m.^i 

1.04 

1.26 

777.68 

6.85 

3.20 

from  diflferences  in  the  amount  of  water  supply  becomes  very  ap- 
parent, especially  when  we  study  the  question  with  Tables  34  to  36 
before  us. 

In  Tables  Nos.  85  and  36  we  have  given  the  quantity  of  excrements  per 
day  and  per  year  from  average  single  persons,  and  also  from  100,000 
persons  of  an  average  urban  population  ;  and  while  we  have  already 
expressed  the  opinion  in  Chapter  IV.  that  the  theoretical  values  of  the 
manurial  constituents  of  sewage  cannot  be  realized  in  practice,  we 
nevertheless  deem  it  desirable,  for  the  completeness  of  the  subject,  to 
give  a  short  discussion  of  fertilizers  from  the  more  recent  agricultural 
point  of  view. 

The  three  elements  in  manures  of  the  greatest  value  to  plant 
life  are  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  Nitrogen  and  phos- 
phoric acid  occur  abundantly  in  human  excrements,  while  potash 
occurs  in  somewhat  smaller  quantity.  The  following  from  Wolff,  as 
given  by  Professor  Storer,*  shows  the  percentage  composition  of  the 
leading  contituents  of  human  excrements. 

*  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  p.  70. 


THE   DATA    OF   HUMAN    EXCREMENTS. 


In? 


Table  No.   36A. — Average  Composition  of  Human  Excrements. 

(Per  cent.) 


Kind. 

.H  u 
c  a 

■is 

O  S 

c 
bo 

2 

a 
o 

d 

0.62 
0.U2 
0.09 

c3 

a 

77.2 
9G..3 
93.5 

19.8 
2.4 
5.1 

1.00 

0.6 

0.7 

1.10 
0  17 
0.20 

0.25 
0.20 
0.21 

0.36 

0.02 

0.06 

In  estimating-  the  value  of  human  excrements  for  manure  it  must  be 
further  remembered  that  nig-ht-soil,  as  ordinarily  procurable,  is  not 
nearly  so  valuable  as  fresh  excrements,  because  of  the  fermentations 
and  leaching-s  to  which  it  is  usually  subject.  The  following-  tabulation, 
also  from  Storer  {Joe.  cif.),  gives  the  averag-e  composition  of  night-soil 
as  taken  from  vaults,  and  presumably  not  subject  other  than  as  stated 
to  leaching,  dilution,  etc. 

Table  No.  36B.— Analyses  of  Night-soil  from  Vaults. 

(Per  cent.) 


Locality. 


Quesnoy,  near  Lille  (?)  (Girardin)* 

"        from  large  factory* 

Lille,  from  a  dwelling-house* 

Paris.  L'Hotet 

Munich,  mostly  liquid 

■'        thick  liquid 

Karlsruhe,  large  public  vault  (Nessler) 

Cassel,  public  vault  (Nessler)   

Stuttgart,  public  vault  (Wolff ) 

Groningen,  average,  mostly  liquid  (Fleischer) 

Bremen,  average,  solid  and  liquid  (Fleischer) 

AveraRe  composition   of  night-soil  froin  cities,  mostly  liquid 

(Wolff) 


98.04 
99.65 
99.86 
99.12 
99  51 
90.52 
96.00 


96.00 
97  10 
.31 .70 

95.50 


2.66 
0.05 
0.54 
1.28 
2.01 
7.95 
3.00 


1.51 


3.00 


0.92 
0.18 
0.67 
0.44 
0.18 
0.69 
0.40 
0.90 
0.43 
0.29 
0.53 


(t.:!3 
0.03 
0.10 
0.14 
0.26 
U.52 
0.12 


0.17 
O.dl 
0.51 


0.35     0  38 


0.21 
0.02 
0.15 


O.iO 
0  36 
0.26 

0.20 


0.16 


0.10 


0.06 


*  The  first  specimen  was  undiluted  and  contained  0.76  per  cent,  of  ammonia ;  the  second,  which  was  much 
diluted  with  water,  contained  only  0.21  per  cent,  of  ammonia  :  the  third,  which  was  diluted  with  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  water,  contamed  0.57  |)er  cent,  of  ammonia  ;  all  of  these  contained  traces  of  nitrates. 

+  This  specimen  contained  0.52  per  cent,  of  ammonia.  The  average  of  twelve  different  samples  was  0.37  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  the  amount  having  ranged  from  0.'25  to  0.62  per  cent. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert  give  the  following  as  the  amounts  of  different 
substances  in  the  solid  and  liquid  excrements  of  an  adult  male  in  a 
year: 

Dry  substance — faeces,  23.75  pounds  ;  urine,  34.5  pounds  ;  total,  58.5 
pounds. 

Mineral  matters — faeces,  2.5  pounds ;  urine,  12  pounds ;  total,  14.5 
pounds. 

Carbon — faeces,  10.0  pounds;  urine,  12  pounds;  total,  22  pounds. 


158 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Nitrogen — faeces,  1.2  pound  ;  urine,  10.8  jjounds  ;  total,  12  pounds. 

Phosphoric  acid — faeces,  0.7  pound;  urine,  1.93  pound;  total,  2.63 
pounds. 

According  to  Wolff,  the  amount  of  potash  from  the  excrements  of  an 
adult  male  per  year  is  : 

Faeces,  0.24  pound ;  urine,  2.01  pounds  ;  total,  2.25  pounds. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  relative  manurial  value  of  the  excrements 
of  different  domestic  animals  in  comparison  with  human,  we  have  pre- 
l^ared  Table  No.  36C,  the  data  for  which  are  mostly  derived  from  the 
researches  of  AVolff. 


Table  No.  36C.— Comparison  op  Manurial  Constituents  of  the  Excrements 
OF  Domestic  Animals  and  Human  Beings. 

(Pounds  per  net  ton.) 


Serial 
number. 

Fresh  faeces. 

Fresh  urine. 

Annaal. 

o 

1 

Phosphoric 
acid. 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

8.8 

.5.8 
11.0 
12.0 

9  4 
20  0 

2.02 

T.O 
3.4 
«.2 
8.2 
6.2 
22.0 
3.55 

7.0 
2  0 
3.0 
6.2 
4.3 
5.0 
1.10 

31.0 
31.6 
39.0 

8.6 
92.5 
12.0 

0  53 

0.2 
1.4 
0.4 
3.4 

8.50 

so  0 

Cow 

9.8 

Sheep        

45.2 

16.6 

Means  of  1,  2,  3,  and  4 

25.4 

4.0 

Ratio  of  (5)  to  (G)            

0.16 

In  sewage  nitrogen  is  usually  present,  either  as  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia and  in  other  ammoniacal  salts,  or  as  organic  nitrogen  in  combina- 
tion with  the  organic  matter.  Phosphoric  acid  is  present  chiefly  as 
either  insoluble  phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia,  or  as  soluble  phos- 
phates of  soda  and  ammonia,  the  latter  being  the  more  important  in 
an  agricultural  point  of  view.  The  soluble  potash  of  sewage  is  mostly 
derived  from  excrements,  while  the  insoluble  balance  chiefly  results 
from  the  grinding  up  of  granite  pavements,  the  wash  therefrom  pas- 
sing into  the  sewers. 

According  to  Hoffmann  and  Witt  in  their  report  to  the  Commissioners 
of  the  Metropolitan  Drainage,  the  manurial  constituents  in  an  imperial 
gallon  of  the  average  London  sewage  of  their  day  were  as  follows : 

Nitrogen,  grains  i^er  gallon 6.76 

Phosphoric  acid,  grains  per  gallon 1.85 

Potash,  "  "        "       1.03 

A  net  ton  of  sewage  of  this  average  composition  would  contain  ; 

Nitrogen 0.19  pound. 

Phosphoric  acid 0.053 

Potash 0.029 


THE    DATA    OF   HUMAN    EXCREMENTS.  159 

With  nitrogen  at  17^  per  pound,  phosphoric  acid  at  70,  and  potash 
at  50,  the  theoretical  value  of  the  fertilizing-  ingredients  of  such  a  sew- 
age would  be  per  net  ton,  3.85  cents.  If,  however,  we  take  into  account 
the  various  losses  of  the  nitrogen,  which  is  the  most  valuable  element, 
and  the  expense  of  distribution,  we  reduce  the  value,  even  when  applied 
to  the  best  advantage,  to  not  more  than  from  1  to  2  cents  per  net  ton. 
When  flooded  upon  land  at  all  times,  whether  required  or  not,  the  value 
as  a  fertilizer  may  quickly  become  nil* 

*  Many  of  the  cognate  questions  in  regard  to  the  use  and  utilization  of  human  excrements  are 
of  the  greatest  interest,  and  the  reader  who  cares  to  pursue  the  subject  farther  should  consult 
Storer's  Agriculture,  vol.  ii.,  p.  71,  and  following.     Also  p.  292  and  following  of  the  same  volume. 

The  following  papers,  to  be  found  in  Jour,  of  the  Roy.  Ag.  Soc.  of  Eng.,  will  be  of  interest  to 
any  person  wishing  to  study  the  question  of  the  use  of  fertilizers  in  all  its  bearings.  They  are  a 
few  only  of  the  more  important  which  have  been  published  by  the  Roy.  Ag.  !£oc.  since  the  begin- 
ning of  its  journal  in  1840. 

(1)  On  the  Composition  and  Money  Value  of  the  Different  Varieties  of  Guano,  By  J.  Thomas 
Way,  consulting  chemist  to  the  Roy.  Ag   Soc.     Vol.  x,  pp.  19t>-2o0. 

(2)  On  the  Power  of  Soils  to  Absorb  .Manure.  By  J.  Thomas  Way.  Vol.  xi.,  pp.  313-3T9.  Also 
in  vol.  xiii.,  pp.  123-14o. 

(3)  On  Agricultural  Chemistrj- — Especially  in  Relation  to  the  Mineral  Theorj'  of  Baron  Lie- 
big.     By  J.  B.  Lawes  and  Dr.  J.  H.  Gilbert.     Vol.  xii.,  pp.  1-40. 

(4)  On  Superphosphate  of  Lime  :  its  composition  and  the  methods  of  making  and  using  it.  By 
J.  Thomas  Way.     Vol.  xii.,  pp.  '.i04--,'36. 

(5)  On  the  Use  of  Town  Sewage  as  Manure.     By  J.  Thomas  Way.     Vol.  xv.,  pp.  135-137. 

(0)  The  Atmosphere  as  a  Source  of  Nitrogen  to  Plants  ;  being  an  account  of  recent  researches 
on  this  subject.     By  J.  Thomas  Waj'.     Vol.  xvi.,  pp.  249-267. 

(7)  On  the  Composition  of  the  Waters  of  Land  Drainage  and  of  Rain.  By  J.  Thomas  Way. 
Vol.  xvii. ,  pp.  l^.'3-ir>2. 

(8)  On  the  Composition  of  Farmyard  Manure,  and  the  Changes  which  it  undergoes  on  Keep- 
ing under  Different  Circumstances.  By  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker,  Professor  Chemistry  in  the  Roy. 
Ag.  CoL,  Cirencester.     Vol.  xvii.,  pp.  191-:.'G0. 

(0)  On  Farmyard  Manure,  the  Drainings  of  Dungheaps,  and  the  Absorbing  Properties  of  Soils. 
By  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker.     Vol.  xviii.,  pp.  111-1,50. 

(10)  On  Liquid  Manure.     By  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker.     Vol.  xix.,  pp.  519-.552. 

(11)  On  the  Changes  which  Liquid  Manure  undergoes  in  Contact  with  different  Soils  of  known 
composition.     By  Dr.  AugustusVoelcker.     Vol.  xx.,  pp.  134-1.57. 

(12)  Farmyard  Manure.     By  J.  B.  Lawes.     Vol.  xxiii.,  pp.  4.5-4S. 

(13)  On  the  Commercial  Value  of  Artificial  Manures.  By  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker.  Vol.  xxiii, 
pp.  277-280. 

(14)  On  the  Utilization  of  Town  Sewage.     By  J.  B.  Lawes.     Vol.  xxiv.,  pp   0.5-90. 

(1.5)  Earth  vtrsus  Water  for  the  Removal  and  Utilzation  i>f  Excrementitious  Matters.  By  the 
Rev.  Henry  Moiile.     Vol.  xxiv.,  i)p.  111-123. 

(10)  The  .Money  Value  of  Night-soil  and  other  Manures.  By  P.  H.  Frere.  Vol.  xxiv.,  pp. 
124-131. 

(17)  On  the  Composition  and  Practical  Value  of  Several  Samples  of  Native  Guano  prepared  by 
the  ABC  ."^ewage  Process  of  the  Native  Guano  Company.  By  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker.  Sec. 
Ser.,  vol.  vi. ,  pj).  415-424. 

(18)  On  the  Composition  and  Agricultural  Value  of  Earth-closet  Manure.  By.  Dr.  Augustus 
Voelcker.     Sec   Ser.,  vol.  viii.,  pp.  185-203. 

(19)  On  the  Composition  of  Waters  of  Land  Drainage.  By.  Dr.  Augustus  Voelcker.  Sec.  Ser., 
vol.  X.,  pp.  132-10.5. 

(20)  On  the  Valuation  of  Unexhausted  Manures.  By  J.  B.  Lawes.  Sec.  Ser.,  vol.  xi.,  pp. 
1-38. 

(21)  On  the  Amount  and  Composition  of  the  Drainage  Waters  Collected  at  Rothamsted.    By  J. 


igo  sewage  disposal  in  the  united  states. 

Explanations    Concerning  the  Analysis    Of    Fertilizers    and    the 
Valuation  of  their  Active  Ingredients.* 

Nitrogen  is  the  most  rare,  and  commercially  tlie  most  valuable,  fer- 
tilizing element. 

Free  nitrogen  is  indeed  universally  abundant  in  the  common  air, 
but  in  this  form  its  effects  in  nourishing  vegetation  are  as  yet  ob- 
scure. 

Organic  nitrogen  is  the  nitrogen  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters, 
which  is  chemically  united  to  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  Some 
forms  of  organic  nitrogen,  as  those  of  blood,  flesh,  and  seeds,  are 
highly  active  as  fertilizers  ;  others,  as  found  in  leather  and  peat,  are 
comparatively  slow  in  their  effect  on  vegetation,  unless  these  matters 
are  chemically  disintegrated. 

Ammonia  (NH3)  and  nitric  acid  (N,0.)  are  results  of  the  decay  of  or- 
ganic nitrogen  in  the  soil  and  manure  heap,  and  contain  nitrogen  in 
its  most  active  forms.  They  occur  in  commerce — the  former  in  sul- 
phate of  ammonia,  the  latter  in  nitrate  of  soda  ;  17  parts  of  ammonia 
or  66  parts  of  pure  sulphate  of  ammonia,  contain  14  parts  of  nitrogen ; 
85  parts  of  pure  nitrate  of  soda  also  contain  14  parts  of  nitrogen. 

Phosphorus  is,  next  to  nitrogen,  the  most  costly  ingredient  of  fer- 
tilizers, in  which  it  always  exists  in  the  form  of  phosphates,  usually 
those  of  calcium,  iron,  and  aluminum,  or  in  case  of  some  "  super-phos- 
phates," in  the  form  of  free  phosphoric  acid. 

Soluble  phosphoric  acid  implies  phosphoric  acid  or  phosphates  that 
are  freely  soluble  in  water.  It  is  the  characteristic  ingredient  of 
super-phosphates,  in  which  it  is  produced  by  acting  on  "insoluble" 
or  "  reverted  "  phosphates,  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol). 
Once  well  incorporated  with  the  soil,  it  gradually  becomes  reverted 
phosphoric  acid. 

Keverted  (reduced  or  precipitated)  phosphoric  acid  means  strictly, 
phosphoric  acid  that  was  once  easily  soluble  in  water,  but  from  chem- 
ical change  has  become  insoluble  in  that  liquid.  In  present  usage  the 
term  signifies  the  phosphoric  acid  (of  various  phosphates)  that  is  freely 
taken  up  by  a  strong  solution  of  ammonium  citrate,  which  is  therefore 
used  in  analysis  to  determine  its  quantity.  "  Reverted  phosphoric 
acid  "  implies  phosphates  that  are  readily  assimilated  by  crops. 

Recent  investigation  tends  to  show  that  soluble  and  reverted  phos- 
phoric acid  are  on  the  whole  about  equally  valuable  as  plant  food,  and 

B.  Lawes,  J.  H.  Gilbert,  and  Robert  Warington.  Sec.  Ser.,  vol.  xvii.,  Part  L,  pp.  241-279 ;  Part 
Ll.,  pp.  311-350;  vol.  xviii.,  Part  I.,  pp.  1-71. 

(22)  On  the  Valuation  of  Unexhausted  Manures.  By  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  and  J.  H.  Gilbert.  Sec. 
Ser.,  vol.  xxi.,  pp.  590-611. 

*  From  the  An.  Rept.  of  the  Conn.  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.  for  1890,  pp.  17-18. 


CONCERNING   THE   ANALYSIS    OF   FERTILIZERS.  161 

of  nearly  equal  commercial  value.  In  some  cases,  indeed,  the  soluble 
g-ives  better  results  on  crops,  in  others  the  reverted  is  superior.  In 
most  instances  there  is  probably  little  to  choose  between  them. 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid  implies  various  phosphates  not  soluble 
in  water  or  ammonium  citrate.  In  some  cases  the  phosphoric  acid  is 
too  insoluble  to  be  readily  available  as  plant  food.  This  is  especially 
true  of  the  crystallized  green  Canada  apatite.  Bone-black,  bone-ash, 
South  Carolina  rock  and  Navassa  phosphate,  when  in  coarse  powder, 
are  commonly  of  little  repute  as  fertilizers,  thoug^h  good  results  are 
occasionally  reported  from  their  use.  When  very  finely  pulverized 
("  floats ")  they  more  often  act  well,  especially  in  connection  with 
abundance  of  decaying  vegetable  matters.  The  phosphate  of  calcium 
in  raw  bones  is  nearly  insoluble,  because  of  the  animal  matter  of  the 
bones,  which  envelops  it ;  but  when  the  latter  decays  in  the  soil,  the 
phosphate  remains  in  essentially  the  "  reverted "  form.  The  phos- 
phoric acid  of  "  Thomas-Slag  "  and  of  "  Grand  Caymans  Phosphate  " 
is  freely  taken  up  by  crops. 

Phosphoric  acid  ...  is  reckoned  as  "  anhydrous  phosphoric 
acid "  (P,0,),  also  termed  among  chemists,  phosphoric  anhydride, 
phosphoric  oxide,  and  phosphorus  pentoxide. 

Potassium  is  the  constituent  of  fertilizers  which  ranks  third  in  cost- 
liness. In  plants,  soils,  and  fertilizers  it  exists  in  the  form  of  various 
salts,  such  as  chloride  (muriate),  sulphate,  carbonate,  nitrate,  silicate, 
etc.  Potassium  itself  is  scarcely"  known  except  as  a  chemical  curi- 
osity. 

Potash  signifies  the  substance  known  in  chemistry  as  potassium 
oxide  (K,0),  which  is  reckoned  as  the  valuable  fertilizing  ingredient 
of  "  potashes"  and  "  potash  salts."  In  these  it  should  be  freely  solu- 
ble in  water  and  is  most  costly  in  the  form  of  sulphate,  and  cheapest 
in  the  form  of  muriate  (potassium  chloride). 

The  valuation  of  a  fertilizer  .  .  .  consists  in  calculating  the  re- 
tail trade-value  or  cash  cost  (in  raw  material  of  good  quality)  of  an 
amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  equal  to  that  con- 
tained ill  one  ton  of  the  fei-tilizer. 

Plaster,  lime,  stable  manure,  and  nearly  all  of  the  less  expensive  fer- 
tilizers have  variable  prices,  which  bear  no  close  relation  to  their 
chemical  composition  ;  but  guanos,  superphosphates,  and  similar  arti- 
cles, for  which  $80  to  $50  per  ton  are  paid,  depend  chiefiy  for  their 
trade-value  on  the  three  substances,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and 
7M)tash,  which  are  comjiaratively  costly  and  steady  in  ]U'ice.  The  trade- 
Talun  per  pound  of  these  ingredients  is  reckoned  from  the  current 
market  prices  of  the  standard  articles  which  furnish  them  to  com- 
merce. 

The  consumer,  in  estimating  the  reasonable  price  to  pay  for  high- 
11 


162  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    iN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

grade  fertilizers,  should  add  to  the  trade-value  of  the  above  named  in- 
gredients a  suitable  margin  for  the  exi^enses  of  manufacture,  etc.,  and 
for  the  convenience  or  other  advantage  incidental  to  their  use. 


Theoretical  Values. 

In  order  to  indicate  the  theoretical  value  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphates 
and  potash  of  sewage,  the  following  statement  of  trade  values  of  the 
fertilizing  ingredients  in  raw  materials  and  chemicals,  as  used  by  the 
New  York  State  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  during  1892  and 
1893,  is  included.  It  is  stated  that  the  valuations  obtained  by  the 
use  of  these  figures  will  agree  fairly  well  with  the  average  retail  price 
of  standard,  raw  materials.* 

1892.  189:i. 
Cts.  per  Cts.  per 
pound.      pound. 

Nitrogen  in  ammonia  salts 17i  17 

"       in  nitrates 15  15  i 

Organic  nitrogen  in  dry  and  fine  ground  fish,  meat,  and  blood,  and 

in  high-grade  mixed  fertilizers 16  17^ 

Organic  nitrogen  in  cotton-seed  meal  and  castor-pomace .  15  16^ 

"             "       in  fine  ground  bone  and  tankage 15  15 

'«             "        in  fine  ground  medium  bone  and  tankage 12  12 

"             "       in  medium  bone  and  tankage 9^  9 

"             "        in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 7^  7 

"             "       in  hair,  horn  shavings,  and  coarse  fish  scraps 7  7 

Phosphoric  acid,  soluble  in  water 7^  fii 

"             "       soluble  in  ammonium  citrate 7^  6 

"              "       in  fine  bone  and  tankage 7  6 

*'              "       in  fine  medium  bone  and  tankage 5^  5 

"             "in  medium  bone  and  tankage 4-J  4 

"              "       in  coarse  bone  and  tankage 3  S 

«*             "       in   fine   ground    fish,   cotton-seed    meal,    castor- 
pomace,  and  wood  ashes 5  5 

Phosphoric  acid  in  fine  ground  rock  phosphate 2  2 

Potash  as  high-grade  sulphate,  in  forms  free  from  muriates  (chlo- 
rides) ,  in  ashes,  etc 5|  5^ 

Potash  in  kainit 4^  4|^ 

"    in  muriate 4^  4^ 

Organic  nitrogen  in  mixed  fertilizers 17  17^ 

Insoluble  phosphoric  acid  in  mixed  fertilizers 2  2 

VALUATION    OP    FERTILIZING   INGREDIENTS   IN   FOODS. 

Organic  nitrogen 1'^^ 

Phosphoric  acid   5 

Potash 5^ 

The  authors  are  not  to  be  understood  as  in  any  way  implying  that  the 
theoretical  values  indicated  by  the  foregoing  table  can  be  realized  iu 
sewage  utilization  in  practice. 

*Bul.  No.  52— New  Series  (March,  1893),  Analysis  of  Commercial  PertilizerB.  N.  Y.  Ag. 
Exp.  Sta.,  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Peter  Collier,  Director. 


material  required  for  intermittent  filtration.        163 

The  Fixed  Data  of  Sewage  Disposal. 

Tables  34  to  36  inclusive  are  given  as  about  the  only  approximately 
fixed  data  in  sewag-e  disposal ;  all  tlie  other  elements  being  subject 
to  relatively  greater  variations  than  occur  in  the  average  amount  of 
excrements  of  a  fixed  population.  Amount  of  water  used  per  capita, 
whether  the  sewerage  system  is  separate  or  combined,  amount  and 
quality  of  tlie  manufacturing  wastes,  all  these  will  enter  into  the 
problem  in  any  given  case. 

The  Mechanical  Analysis  of  Soils. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  an  entirely  different  class  of 
data,  which  liave  recently  been  found  of  fundamental  importance  in 
sewage  disposal,  namely,  that  derived  from  a  mechanical  analysis  of 
the  material  to  be  used  either  for  broad  irrigation  or  intermittent 
filtration.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  mechanical  properties  of 
soils  ^\all,  with  other  data  derived  from  the  Lawrence  experiments,  en- 
able one  to  determine  beforehand  approximately  the  amount  of  purifi' 
cation  which  can  be  attained  with  any  given  soil. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  by  which  the  mechanical  ingredi- 
ents of  a  soil  may  be  separated  from  each  other,  but  the  most  impor- 
tant ones,  aside  from  or  in  connection  with  the  use  of  sieves,  are  the 
Hilgard's  Elutriator,  and  Osburn's  Beaker  method.  The  use  of  these 
two  methods  is  only  possible,  however,  when  one  has  at  hand  a  fairly 
well  equipped  physical  laboratory,  and  in  a  practical  way  much  may 
be  learned  by  the  mere  use  of  a  series  of  sieves  of  different  degrees  of 
fineness. 

Classification  of  Soil  Particles. 

The  following  table  gives  the  classes  into  Avhich  the  materials  com- 
posing soils  may  be  separated  with  reference  to  the  diameters  of 
the  particles : 

mm.  mm. 

Grits  of  fine  gravel  "with  diameter  of  2.0 

Coai'se  .sand  "  " 

Modinni  .sand  "  " 

Fine  .sand  "  •' 

Very  fine  sand  or  dust  "  " 

Silt'  "  ^' 

Fine  silt  *«  '• 

Clay  «  "  0.005         "       0.0001 

Quality  of  Material  Required  for  Intermittent  Filtration, 

In  sewage  dis]iosal  by  intermittent  filtration,  it  is  necessary  for  suc- 
cessful purification  to  use  material   the  particles  of  which  are  large 


2.0 

down  tc 

)1.0 

1.0 

0.5 

0.5 

0.25 

0.25 

0.10 

0.10 

0.05 

0.05 

0.01 

0.01 

0.005 

164 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


enough  to  allow  the  org-auic  matters  in  suspension  in  the  sewage  to 
pass  into  the  interstices,  where  they  are  resolved  into  primary  elements 
through  the  action  of  nitrification.  As  we  shall  see  in  the  discussion 
of  the  results  of  the  experiments  at  Lawrence,  in  Chapter  XIV.,  on 
Intermittent  Filtration,  very  fine  soils  are  less  useful  for  sewage  puri- 
fication than  coarse,  clean  sands.     In  order  to  illustrate  the  differences 


Table  No.  37.— Mechanical  Analyses  op  Typical  Soils  from  the  South  Caro- 
lina Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Farms. 

(Per  cent.) 


Diameter  of  grains. 

Spartanburg    • 
farm. 

Columbia 
farm. 

Darlington 
farm. 

Ingredients. 

Upland. 

Sandy. 

Sandy. 

Millimetres. 

Inches. 

Soil. 

Red 

subsoil. 

Soil. 

Subsoil. 

Soil. 

Subsoil. 

Grits 

Above  1  mm. 
1.0  to  0.50 
0.50  to  0.25 
0.25  to  0.10 
0.10  to  0.05 
0.05  to  0.01 

Le.ss  than  0.01 

Above  0.04 

0.04    to  0  02 
0.02    to  0.01 
0.01    to  0.004 
0.004  to  0.002 
0  002  to  0.0004 
Le.ss  than  0.0004 

11.300 
6.545 
5.541 
10.293 
.37.709 
21. .363 
6.956 

5.293 
4.236 
2.742 
6.123 
23.672 
45.021 
11.804 

1.276 

43.390 

23.626 

11.820 

7.875 

9.740 

1.733 

1.4.30  ■ 
36.486 
25.156 
14.537 

8.708 
12.473  . 

1.077  ! 

3.361 
35.308 
14.222 
14.211 
22.981 
10  220 
.281 

2.565 

Coarse  sand 

Medium  sand 

27..330 
10.190 
11.501 

Very  fine  sand 

Silt     

19.605 
28.180 

Clay 

.166 

Totals 

99.707 
71.388 

98.891 
42.066 

99.460 
87.987 

99.867 
86.317 

99.584 

89.083 

99.537 

Per  cent,  of  porosity 

71.191 

in  mechanical  constituents  which  exist  in  natural  soils,  reference  may 
be  made  to  Tables  37  and  38,  in  which  are  included  the  mechanical 
analyses  of  a  number  of  soils  from  the  South  Carolina  Experiment 
Station  Farms,  as  given  in  the  Second  Annual  Keport  of  the  South 
Carolina  Experiment  Stations. 

Table  No.  38. — Approximate  Number  of  Particles  in  One  Gram  of  Soil  from 
THE  Farms  of  the  South  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  (See 
Table  37) ;  together  with  the  Diameter  op  the  Average  Sized  Particle  in 
Millimetres. 


Ingredients. 

Average 
diameter. 

Spartanburg. 

Columbia. 

Darlington. 

Soil. 

Red  subsoil. 

Soil. 

Subsoil. 

Soil. 

Subsoil. 

Grits 

Mm. 

1.5 

0.75 

0.375 

0.15 

0.075 

0.03 

0.005 

24 
112 

759 

22.040 

646.000 

5.717.000 

402,200,000 

10 
73 

378 

13,210 

408,800 

12.150,000 

687.900.000 

3 

747 

8,602 

25,370 

135,300 

2,613.000 

100.680,000 

3 

624 

.3,363 

31,070 

149.000 

3,33:1000 

60.900,000 

5 

606 

1,951 

30,470 

385,200 

2,677,000 

16,270,000 

5 

Coarse  sand  

Medium  sand 

Fine  sand 

469 

1,399 

24.670 

Very  fine  sand 

Silt 

386,400 
7,557.000 

Clay 

9,615.000 

Total  number  of  particles 

Diameter  of  average  sized  par- 
ticle     

408,.585,935 
0.01209 

700,472,471 
0.01009 

103,46:3.022 
0.01911 

64,417,060 
0.0224 

19.365,332 
0.03337 

17,5.34,943 
0.04384 

MECHANICAL    STUDIES    OF    SOILS. 


165 


Table  No.  39.  —  Sukface  Area  op  Particles  in  One  Gram  of  Soil  from  the 
Farms  of  the  South  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  (See 
Tables  37  and  38).     In  Square  Centimetres. 


Ingredients. 


Grits 

Coarse  sand  . . , 
Medium  sand,. 

Fine  siind 

Very  fine  sand. 

Silt! 

Clay 


Total  surface. 


Avorage 
diameter 
in  milli- 
metres. 


1.5 

0.75 

0.875 

0.15 

0.075 

0.0:i 

(1.005 


Spartanburg. 


Soil. 


1.7 

2.0 

3.3 

1.96 

in  2 

101.7 

316.2 


618.' 


Red  sub- 
soil. 


0.8 

1.2 

1.6 

9.3 

72.2 

343.6 

540.3 


969.0 


Columbia. 

Soil. 

Subsoil. . 

0.2 

0.2 

13.2 

11.0 

38.2 

18.7 

17.9 

21.9      1 

23.9 

26.3 

73.9 

94.2 

79.1 

47.8 

246.2 

220.1 

Darlington. 


Sou. 


0.4 
10.7 

8.6 
21.5 
68.0 
75.6 
12.7 


197.5 


Subsoil. 


0.3 
8.2 
6.1 
17.4 
59.4 
213.7 
7.5 


312.6 


In  Table  39  is  given  the  surface  area  in  one  g-ram  of  soil  from  the 
same  localities.* 

Thus  far,  g-eneral  studies  of  the  mechanical  constituents  of  soils  have 
been  carried  to  a  somewhat  g-reater  degree  of  perfection  at  the  South 

Table  No.  40. —  Per  Cent,  of  Empty  Space  in  a  Number  of  Soils  in  Compar- 
ison with  Average  Size  of  Particles,  Approximate  Number  of  Particles, 
AND  Surface  Area  per  Gr.\m. 


Locality. 


Illinois,  "  prairio  soil " 

Sea  I.sland,  "  cotton  soil "' 

East  Windsdr,  Conn.,  "  clay  .soil " 

Granvilli' Co. ,  N.  Citi-..  "  tobacco  soil " . 
East  Windsor,  Conn.,  "  blowing  sand  ". 

Columbia,  S.  C.,  farm  "  soil"  t 

Coluinbin.  S.  C  ,  farm  "  subsoil  "  t 

DarlinRtoii,  S.  C.  farm  "soil  "  t 

Diirlinnton,  S.  G.,  farm  "'subsoil" +  .. . 

"  Coarse  river  sand  " 

•'  Coarse  river  sand  " 

Maryland.  "  pine  barrens  " 

Maryland,  "  truck" 

•  tobacco  " 

■  wheat  " 

■  river  terrace  " 

'  limestone  (grass  land)" 


Maryland, 
Maryland, 
Maryland. 
Maryland,  ' 


Diameter 

of 
averaged 

sized 
particles, 
in  mm. 


0  0067 

0  Oi.57 

0.0087 

0.0111 

0  0124 

0.01911 

0.0-.J24 

0.0.i337 

0  04:jS4 

O.aOS 

0.S.S3 


.\pproximate 
number  of  parti- 
cles in  1  gram. 


2,372. 

42, 

1,101, 

507. 

?.6~, 

IWl 

64, 

19, 

17, 


1,69-2, 
6,8(iS. 

S.2.5S 

lo.a'-.s, 

ll,6f<l 
24,053 


,994,000 

355,000 
480.000 
10.3,000 
6:^,000 
468,000 
417.000 
365.000 
534,000 
7,9K) 
1.240 
000.000 
(XW.OOO 
00(1  000 
Oll'.lXM) 
DIH),{M)0 
000.000 


Per  cent. 

of 

empty 

space. 


55.2 
46.4 
48.3 
32.0 
44.7 

40  7 
42.4 
34.0 
39.9 
38.4 

41  0 
40.0 
45  0 
50  0 
5.^).0 
55.0 


Sm-face 
area  per 
gram,  in 

square 
centime- 
tres. 


2279.1 

186.1 

1406.8 

619.9 

399.6 

246.2 

220.1 

197.5 

312.6 

10  9 

27  2 

*  495.8 

1669.6t 

2102.2* 

2r02.lt 

29-J4.4t 

5573. 7t 


+  For  detail  of  analyses  of  these  samples  see  Tables  37,  38,  and  39. 

t  The  number  of  square  feet  of  surface  per  cubic  foot  for  these  soils,  with  large  particle  areas,  are  : 

Square  fret.  I  Square  feet. 

Pine  barrens    28.9^0  I  Wheat 94.540 

Trn.k. 74.130     River  terr.-ice 10(>.200 

Tobacco 84.8.'i0  I  Limestone 20.'.»'00 


Carolina  and  Maryland  Ag-ricultural  Stations  than  at  any  other  place 
in  this  country,  the  work  at  both  of  these  stations  having  been  di- 

*  For  fornnulK!  for  computing  the  (liametorof  the  average  sized  particles,  number  of  particles  in 
a  gram,  surface  area,  etc.,  see  2d  An.  Report  S.  Car.  Ag.  Ex.  Stations,  Appendix,  pp.  9.')-96. 


166 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


rected  by  Professor  Miltou  Whitney,  whose  researches  in  this  direc- 
tion are  of  great  theoretical  value.  But  for  practical  value  in  connection 
with  sewage  purification,  the  studies  of  the  mechanical  conix)osition  of 
filtering-  materials  made  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station,  and  out- 
lined, with  deductions,  in  the  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board 
of  Health  for  1891,  are  first  in  rank.  In  order  to  further  illustrate  the 
differences  in  soils  which  exist  at  various  localities,  we  have  included 
Table  No.  40,  compiled  from  the  Second  Annual  Report  of  the  South 
Carolina  and  the  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the  Maryland  Agricultural 
Experiment  Stations. 

In  Table  No.  41  are  given  the  mechanical  analyses  of  the  material 
from  a  number  of  the  experimental  tanks  at  Lawrence,  as  detailed  in 
the  Massachusetts  report  mentioned  just  above. 

Table  No.   41. — Mechanical  Composition  op  the  Materials  Used  in  a  Number 
OF  THE  Experimental  Filter  Tanks  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station.* 


Diameter  in  millimetres. 

Per  cent. 

No.  5. 

No.  4. 

No.  2. 

No.  9. 

No.  6. 

No.  1. 

No.  5A. 

No.  16. 

Finer  than  12.6 

"      0.2 

99 
96 
9? 
89 
80 
67 
51 
33 
16 
6 

100 

85 
.•?5 
10 

: 

100 

DO 

43 

10 

2 

0 

W) 
!tl 
26 
3 
0 

83 
73 
57 
32 
13 

4 
2 
0.5 

0 

100 
97 
85 
53 

7 

1.5 

0 

100 

95 

31 
4 
2 

1.5 
1.0 
0.5 
0 

98 
27 

•'2  2                              

0 

"      .1)8  

"      .4(5 

"      .24   

12         



•'      .06 



•      .03 



"        '•      .01  (Organic)   



♦These  figures  are  based  on  the  weight  of  the  sand  paiticles  finer  than  the  size-  given  in  the  first  cohimn. 

The  studies  at  Lawrence  are  so  clearly  and  concisely  set  forth  by 
Mr.  Allen  Hazen  f  that  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  give  them  here 
as  follows : 


Mechanical  Composition  of  Materials  Used  at  Lawrence. 

In  making  a  mechanical  analysis  the  .sand  is  first  sifted  thvongh  a  series  of  sieves, 
each,  in  a  general  way,  twice  as  fine  as  the  one  next  coarser.  The  sand  passing  the 
finest  sieve  is  divided  into  several  portions  by  beaker  elntriation.  Each  jiortion  is 
weighed,  and  the  range  in  the  sizes  of  its  particles  is  determined  by  micrometer 
measurement  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  particles,  but  the  diameters  of  the  larger 
particles  can  be  more  conveniently  and  accurately  calculated  from  their  weight.  . 
The  diameters  of  all  particles  are  taken  at,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  diameter  of  a 
sphere  of  equal  volume.  Of  course  the  sand  grains  are  irregular.  With  the  Law- 
rence sands  the  average  lengths  of  their  axe.s,  selecting  the  longest  and  taking  the 
other  two  at  right  angles  to  it,  are  to  each  other  as  4  :  3  :  2,  and  the  mean  diameter, 
•taken  as  the  cube  root  of  the  product  of  the  three  axes,  2.88.  The  longest  diameter 
thus  averages  to  be  nearly  40  per  cent,  longer  than  the  mean  diameter,  while  the 
middle  diameter,  which  is  the  width  as  seen  by  a  microscoj^e,  is  an  approximation 
to  the  mean  diameter. 

+  Chemist  in  charge  of  the  station.     23d  An.  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Hlth.,  pp.  428  et  seq. 


COMPOSITIOX    OF    MATEKIALS    USED    AT    LAWKEXCE. 


167 


The  analyses  of  .some  of  the  materials  which  have  been  most  carefullv  studied  in 
their  relations  to  sewage  puritication  are  shown  in  the  preceding  table  [So.  41). 
The  figures  given  show  the  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the  different  materials  having 
smallei-  diameters  than  the  size  given  in  the  first  column.  These  results  have  been 
revised  by  improved  methods  of  analysis,  so  that  in  some  cases  the  following  fig- 
ures differ  slightly  from  those  given  in  the  report  upon  the  Purification  of  Sewage 
and  Water. 

For  study  and  comparison  the  results  have  been  plotted,  and  are  shown  on  the 
accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  7).  the  height  of  curve  at  any  point  showing  the  per 
cent,  of  material  finer  than  the  size  indicated  wo 
at  the  bottom  of  the  diagram.  The  lines 
representing  the  diameters  are  spaced  ac- 
cording to  tiie  logarithms  of  the  diameters  of 
the  particles,  as  in  this  way  materials  of  cor- 
responding uniformity  in  the  range  of  sizes 
of  their  particles  give  equally  steep  curves, 
regardless  of  the  absolute  sizes  of  the  parti- 
clo-<,  thus  greatly  facilitating  a  compari.son  of 
different  materials.  This  scale  also  shows 
adequately  every  grade  of  material  from 
0.01  to  above  10  millimetres  in  a  small  space, 
and  without  unduly  extending  any  portion 
of  the  scale.  It  is  assumed  for  the  imrpose 
of  plotting  that  the  particles  of  organic  mat- 
ter (determined  by  the  loss  due  to  heating 
that  portion  of  the  material  finer  than  the 
140  mesh  sieve  to  a  dull  red  heat)  are  less 
than  0.01  millimetres  in  diameter 

These  materials  mav  be  said  to  include 
the  whole  range  of  sands  available  for  sewage 
purification.  Anything  as  fine  as  No.  5*  is  too  fine  for  advantageous  use,  while, 
at  the  other  end,  it  would  hardly  be  safe  to  depend  upon  a  gravel  coarser  than 
No.  16  with  a  filtering  stratum  not  over  five  or  six  feet  in  thickness. 

With  the  mixed  materials,  Nos.  5  and  6,  the  smaller  particles  fill  the  siaaces  be- 
tween the  larger,  and  these  finer  portions  determine  the  capillary  attraction  of  the 
filter,  its  resistance  to  the  passage  of  sewage,  and.  in  fact,  its  action  in  every  way. 
The  appearance  of  No.  6  is  coarser  than  No.  1,  and  the  average  size  of  its  particles  is 
greater,  but  its  finest  portion  determines  its  character  as  a  filter,  so  that  it  is  prac- 
ticallv  finer  than  No.  1.     It  has  been  found  as  the  result  of  a  careful  studv  that  the 


// 

^ 

/ 

/    "t/       y 

mm  J 

m 

\  f  \ 

m     \  1 

M  1 

j 

/ 

i 

f 

u 

' 

/ 

///   \ 

/ 

1 

^'"'//  J  j^. 

/ 

/ 

/ 

Coone 

::5^/j^::2t^^ 

/ 

80 


%so 


^  20 


.01        .05     .06    jZ    .Z4   .46     -SS    2.Z0      blO  iZ.bO 

Diameter    in  millimeters 

Fig.  7. — Mechanical,  Composition  op 
Sand  used  for  Filtration  at  thk 
Lawrence  Experlment  Station. 


Table   No.    41 A — Size  and  Uniformity   Coefficient   of  Filtkking   Materials 

Used  at  Lawrence. 


Number  of  filter. 

Ten  per  cent, 
of  material 
finer  than 

(millimetres). 

Uniformity 
co-efficient. 

No.  5 

^    .      

0.02 
0.03 
0.06 
0.17 
0.:« 
O.-IS 
1.40 
5.00 

9.0 

A   

2.3 

2 

2.3 

9   

2.0 

6 

7.8 

1 

2.4 

5a ; .  . 

2.4 

16 

1.8 

points  where  the  curves  in  the  diagram  cut  the  10  per  cent,  line  give  the  best  idea 
of  the  total  effect  of  the  various  materials.     Bv  measurements  of  the  diagram  we 


*  For  convenience  tho  different  mat-'tials  are  numbered  to  correspond  with  the  filter  tanks  in 
which  they  were  first  used. 


168 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


find  that  with  the  various  materials  10  per  cent.  l)y  weight  of  the  particles  are 
smaller  than  the  sizes  given  in  the  lollowing  table.  This  gives  as  good  an  idea  of  the 
relative  effect  of  sizes  of  the  materials  as  can  be  condensed  into  a  single  figure  for 
each. 

To  obtain  a  definite  basis  of  comparison  of  the  uniformities  of  the  sizes  of  the 
grains  of  different  materials,  tlie  ratios  between  the  diameters  of  the  particles  at 
the  10  per  cent,  line,  as  given  above,  and  the  diameters  at  the  60  jjer  cent,  line  are 
given  in  the  table  (No.  41  A.)  under  the  heading  "  Uniformity  Coefficient."  If  all 
the  grains  of  a  sand  were  absolutely  of  the  same  size,  the  coefficient  would  be  1  ; 
with  a  majority  of  our  comparatively  even-grained  sands  the  coefficient  ranges  from 
2  to  3 ;  with  No.  G  and  No.  5,  the  figures  are  8  and  9  respectively,  and  some  ex- 
tremely uneven  sands  have  coefficients  as  high  as  20  or  30,  but  our  data  in  regard  to 
the  action  of  such  materials  is  as  yet  very  limited. 


Kelation  Between  Quality  of  Filterixg  Material  and  Quantity  of 

Applied  Sewage. 

The  actual  quantities  of  sewag-e  which  have  been  found  to  be  the 
best  adapted  to  seven  of  the  Lawrence  experimental  filters  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances,  together  with  the  size  and  depth  of  the 
filtering-  materials,  size  of  dose  and  frequency  of  application  are  given 
in  Table  41B. 

Table  No.  41B. — Quantity  op  Sewage  Applied  to  Different  Filtering  Mate- 
rials AT  Lawrence. 


Material. 

Diameter 
of  grain, 
mm.  10  per 
cent,  finer 
than — 

Depth  of 

material 

(ft.). 

Size  o 

Gallons 
per  acre. 

f  dose. 

Per  cent. 
of  vo  nine 
of  filter. 

Number  of 

doses  in 

one  week. 

Averaere 
amount 
applied 
daily,  gala, 
per  acre. 

No.  Ifi 

5.00 
.48 
.••.5 
.17 
.OH 
.03 
.0-.i 

5 
5 
4 
5 
5 
5 
5 

2S00 

40.0(10 
Td.OnO 
l:iO,UOO 
140.000 
80,000 
0 

0.17 
2.45 

8.60 
•     4.91 

500 

18 

6 

3 
3 

200.000 

1   

103,000 

fiO.OOO 

9 

103,000 

2 

60.000 

4 

34,000 

5 

0 

Additional  data  under  this  head  appears  in  Chapter  XIV.,  on  Inter- 
mittent Filtration.  Chapter  X^rCI.,  On  the  Temperature  of  Air  and 
Natural  Soils,  also  presents  further  data  applying-  to  broad  irrigation 
and  intermittent  filtration. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

DISCHAKGE  INTO  TIDAL  OR  OTHER  LARGE  BODIES   OF  WATER. 

Under  this  head  little  needs  to  be  said  iu  addition  to  the  prelimi- 
nary discussion  iu  Chapter  I.,  which  has  already  indicated  that  the 
present  work  is  not  specially  concerned  with  this  particular  form  of 
disposal.  As  useful  examples  the  sewerage  of  two  large  cities  may  be 
referred  to. 

Early  American  Sewerage  Systems. 

The  sewerage  system  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  designed  by  E.  S.  Ches- 
brough,  C.E.,  in  1855,  has  usually  been  considered  a  model  on  which 
other  towns  could  safely  build.  At  that  time  the  idea  that  the  preva- 
lence of  typhoid  fever  and  many  other  infectious  diseases  was  directly 
related  to  the  presence  of  sewage  in  drinking-water  had  hardly  been 
broached  in  this  country,  and  even  in  England,  where  rational  ideas  of 
sanitation  developed  at  a  relatively  early  date,  the  great  bulk  of  the 
sanitary  literature  Mdiieh  has  since  enriched  the  English  language  had 
at  that  time  hardly  more  than  began  to  come  into  being.  The  discus- 
sions of  the  tifteen  or  twenty  years  immediately  preceding  that  period 
had,  however,  awakened  sanitary  authorities  to  the  necessity  of  get- 
ting rid  of  waste  products  in  some  more  effectiial  way  than  by  turning 
into  cesspools  or  by  merely  throwing  into  streets.  The  English 
sewerage  systems  of  the  period  from  1850  to  18G0  were  chiefly  con- 
structed, th(>refore,  with  reference  to  getting  sewage  first  of  all  out  of 
the  houses  and  to^^^^s,  and  undoubtedly,  even  though  the  outfall  emp- 
tied in  many  cases  into  the  nearest  small  watercourse,  the  improve- 
ment in  public  health  was  nevertheless  as  a  whole  markedly  apparent. 

Sewerage  at  Chicago. 

Thanks  to  tlie  foresight  of  ^Ir.  Chesbrough,  Chicago  has  had,  ever 
since  the  initiation  of  permanent  sewer  construction  in  1855,  a  pre- 
designed system  Avliich  has  been  systematically  carried  out  from  year 
to  year.  Before  designing  the  same,  Mr.  Chesbrongh  visited  England 
in  order  to  study  the  state  of  the  art  of  sewerag**  tlun-e,  and  we  may 
conclude,  inasmucli  as  there  were  at  that  time  absolutely  no  models  on 
which  to  build  in  tliis  country,  that  tlie  Chicago  sewerage  svstem  was 


170  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

made  a  fair  epitome  of  current  foreig-n  practice  with  such  modification 
as  the  ablest  municipal  engineer  of  the  day  considered  desirable  in 
order  to  fit  it  to  the  conditions  of  a  rapidly  developing-  American  me- 
tro])olis.  As  preliminary,  then,  to  a  short  description  of  the  Chicago 
outfall  sewers,  we  may  properly  examine,  though  briefly,  the  antece- 
dent circumstances  which  led  to  considerable  activity  in  systematic 
sewer  building'  in  Eng-land,  in  the  fifth  decade  of  the  present 
century. 

Condition  of  English  Towns  Fifty  Years  Ago. 

The  beginning  of  modern  sanitary  science  in  England  is  indicated 
by  the  first  report  of  the  Health  of  Towns  Commission  in  1844.  The 
rapid  and  alarming"  increase  in  the  death-rate  in  many  of  the  English 
towns  had  been,  it  is  true,  the  subject  of  partial  investigation  by  par- 
liamentary committees  previous  to  that  time ;  but  the  earlier  reports, 
while  frequently  voluminous,  add  almost  nothing-  to  the  stock  of 
knowledge  of  the  evil  investigated ;  and  it  was  only  on  the  publication 
of  the  Health  of  Towns  Commission's  Report  that  exact  information 
as  to  the  cause  of  the  increase  became  available.  The  Commission's 
first  report,  together  with  the  second  and  third  of  the  series,  revealed 
a  condition  of  affairs  in  many  of  the  English  towns  of  that  day  which 
has  thus  far  been  without  parallel  in  this  country.  Even  New  Orleans 
a,t  its  worst  must  have  been  a  cleanly  city  in  comparison  with  what  ex- 
isted in  many  of  the  English  towns  in  1844.  *  For  instance,  in  Liv- 
erpool it  was  found  that  a  cellar  population  amounting  to  more 
than  20,000  persons  was  absolutely  without  any  place  of  deposit  for 
its  refuse  matter,  while  in  houses  inhabited  by  the  working-classes 
a  large  proportion  were  in  a  similar  predicament. t  The  reports 
abound  in  similar  statements,  many  of  them  in  reference  to  whole 
streets  in  populous  districts,  and  in  some  cases  nearly  whole  towns, 
where  the  public  streets  were  the  only  places  of  deposit  for  the  most 

*  See  vol.  xix.  of  Tenth  Census  of  U.  S.,  Social  Statistics  of  Cities,  Pt.  II.,  pp.  204-267,  where 
may  be  found,  in  the  article  on  New  Orleans,  a  graphic  presentation  of  the  ravages  of  the  several 
cholera  epidemics  at  New  Orleans.  Chicago,  however,  was  itself  sufficiently  unhealthy  for  the 
year  immediately  preceding  the  beginning  of  sewer  construction  in  accordance  with  the  general 
plan  of  Mr.  Chesbrough.  Indeed,  it  was  chiefly  a  succession  of  epidemics  of  cholera  and  dysen- 
tery for  several  years  which  led,  in  February,  1S5.5,  to  the  passage  of  an  act  by  the  Illinois  Legisla- 
ture creating  the  Chicago  Soard  of  Sewer  Commissioners.  The  construction  of  sewers  began  in 
1856.  It  should  be  stated  in  this  connection  that  the  first  public  water  supply  was  introduced  in 
1840  by  a  company  when  the  population  was  small ;  that  more  extensive  works  were  built  by  the 
city  in  1852  54,  just  at  the  close  of  the  first  period  named  directly  below.  In  1867  the  first  water 
intake  tunnel  was  built  beneath  the  lake,  greatly  improving  the  supply,  and  in  1874  a  second  intake 
tunnel  was  added.  All  these  facts  should  be  considered  in  this  connection,  and  especially  in  con- 
nection with  the  note  to  the  followng  table.  From  1845  to  1856  the  mean  annual  death-rate  had 
been  39.91  per  1,000.  while    from  1S.56  to  1870  it  was  only  23.97.    The  following  table  shows  the 

1 1st  Rept.  Health  of  T.  Com.,  vol.  i.,  p.  128. 


RESULTS    OF   THE    EARLY    SEWERAGE    SYSTEMS. 


171 


offensive  waste  products  of  the  human  economy  ;  and  into  these  all 
such  were  indiscriminately  pitched,  even  from  second-stor}^  windows 
or  balconies,  as  the  case  mig-ht  be.*  As  recently  as  1861  we  tind  it 
stated  with  regard  to  one  place,  that  even  in  the  centre  of  the  town  no 
accommodation  of  any  kind  is  provided,  and  hence  the  adult  male 
population  defecate  habitually  in  the  gardens  or  in  the  road,t  ami  so 
on  ad  nauseam.  When  we  consider  that  the  Health  of  Towns  Commis- 
sion's Reports  relate  to  a  period  only  50  years  past,  and  the  conditions 
described  existed  in  several  places  less  than  25  years  ago,  and  it  is 
only  within  35  or  40  years  that  any  material  improvement  has  been 
effected  in  some  of  the  worst  localities,  we  may  appreciate  the  enter- 
prise of  the  people  of  Chicago  in  sending  their  chief  engineer  abroad 
in  1855  in  order  that  he  might  profit,  in  designing  the  Chicago  system, 
to  the  fullest  extent,  by  whatever  new  or  useful  had  been  developed 
under  the  active  agitation  of  sanitary  questions  which  then  prevailed 
in  England.]: 

Results  of  the  Early  Se\verage  Systems. 

As  the  result  of  turning  the  house  sewage  of  a  large  number  of  towns, 
as  well  as  the  manufacturing  wastes  of  many  rapidly  developing 
manufacturing  centres  in  various  parts  of  the  county  into  the  streams, 
a  nuisance  of  a  new  character  was  soon  created  which  was  quite  as 
serious  as  the  one  which  the  construction  of  sewers  had  been  more  or 


number  of  feet  of  sewers    built    annually,     the    population,  mortality,  and  the  death-rate  per 
1,000  for  the  series  of  years  from  1850,  when  the  first  sewers  were  constructed,  to  1870  : 


Year. 

Feet  of  Hewer 
built. 

Population. 

Deaths. 

Death-rate 
per  1.000. 

185fi                   .             

31,794 
25,081 

101,879 
55.208 
09.024 
2.820 
15,085 
.39.005 
25.021 
29.948 
48.127 
89,001 
47,8.11 

139.705 
78,16fi 

84,113 
93.1100 
84,000 
90.000 
109  200 
120.000 
137,030 
1.50,000 
101.288 
178.492 
200.418 
225.000 
252.000 
280,000 
299.227 

2,086 
2.414 
2,255 
2.008 
2.204 
2,279 
2.&35 
3.875 
4.448 
4,029 
0..524 
4.648 
5.984 
0.488 
7,343 

24  80 

1K57    

25.06 

185s 

20.84 

1859 

21.36 

ISOO    

20.70 

1 801 

18.99 

1802 

20.69 

18fi3 

25.83 

1804 

27.57 

1805 ' 

22.57 

18»Mi 

32.22 

1807 

1H«8    

21.17 
23.74 

1809 

1870 

2.3.16 
24.53 

From  1870  to  1879.  inclusive,  the  dcatli-rate  was  21.15.  (From  "  Sanitiirv  Problems  of  Chicatro,  Past  and 
I'resent."     By  John  H.  Rouch,  M.D.    Ueprint  from  Rnc.  An.  Kept,  of  the  111.  St.  Bd.  of  Health,  p.  10.) 

*  In  verification  of  these  statements  see  Ist  Rept.  Health  of  T.  Com.,  loc.  cit.;  also  2d  Rept. 
Health  of  T.  Cf)m.,  vol.  i,.  p.  370;  vol.  ii.,  p.  84.     Also  see  Repta.  Med.  Officer  Priv.  Council. 

+  4th  Rept.  Health  Officer  Priv.  Coun.,  1861, 

X  For  more  complete  resume  of  tlie  sanitary  condition  of  the  Hutjlish  towns  .50  years  ago,  see 
Corfield's  Treatment  and  Utilization  of  Sewage,  lird  Ed,,  Cliaptcrs  i.  to  iii.,  inclusive. 


172  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

less  successful  in  relieving-.  Hence,  sewage  disposal,  purification,  or 
utilization,  became  a  pressing  question  in  the  fifth  decade  of  the  cen- 
tury. A  clear  idea  of  the  various  views  prevailing  at  that  time  may 
be  obtained  from  either  the  Preliminary  Report  of  the  Sewage  of 
Towns  Commission  or  the  Report  of  Henry  Austin,  On  the  Means  of 
Deodorizing  and  Utilizing  the  Sewage  of  Towns.* 

Mr.  Chesbrough's  Chicago  Report. 

The  state  of  sewage  disposal  in  England  at  about  the  time  of  Mr. 
Chesbrough's  study  of  the  English  methods  has  been  briefly  presented 
in  order  to  saliently  illustrate  the  fact  that,  w^hile  no  adequate  concep- 
tion of  the  evils  resulting  from  mixing  house  sewage  with  drinking- 
water  existed  at  that  time,  even  with  people  who  had  made  sanitation 
a  specialty,  nevertheless  Mr.  Chesbrough  must  have  returned  from 
Eurojje  very  thoroughly  permeated  with  the  prevailing  views  as  to  the 
necessity  of  some  form  of  sewage  purification ;  and  it  is  accordingly 
interesting  to  notice  that  the  matter  of  ultimate  disposal  occupies  an 
important  place  in  his  report  of  1855.  By  reason  of  being,  so  far  as 
the  authors  can  learn,  the  first  American  report  in  which  sewage  dis- 
posal other  than  by  discharge  into  the  nearest  water-course  is  touched 
at  all,  we  derive  an  additional  incentive  for  inquiring  how  this  ques- 
tion happened  to  receive  extended  consideration  in  connection  with 
the  sewerage  plans  of  an  American  city  at  that  relatively  early  day. 
The  preceding  historical  paragraphs  answer  the  question  thus  raised, 
and  without  dwelling  further  on  this  part  of  the  question,  we  may 
proceed  to  consider  the  sewerage  system  actually  designed. 

Mr.  Chesbrough's  report  begins,  after  a  short  introductory  para- 
graph, by  asking  the  question.  What  shall  the  sewage  of  the  city  be 
drained  into  1  The  answer  is  that  four  principal  plans  have  been  pro- 
posed, namely : 

(1)  Into  the  river  and  its  branches  directly,  and  thence  into  the 
lake. 

(2)  Directly  into  the  lake. 

(3)  Into  artificial  reservoirs,  to  be  thence  pumped  up  and  used  as 
manure. 

(4)  Into  the  river,  and  thence  by  the  proposed  steamboat  canal  into 
the  Illinois  river. 

*  The  Sewage  of  Towns  Commission,  the  commission  of  which  bears  date  .January  5,  1857, 
were  directed  under  its  terms  "  to  inquire  into  the  best  mode  of  distributing  the  sewage  of  towns 
and  applying  it  to  beneficial  and  profitable  uses."  Their  first  report  was  issued  in  1858.  The 
Report  of  Henry  Austin,  C.E.,  was  presented  to  the  President  of  the  General  Board  of  Health  in 
1857.  In  these  two  reports  may  be  found  a  fair  summation  of  the  various  methods  of  sewage  dis- 
posal of  that  day,  the  Report  of  the  Sewage  of  Towns  Commission  treating  the  question  mostly 
from  the  point  of  view  of  utilization  by  agriculture,  while  the  Report  of  Mr.  Austin  presents  the 
side  of  the  chemical  purificationists  of  35  years  ago. 


THE    CHICAGO    KIVEK.  173 

In  order,  according-  to  the  report,  to  take  advantage  of  the  natural 
facilities  of  the  site  at  a  minimum  of  expense,  the  first  plan  as  given 
above  was  adopted  ;  that  is,  the  sewage  of  the  city  was  from  economic 
considerations  discharged  by  way  of  the  river  into  Lake  Michigan. 

The  objections  to  the  third  jDlan  as  stated  in  the  report  were : 

(1)  The  great  uncertainty  about  there  being  a  demand  for  the  sew- 
age after  it  is  pumped  up,  sufficient  to  pay  for  distributing  it. 

(2)  The  great  evil  that  would  necessarily  result  from  a  failure  of  the 
reservoirs  through  insufficiency  of  capacity,  especially  if  the  system  of 
sewers  leading  to  them  should  have  their  outlets  too  low  to  emjity 
into  the  lake  or  river.  If  the  reservoirs  should  be  made  so  large  as  to 
place  them  beyond  all  doubt  of  having  sufficient  capacity,  they  would 
be  very  expensive,  both  on  account  of  the  labor  and  material  required 
in  their  construction  and  the  ground  they  would  occup}'. 

(3)  There  would  be  danger  to  the  health  of  the  city  during  the  prev- 
alence of  winds  from  the  quarter  in  which  the  sewage  might  be  used 
as  a  manure,  especially  if  only  a  few  miles  distant  and  spread  over  a 
wide  surface. 

Mr.  Chesbrough's  third  objection  to  the  use  of  sewage  has  been 
found  l\v  the  more  extended  experience  of  later  years  to  be  mostly 
without  foundation  for  fairly  well-managed  sewage  farms. 

Mr.  Chesbrough  remarks  that  should  the  time  ever  arrive  when  the 
value  of  the  sewage  would  be  so  g-reat  as  to  permit  of  saving  it  for  this 
purpose,  the  sewers  as  designed  would  still  serve  their  purpose  as 
conduits  for  surface  water,  while  a  system  of  small  pipes  to  take  house 
sewage,  only,  could  be  laid  down  at  a  minimum  expense. 

With  regard  to  the  fourth  plan  of  draining  into  the  proposed  steam- 
boat canal,  and  thence  into  the  Illinois  river,  Mr.  Chesbrough  also 
remarks  that  this  is  too  remote  a  contingency  to  be  relied  upon  for 
present  purposes.  "We  shall  see,  however,  in  Part  II.,  that  a  partial 
application  of  this  method  by  utilization  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan 
canal  has  been  in  use  more  or  less  continually  since  1865.* 

The  Chic.vgo  Eiver. 

Tli(!  Chicago  river,  before  its  enlargement  through  the  city  for 
purposes  of  navigation,  was  a  small  stream  of  sluggish  flow  with  a 
total  drainage  area  of  perhaps  800  square  miles.  It  divides  in  the 
central  part  of  the  city,  at  a  point  about  a  mile  from  the  lake,  into  two 
branches,  the  Noi*th  branch  and  the  South  branch,  the  North  branch 
being  about  30  miles  in  lengtli,  and  the  South  branch  about  5 
miU^s.     Both  run  nearly  parallel  to  the  lake  shore,  and  only  a  short 

*  For  complete  text  of  Mr.  Chesbrough's  Chicago  Report,  see  Eng.  News,  vol.  ii.  (1875),  pp.  42, 
55,  and  79. 


174  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATP:S. 

distance  from  it.  The  enlarged  river  now  comprises  the  inner  harbor, 
which  had,  according-  to  data  collected  in  1887,*  a  total  dock  frontage, 
including  slips,  of  20.7  miles,  and  an  area  of  406.0  acres.  The  inner 
harbor  is  estimated  to  contain  over  60,000,000  cubic  feet  of  water.  In 
dry  weather  it  receives  only  a  small  amount  of  water  from  the  re- 
stricted drainage  area  of  the  river  from  which  it  is  formed,  and  what 
it  does  receive  is  contaminated  before  reaching  Chicago.  Into  such  a 
broad  area  of  already  contaminated  water  is  poured  daily,  except  as 
noted  below,  the  sewage  of  a  large  portion  of  the  city,  amounting  in 
1890  to  at  least  22,000,000  cubic  feet  daily.  Hence  the  daily  inflow  of 
sewage  is  about  one-third  of  the  total  contents  of  the  harbor.  This  ex- 
treme pollution  of  the  river-harbor  was  first  relieved  in  18G5  by  forcing 
a  large  amount  of  water  from  the  river  into  the  Illinois  and  Michigan 
canal,  thereby  causing  a  flow  of  water  from  Lake  Michigan  through 
the  city  into  the  canal,  and  so  021  to  the  Des  Plaines  river  at  Joliet. 
This,  however,  only  partially  relieved  the  South  branch.  For  the  re- 
lief of  the  North  branch,  a  tunnel  12  feet  in  diameter  was  built  beneath 
Fullerton  avenue  and  extended  into  Lake  Michigan.  This  tunnel  was 
first  operated  in  1880.  Two  screws  capable  of  forcing  15,000,000  cubic 
feet  per  day  at  ordinary  speeds  furnish  a  motive  power  by  which  a 
current  may  be  sent  either  from  the  river  into  the  lake,  or  by  reversal 
of  the  machinery  from  the  lake  into  the  river,  as  may  be  found  most 
desirable  at  different  stages  of  the  two  bodies  of  water. 

Fig.  8,  from  the  Keport  of  the  Chicago  Drainage  Commission,  shows 
the  relative  proportions  of  sewage  and  lake  water  in  the  Chicago 
river  and  its  branches. 

For  the  more  complete  relief  of  the  South  branch,  pumping  ma- 
chinery of  a  nominal  capacity  of  60,000  cubic  feet  i^er  minute  was  pro- 
vided at  Bridgeport,  the  point  where  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  canal 
connects  with  the  Chicago  river,  in  1883.  A  brief  description  of  these 
works,  together  with  one  of  the  Fullerton  Avenue  conduit,  is  given  in 
Part  II.  In  1893  improvements  were  in  progress  designed  to  increase 
the  capacity  of  the  Bridgeport  works  to  100,000  cubic  feet  per  minute, 
or  over  1,000,000,000  gallons  per  24  hours,  against  6  ft,  head. 

The  continual  rapid  increase  of  the  population  of  Chicago  has,  how- 
ever, produced  such  farther  fouling  of  the  river  as  to  lead  to  a  revival 
in  the  last  few  years  of  the  project  of  a  large  navigable  canal  from 
Lake  Michigan  to  the  Illinois  river  drainage  at  Joliet,  through  which 
enough  water  can  be  sent  each  day  to  not  only  entirely  relieve  the 
river  of  its  present  visible  pollution,  but  which  will,  it  is  hoped  by  the 
projectors,  also  so  far  dilute  its  waters  as  to  render  the  Chicago  sew- 
age in  effect  harmless  to  the  Illinois  river  communities  who  derive 

*  The  Lakes  and  Gulf  Waterway  as  related  to  the  Chicago  Sanitary  Problem.    By  L.  E.  Cooley, 
C.E.,  p.  33. 


THE   CHICAGU    KIVER. 


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176  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IIS^   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

their  water  supplies  from  that  river.  A  complete  description  of  the 
project  in  all  its  bearings  would  extend  beyond  the  limits  of  this  chap- 
ter, where  the  only  object  is  to  call  attention  to  some  of  the  difficulties 
which  have  attended  sewage  disposal  at  Chicago ;  but  it  should  be 
added  that  work  is  now  in  progress,  under  the  direction  of  the  Trus- 
tees of  the  Sanitary  District  of  Chicago,  on  a  drainage  canal  designed 
to  have  a  capacity  of  at  least  300,000  cubic  feet  per  minute.  In  rock 
cut  the  capacity  of  the  canal  will  be  600,000  cubic  feet.  Brief  consid- 
eration of  the  relations  of  the  discharge  of  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  sewage  of  the  city  in  such  manner  as  to  finally  find  its  way  into 
Lake  Michigan,  from  which  the  water  supply  of  the  city  is  also  drawn, 
may  be  properly  made.  In  favor  of  the  present  project  of  discharging 
to  the  Des  Plaines  river  it  is  urged  that  in  prehistoric  times  there  ex- 
isted a  channel  to  the  south  through  which  at  any  rate  a  portion  of  the 
waters  of  Lake  Michigan  originally  discharged  to  the  Illinois  and 
finally  to  the  Mississippi  river. 


The  Chicago  Water  Supply. 

The  present  water  supply  of  the  city  is  derived  from  Lake  Michigan 
through  tunnels  and  intake  pipes.  The  first  two  tunnels  were  con- 
structed in  1864-67  and  1872-74,  respectively.  They  are  parallel,  46 
feet  apart,  and  are  driven  through  clay  about  30  feet  below  the  lake 
bottom  to  a  distance  of  two  miles  from  the  shore,  where  they  terminate 
in  timber  cribs,  inclosing  shafts.  The  first  tunnel  is  5  feet  wide  by  5 
feet  2  inches  high,  and  lined  with  substantial  brick  masonry;  the  second 
is  of  the  same  material  and  7  feet  in  diameter  ;  it  extends  under  the  city 
for  four  miles,  passing  under  the  river  and  South  In^anch  to  the  West 
side  pumping  station.  A  third  tunnel  was  constructed  in  1887-92, 
which  extends  into  the  lake  a  distance  of  four  miles ;  it  also  extends 
under  the  city  a  distance  of  I5  miles  to  connect  with  the  new  Central 
and  Fourteenth  street  pumping  stations,  and  also  with  the  old 
tunnel.  The  lake  section  was  started  with  a  diameter  of  8  feet,  but  the 
unfavorable  material  encountered  necessitated  two  6-foot  tunnels  for  a 
good  i^art  of  the  distance.  A  tunnel  6  feet  in  diameter  and  Ij  miles  long 
also  forms  a  part  of  the  Chicago  water- works.  It  was  built  jointly  by 
Hyde  Park  and  Lake,  which  towns  Avere  annexed  to  Chicago  in  1889. 
The  former  town  of  Lake  View,  also  annexed  to  Chicago  in  1889,  was 
until  quite  recently  supplied  through  several  iron  intakes,  but  a  tunnel 
6,500  feet  long  now  takes  the  place  of  these  intakes  ;  this  tunnel  is  be- 
ing extended  to  a  length  of  10,000  feet.  On  March  1,  1893,  the  total 
daily  capacity  of  the  several  tunnels  was  officially  reported  as  being 
504,000,000  gallons  and  the  total  pumping  capacity  of  the  city  water- 


EARLY   SEWERS   OF   BOSTON.  177 

works  as  356,000,000  gallons.     The  average  daily  water  pumpage  for 
the  year  1892  was  195,000,000  gallons.* 

Contamination  of  the  Chicago  Water  Supply. 

At  various  times  the  evidence  of  sewage  contamination  about  the 
water  supply  intakes  has  been  unmistakable,  and  it  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  water  supply  is  ordinarily  more  or  less  polluted  by  the 
sewage  which  finds  its  Avay  into  the  lake.  The  increase  in  the  death- 
rate  from  typhoid  fever  lias  been  considerable  in  the  last  few  years  (see 
Table  No.  3),  a  fact  which,  with  our  present  views  as  to  the  causation  of 
typhoid,  can  hardly  be  satisfactoril}'  explained  except  by  assuming  an 
increasing  contamination  of  the  water  supply  ;  we  ma}',  therefore  take 
Chicago  as  an  illustration  of  the  force  of  the  statement  of  the  opening 
chapter,  that  sewage  ought  not  to  be  discharged  into  any  body  of  water 
also  used  as  the  source  of  a  public  water  supply  at  any  point  within 
the  influence  of  the  sewage. 

The  Boston  Main  Drainage. 

The  most  elaborate  sj'stem  of  disposal  by  special  appliances  for  dis- 
charge into  tide-water  yet  carried  out  in  this  country  is  that  of  the 
city  of  Boston,  the  Main  Drainage  Works  of  which,  as  completed  in 
1881  may  be  justly  regarded  a  model  work  of  the  kind  ;  before  describ- 
ing the  Main  Drainage  we  will  briefly  discuss  the  antecedent  conditions 
which  rendered  the  works  a  necessity .f 

» 

Early  Sewers  of  Boston. 

The  first  sewers  of  Boston  were  undoubtedly  constructed  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  17th  century,  as  we  find  that  at  the  town  meeting  of 
September  22,  1701,  it  was  ordered  "that  no  person  shall  thenceforth 
dig  up  the  ground  in  any  of  the  streets,  lanes  or  highways  in  this 
town,  tor  the  laying  or  repairing  of  any  drain,  without  tlie  leave  or  ap- 
probation of  two  or  more  of  the  selectmen."  These  early  sewers  were 
probably  built  on  the  co-operative  plan.  Several  neighbors,  needing 
drainage,  joined  together  and  constructed  a  sewer  by  th(>  shortest  line 
to  tiilc-water.  The  expense  was  divided  between  the  interested  parties 
who  owned  the  drain  in  common.  Any  party  outside  of  the  original 
owners  who  desired  to  connect  was  obliged  to  pay  for  the  privilege 

*  For  the  latest  detailed  information  regarding  the  Chicvgo  water  supply  and  sewerage  sj-stems 
and  the  quality  of  the  water,  see  the  17-pago  ac-connt  in  the  London  Lancet,  Apr.  8,  189:i,  or  an 
e.xtendeil  abstract  in  Eng.  News,   vol    xxix..  pp.  A'.iX-'.i  (May  11,  189:5). 

+  The  followin;^  account  of  the  sewers  of  Boston  and  th-  Main   Drainage  \Vorks>  is  abstracted 
from  Eliot  C.  Clarke's  Main  Drainage  Works  of  the  City  of  Boston. 
12 


178  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    INITED    STATES. 

whatever  they  saw  tit  to  charge.     The  expense  of  repairs  was  divided, 
between  the  parties  using-  the  drain  when  the  repairs  were  made. 

The  Massachusetts  Sewer  Act  of  1709. 

This  method,  while  answering  the  purposes  for  the  construction  of 
the  tirst  drains,  was  found  unsatisfactory  when  extended,  and  in  1709 
the  Colonial  Legislature  passed  an  act  regulating  the  construction  of 
drains  and  sewers.  This  act  of  1709  is  the  foundation  of  the  present 
system  of  sewer  assessments  in  most  of  the  New  England  as  well  as 
some  of  the  other  States,  and  its  jDrovisions  may  be  properly  cited  at 
some  length.  It  is  entitled  :  An  Act  passed  by  the  Great  and  General 
Court  or  Assembly  of  Her  Majesty's  Province  of  the  Massachusetts 
Bay,  for  Regulating  of  Drains  and  Common  Shores,*  for  Preventing 
Inconveniences  and  Damages  by  frequent  breaking  up  of  Highways- 
.  .  .  and  of  differences  arising  among  Partners  in  such  Drains  or 
Common  Shores  about  their  Proportion  of  the  Charge  for  Making  and 
Repairing  the  same. 

The  act  provides  (1)  a  penalty  for  breaking  up  the  ground  in  any 
highway  within  any  toAvn  for  laying,  repairing,  or  amending  any  com- 
mon shore,  without  the  approbation  of  the  selectmen  ;  (2)  that  all  such, 
structures,  for  the  draining  of  cellars,  shall  be  substantially  done  with 
brick  or  stock :  f  (3)  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any  inhabitant  of  any 
town  to  lay  a  common  shore  or  main  drain  for  the  benefit  of  themselvea 
and  others  who  shall  think  fit  to  join  therein,  and  every  person  who 
shall  afterward  enter  his  or  her  particular  drain  into  such  main  drain, 
or  by  more  remote  means  receives  benefit  therefey,  for  the  drainage  of 
their  cellars  or  lands,  shall  be  obliged  to  pay  unto  the  owner  or  owners 
a  proportionate  part  of  the  charge  of  making  or  repairing  the  same,  or 
that  part  of  it  below  where  their  particular  drain  enters.  Disputes 
were  settled  by  references  to  the  selectmen,  who  decided  the  amount 
each  person  should  pay.  An  appeal  from  the  selectmen's  decision 
could  be  taken  to  the  courts. 

The  sewers  of  Boston  were  built,  repaired,  and  owned  under  the  pro 
visions  of  this  act  until  1823,  when  a  new  charter  was  obtained.     One 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  city  government  was  to  assume  control  of 
all  existing  sewers  and  of  the  building  and  care  of  new  ones. 

In  regard  to  the  sewers  built  by  private  enterprise  between  the  years 
1709  and  1823,  little  can  be  said  in  their  praise,  although  the  greater 
part  of  Boston  of  that  day  was  thus  sewered  by  private  enterprise. 
The  contents  of  privies  were  excluded,  but  they  received  the  wastes 
from  pumps  and  kitchen  sinks,  and  also  rain-water  from  roofs  and 
yards.     That  much  refuse  got  into  them  is  proved  by  their  frequently^ 

*  Sewers.  +  Stone. 


THE   LIMITS    OF    ORIGIXAL    BOS^TOX.  179 

tilliug"  up.     Tills  difficulty  led  to  disputes  about  payments  for  repairs, 
so  that  in  1763  the  act  of  1709  was  amended  in  such  manner  as  to 
provide  for  assessment  of  cost  of  repairs  on  all  iiersons  benefited. 
In  1824  Mayor  Josiah  Quincy,  in  referring-  to  the  old  sewers,  said : 

No  system  could  be  more  inconvenient  to  the  public  or  embarrassing  to  private 
persons.  The  streets  were  oijened  with  little  care,  the  drains  built  according  to 
the  opinion  of  private  interest  or  economy,  and  constant,  interminable,  vexatious 
occasions  of  dispute  occurred  between  the  owners  of  the  drain  and  those  who  en- 
tered it,  as  to  the  degree  of  benefit  and  proportion  of  contribution. 

Since  1823  the  sewers  have  all  been  built  by  the  city,  with  varying- 
proportions  of  the  expense,  as  before,  charged  to  the  estates  benefited, 
but  apportioned  with  reference  to  their  assessed  valuation.  Previoiis 
to  1838,  a  small  variable  portion  of  the  cost  was  g-enerally  assumed  by 
the  city  in  consideration  of  its  use  of  the  sewers  for  the  removal  of 
storm  water  from  the  streets ;  in  that  year  the  city  decided  to  assume 
one-quarter  of  the  g^ross  cost.* 

The  Limits  of  Original  Boston, 

The  orig-inal  city  of  Boston,  by  reason  of  being-  a  town  on  hills,  with 
quick  descent  to  the  water  in  all  directions,  was  comparatively  easy  to 
sewer,  but  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  through  the  reclaiming 
and  filling"  of  the  tidal  areas  bordering-  the  old  limits  have  transformed 
it  into  a  city  presenting  many  obstacles  to  the  construction  of  efficient 
sewerage. 

This  will  be  understood  by  examining  Fig.  9,  on  which  the  shaded 
portion  represents  very  nearly  the  area  of  the  city  in  1823,  The  un- 
shaded portion  consists  entirely  of  reclaimed  land,  filled  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  streets  of  the  reclaimed  district  are  seldom  over  seven 
feet  above  mean  high  water.  A  large  proportion  of  the  house  base- 
ments and  cellars  are  lower  than  high  water,  and  frequently  but  from 
five  to  seven  feet  above  low- water  mark,  the  mean  rise  and  fall  of  the 
tid(?  being  ten  feet.  Most  house  drains  are  under  the  cellar  floors,  and 
f  ill  ill  reaching  the  street  sewers,  while  the  latter,  in  their  turn,  fall 
towards  their  outlets,  which  are  rarely  much  above  low  water.  As  a 
foiisequence  the  contents  of  the  sewers  were  dammed  back  by  the  tide 
during  the  greater  part  of  each  tw(»lve  hours.  Salt  water  was  excluded 
from  many  of  them  by  tide-gates,  which  closed  as  the  sea  rose,  also  at 
the  same  time  shutting  in  the  sewage,  which  accumulated,  and,  being 
without  currents,  deposits  occurred. 

At  about  the  time  of  low  wat(>r  the  tide-gates  opened  and  the  sewage 
escaped,  to  be  met  almost  immediately  by   the  incoming   tide  and 

*  Since  the  above  was  put  in  type  the  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Streets  of  Boston  for 
1803  has  come  to  hand,  in  which  is  a  rt'sumo  of  all  the  various  forms  of  assessments,  with  a  dis- 
cission of  recent  changes. 


180  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN    THE   UNITED    STATES. 

brouglit  buck  by  it  to  form  deposits  upon  the  flats  and  shores  about 
the  city.  Stony  brook,  Back  bay,  and  South  bay  are  the  localities 
where  the  g-reatest  nuisances  were  created  in  this  way. 

The  position  of  the  principal  original  sewer  outlets  is  indicated  on 
Fig";  9,  where  are  also  shown  the  lines  of  the  intercepting  sewers  which 
were  finally  designed  as  a  remedy  for  the  diflficulty. 

The  Boston  Sewerage  Commission  of  1875. 

In  March,  1875,  a  commission  consisting  of  Messrs.  E.  S.  Ches- 
brough,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  Moses  Lane,  M.  Am.  S6c.  C.E.,  and  Chas.  F. 
Folsom,  M.D.,  were  appointed  by  the  mayor  to  report  upon  existing 
sewerage,  and  to  i^resent  a  plan  for  outlets  and  main  lines  of  sewers 
for  the  future  wants  of  the  city.  Their  report  contained  a  compre- 
hensive and  exhaustive  statement  of  the  defects  in  the  existing  system 
and  of  the  causes  which  had  led  to  it,  and  recommended  a  well  consid- 
ered plan  for  remedying  the  existing  defects  and  providing  for  future 
needs. 

The  following  extract  from  the  report  gives  some  of  the  more  inter- 
esting points  : 

The  point  which  miiat  be  attended  to,  if  we  would  get  increased  comforts  and 
luxuries  in  our  houses,  without  doing  so  at  cost  of  health  and  life,  is  to  get  our 
refuse  ovit  of  the  wav,  far  beyond  any  possibility  of  harm,  before  it  becomes  danger- 
oiis  from  putrefaction.  In  the  heat  of  summer  this  time  should  not  exceed  twelve 
hours.     We  fail  to  do  this  now  in  three  ways  ; 

(1)  We  cannot  get  our  refuse  always  from  our  house-drains  to  our  sewers,  be- 
cause the  latter  may  not  only  be  full  themselves  at  high  tide,  but  they  may  even 
force  the  sewage  vi'p  our  drains  into  our  houses. 

(2)  We  do  not  empty  our  sewers  promptly,  because  the  tide  or  tide-gates  pre- 
vent it.  In  such  case  the  sewage  becomes  stagnant,  a  precipitate  falls  to  the 
bottom,  which  the  slow  and  gradual  emptying  of  the  sewers,  as  the  tide  falls,  does 
not  produce  scour  enough  to  remove.  This  deposit  remains  with  little  change  in 
some  jilaces  for  many  months. 

(3)  With  our  refuse,  which  is  of  an  especially  foul  character,  once  at  the  outlets 
of  the  sewers,  it  is  again  delayed,  there  to  decomjiose  and  contaminate  the  air. 

As  a  result  of  this  failure  to  carry  out  the  cardinal  rule  of  sewerage,  we  are  obliged 
to  neglect  the  second  rule,  which  is  nearly  as  important,  namely,  ventilation  of  the 
sewers  ;  for  the  gases  are  often  so  foul  that  we  cannot  allow  them  to  escajie  without 
causing  a  nuisance  ;  and  we  compromise  the  matter  by  closing  all  the  vents  tliat  we 
can,  with  the  certainty  of  poisoning  the  air  of  our  houses. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  commission  there  are  only  two  ways  open  to  us.  The 
first,  raising  more  than  one-half  of  the  superficial  area  of  the  city  proper  (exclud- 
ing suburbs),  is  entirely  out  of  the  question,  from  the  enormous  outlay  of  money 
which  would  be  required — more  tlian  four  times  as  much  as  woiild  be  needed  for 
the  plan  which  we  pro]iose,  and  which  consists  in  intercepting  sewers  and  jiumping. 

There  are  in  use  now  in  various  parts  of  the  world  three  methods  of  disposing  of 
the  sewage  of  large  cities,  where  the  water-carriage  system  is  in  use  : 

(1)  Precipitation  of  the  solid  parts,  with  a  view  to  utilizing  them  as  manure,  and 
to  purifying  the  streams. 

(2)  Irrigation. 

Neither  of  these  processes  has  proved  remunerative,  and  the  former  only  clarifies 
the  sewage  without  purifyivg  it  ;  but   if   the   time   comes  when,  by  the  advance  in 


THE   BOSTON    SEWERAGE    COMMISSION    OF    1875. 


181 


182  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

our  knovv'ledge  of  agiicultni'al  cliemistry,  sewage  can  be  profitably  used  as  a  ferti, 
lizer,  or  if  it  should  now  be  deemed  best  to  utilize  it,  in  spite  of  a  pecuniary  loss, 
it  is  thought  that  the  point  to  which  we  projiose  cari-ying  it  will  be  as  suitable  as 
any  which  can  be  found  near  enough  to  the  city,  and  at  the  same  time  far  enough 
away  from  it. 

(3)  The  third  way  is  that  adopted  the  world  over  by  large  cities  near  deep  water, 
and  consists  in  carrying  the  sewage  out  so  far  that  its  ]>oint  of  discharge  will  be 
remote  from  dwellings,  and  beyond  the  jiossibility  of  doing  harm.  It  is  the  plan 
which  your  Commission  recommend  for  Boston. 

Fig'.  9  shows  the  main  and  intercepting-  sewers  as  finally  worked  out 
in  detail  for  Boston  proper  and  South  Boston,  in  accordance  with  the 
recommendation  of  the  commission.  Their  report  also  included  a 
separate  line  of  interception  for  East  Boston  and  the  territory  to  the 
North  of  the  Charles  river,  which,  however,  was  not  adopted  at  that 
time.* 

Description  of  the  Boston  Main  Drainage. 

A  description  of  the  improved  system,  as  actually  carried  out, 
divides  naturally  into  four  parts  : 

(1)  The  intercepting  and  main  sewers  which  carry  the  sewage  by 
gravity  to  the  pumping  stations. 

(2)  The  pumping  station  where  the  sewage  is  raised  to  a  sufficient 
height  to  permit  it  to  flow  by  gravity  through  a  tunnel  under  Dor- 
chester bay  to  Moon  island. 

(3)  The  deposit  sewers  leading  from  the  pumping  station  to  the  tun- 
nel shaft  and  the  tunnel  itself  under  the  bay. 

(4)  The  reservoir  at  Moon  island  in  which  the  sewage  is  stored,  and 
the  appliances  for  discharging  the  same  during  ebb  tide. 

The  plan  included  lines  of  intercepting  sewers,  by  means  of  which 
nearly  all  the  original  outfalls  were  cut  off  and  the  sewage  diverted  to 
the  pumx)ing  station  at  Old  Harbor  point,  the  most  easterly  portion 
of  the  calf  pasture  in  Dorchester.  The  main  sewer  leading  to  this 
point  is  about  3.25  miles  long.  Beginning  at  the  junction  of  Hunting- 
ton avenue  and  Camden  street,  its  inclination  throughout  its  whole  ex- 
tent is  1  in  2,500.  At  the  pumping  station  the  water  line  of  the  invert 
is  about  14  feet  below  mean  low  tide,  where  also  the  diameter  is  10.5 
feet,  a  dimension  which  holds  until  the  point  of  junction  of  the  South 
Boston  intercepting  sewers  is  reached  in  a  distance  of  about  a  mile. 
Above  the  point  where  the  South  Boston  intercepting  sewers  join  the 
main  sewer,  the  latter  is  reduced  to  nine  feet  in  diameter,  and  continues 
of  that  size  to  Albany  street  where  the  intercepting  sewer  for  the  east 

*  The  sewerage  of  this  latter  territory  is  now  in  process  of  construction  under  the  Metropolitan 
Sewerage  Commission.  For  accounts  of  the  engineering  features  involved  see  (1)  Mr.  Clarke's 
Report  to  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission  (188('>);  and  (2)  a  Report  of  the  State  Board  of 
Health  upon  the  Sewerage  of  the  Mystic  and  Charles  River  Valleys  (1889). 


DESCRIPTIOX    OF   THE   BOSTON    MAIN    DRAINAGE.  183 

side  of  old  Boston  joins.  Beyond  this  tlie  main  sewer  is  again  re- 
duced in  size  to  8  feet  3  inches  high,  which  dimension  holds  until  the 
end  of  the  main  sewer  is  reached  at  Huntington  avenue,  where  the  in- 
tercepting sewer  for  the  west  side  begins. 

The  tirst  intercepting  sewer  from  the  pumping  station  is,  as  already 
stated,  that  for  South  Boston,  which  by  its  two  branches  is  intended 
to  encircle  the  peninsula  on  which  South  Boston  is  situated,  and  inter- 
cept the  sewage  which  had  been  hitherto  discharged  at  19  outlets.  At 
the  point  of  junction  the  grade  of  this  intercepting  sewer  is  1.5  feet 
higher  than  that  of  the  main  sewer,  this  rise  in  grade  insuring  (1)  that 
the  sewage  in  the  former  will  not  be  dammed  back,  and  (2)  that  the 
established  rate  of  inclination  of  the  surface  in  both  sewers  will  l)o 
maintained  at  the  time  of  maximum  discharge.  This  intercepting 
sewer  is  six  feet  in  diameter  up  to  the  point  where  it  divides,  with  an 
inclination  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  1  in  2,000.  The  diameters 
and  sections  of  the  two  branches  are  varied  to  suit  local  conditions. 

The  second  large  intercepting  sewer  which  enters  the  main  sewer  is 
that  for  the  east  side,  connecting  at  East  Chester  park  and  Albany 
street.  Stony  brook  intercepting  sewer  connects  at  Tremont  street ; 
and  the  intercepting  sewer  for  the  west  side  at  Huntington  avenue 
and  Camden  street.  These  intercepting  sewers  are  generally  laid  at  a 
grade  of  1  in  2,000,  though  in  a  few  places  a  somewhat  more  rapid 
gradient  was  used.  The  total  length  of  intercepting  sewers  now  in 
use  is  about  12.75  miles,  making  wdth  the  main  sewer  about  15  miles  in 
all.  The  size  of  the  intercepting  sewers  varies  from  about  5.5  to  6  feet 
in  diameter,  at  their  junctions,  to  3  to  4  feet  and  smaller  at  the  extreme 
ends,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  different  localities. 

The  flowing  sewage,  on  its  arrival  at  the  pumping  station,  first 
passes  through  a  filth-hoist,  where  all  floating  objects  liable  to  inter- 
fere with  the  action  of  the  pumps  are  intercepted  and  at  stated 
intervals  removed.  The  sewage  then  passes  on  to  the  piimps,  by 
which  it  is  lifted  about  35  feet  into  the  deposit  sewers,  Avhicli  are 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length.  These  consist  of  two  parallel 
conduits  8  feet  wide  and  IG  feet  deep  ;  they  are  dammed  at  tlnnr  lower 
ends  to  maintain  a  depth  of  8  to  10  feet,  in  order  that  tlic  How  tlirough 
tliem  may  l)e  very  sluggish,  so  that  suspended  matter  will  l)e  de])ositiHl 
before  reaching  the  tunnel;  they  are  provided  with  tlie  necessary 
arrangements  for  draining  and  cleaning. 

In  Table  No.  42  is  giv<'n  the  amount  of  sewage  i)assing  through  the 
deposit  sewers  in  each  month  of  the  year  1887,  and  the  amount  of 
sludge  removed  from  them  in  the  same  time,  also  by  months. 

From  Table  No,  42  we  derive  the  fact  that  the  dejiosited  matter 
amounts  to  0.31  cubic  yard  per  1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage  passing 
through  the  sewers. 


184 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IX   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Table  No.  42. 


Month. 

Amount  of 
sewage 
punii>ed, 
gallons. 

Amount  of 

sludge 

removed, 

cubic  yards. 

Month. 

Amount  of 
sewage 
pumped, 
gallons. 

Amount  of 

sludge 

removed, 

cubic  yarda 

January,  1887 

February 

1,818.101,420 
1.5('7,17.s..534 
1.6:iK..59I.4U4 
1.5I->.<.M.\916 
].l-ii6.5n791 
l.:il8.9.ill.5!-6 
l,18:).:^4-2,2(.-2 

69.9 

13-<.7 
48-3.9 
368. -2 
5(1.5.3 
496.6 

August.  1887 

1,205.322.183 

l.U'?:!.  328.6.55 
1.157,233.278 
l.n4,037,64ti 
1,353.478,600 

15,905,146.275 

512  4 

September 

October           

672  6 

605  3 

523  0 

Mav 

December 

601.6 

1        Totals 

Julv 

4977.5 

*  Nothing  ri moved  during  this  month. 


At  tlie  farther  end  of  tlie  deposit  sewers  is  a  masonry  chamber,  built 
about  the  tunnel  shaft  and  connecting  with  it.  At  this  shaft  chamber 
are  two  waste  sewers  through  which,  in  case  of  emptying-  the  tunnel 
for  inspection,  etc.,  the  seAvag^e  can  be  temporarily  discharged  into 
Dorchester  bay. 

The  shaft  at  the  end  of  the  deposit  sewers  is  149  feet  deep.  From 
its  foot  there  are  6,088  feet  of  nearly  horizontal  tunnel  leading  to  the 
east  shaft,  bej^ond  which  there  are  923  feet  of  inclined  tunnel  leading  to 
the  end  on  Squantum  neck.  From  Squantum  to  Moon  island  an  em- 
bankment, one  mile  long,  2'^  to  30  feot  high,  20  feet  wide  on  top  and 
120  feet  at  its  base,  in  which  to  construct  the  outfall  sewer,  was  built. 
About  4,100  feet  of  the  site  of  this  embankment  consisted  of  beds  of 
mud  from  10  to  40  feet  deep.  After  the  bank  was  completed,  slight 
settlement  occurring,  it  was  deemed  prudent  to  postpone  building 
a  masonry  structure  for  some  years,  until  the  bank  has  assumed  a 
condition  of  permanent  staljility.  Hence  a  wooden  flume  was  con- 
structed, 200  feet  to  the  south  of  the  embankment,  for  temporary  use. 
It  consists  of  a  wooden  box  six  feet  square,  supported  on  bents  of 
three  piles  each  ten  feet  apart. 

I'he  reservoir,  at  present  covering  an  area  of  about  five  acres,  is  so 
built  that  extension  can  be  made  readily  at  the  south  side,  as  required 
in  the  future.  In  this  reservoir  the  sewage  is  received  as  it  flows  from 
the  temporary  flume  just  described,  where  it  is  retained  until  after  the 
turn  of  the  tide,  when  it  is  discharged  by  opening  a  series  of  gates 
which  permit  the  whole  contents  of  the  reservoir  to  flow  out  in  about 
20  to  30  minutes.  A  description  of  how  this  is  accomplished,  with  full 
details  of  other  portions  of  the  work,  are  given  l)y  Mr.  Clarke,  and  the 
reader  is  referred  to  his  book  for  a  more  extended  account. 

A  view  of  the  reservoir  is  shown  by  Fig.  10. 

The  velocity  of  the  ebb  tide  from  Moon  island  outward  is  about  two 
miles  an  hour ;  on  account  of  this  velocity  and  the  commanding  posi- 


DESCKIPTION    OF    THE    BOSTON    MAIN    DRAINAGE. 


185 


186  SEWAGE    ])ISP()SAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

tiou  of  the  island,  it  results  that  all  visible  traces  of  the  sewage  are  so 
completely  lost  in  the  vast  bod\^  of  water  in  less  than  two  miles  flow 
as  to  be  indisting-uishable  by  chemical  tests.  The  Boston  Main 
Drainag-e  Works  therefore  satisfy  the  conditions  laid  down  in  Chapter 
lY.,  on  The  Self -Purification  of  Running  Streams  and  the  Rational 
View  in  Relation  to  the  Disposal  of  Sewage  by  Discharge  into  Tide- 
Water  ;  indeed,  these  works  may  be  considered  a  good  illustration  of 
the  correct  principle  governing  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  tide-water. 


CHAPTER  X. 
ON  NITRIFICATION  AND  THE  NITRIFYING  ORGANISM.* 

The  FuNDAivfENTAL  Principle  of  Nitrification. 

The  necessary  essential  for  the  resolution  of  organic  matter  into  more 
primary  forms  of  matter  tliroug-li  the  operation  of  nitrification  is  that 
the  nitrif^'ing-  organism  shall  be  present  in  conjunction  with  an  alka- 
line mineral  base.  The  value  of  an  alkaline  base  has  been  practically 
known  for  at  least  2,000  years,  as  exemplied  by  the  Greeks,  the  Gauls, 
and  the  Britons  liming  the  land  which  they  cultivated.  Varro  states 
that  he  saw  laborers  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  fertilizing  their  land 
with  white  marl. 

Puvis,  in  his  Treatise  on  Manures,  mentions  the  excellent  results  in 
the  Department  du  Nord,  where  the  custom  of  using  calcareous  ma- 
nures has  been  followed  for  centuries.  Nevertheless  the  real  action  of 
the  lime  on  the  soil  has  only  been  recently  understood,  and  we  may 
profitably  review  a  few  of  the  more  interesting  investigations  of  nitri- 
fication which  have  been  made  in  the  last  150  years. 

In  1749  Piertsch,  in  a  short  treatise  addressed  to  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences at  Berlin,  stated  the  circumstances  which  he  considered  most  fa- 
vorable to  nitrification,  as  follows :  (1)  The  presence  of  calcareous 
matter ;  (2)  considerable  porosity  of  the  earth  to  offer  a  free  passage 
to  the  air  ;  (3)  the  putrefaction  of  animal  or  vegetable  substances ; 
(4)  heat  and  humidity. 

In  1778  Clouet  and  Lavoisier  proved  that  the  lime  of  Touraine  and 
that  of  Saintonge  nitrify  very  readily. 

In  1782  Thouvenal,  in  an  essay  which  gained  a  prize  from  the  Paris 
Academy  of  Science,  remarked  that  a  basket  of  chalk  placed  over  blood- 
in  a  state  of  putrefaction  produced  a  considerable  quantity  of  saltpetre. 

In  1784  C'avendisli  demonstrated  that  nitrification  requires  the  con- 
tact of  an  alkalin(i  solution. 

In  1785  Rozier,  in  his  "  Course  of  Agriculture,"  said  :  "  Stratifying  the 
dunghill  with  lime  decomposes  the  air  contained  in  the  manure  and 
converts  it  into  nitre,  which  gives  to  the  soil  an  extraordinary  fertility." 

*  The  preliminary  discuKsion  of  this  cliapter  has  been  abstracted  mostly  from  a  paper  on  Nitri- 
fication of  the  Soil,  by  M.  P.  Bortier,  Mi'nj  Hoy.  A'^.  Soc,  in  Jour.  Roj'.  Ag.  Soc.  of  Enjj. ,  voL 
xxiii.  (I8(i2),  pp.  HiA-.i.')!. 


]88  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    I\    THE    UNITED    STATES, 

Subsequently  a  number  of  clieinists  demoiistrateel  that  the  effect  of 
atmospheric  air  acting-  upon  a  manure-heap  is  to  nitrify  it  by  degrees. 

Warixgton's  Paper  Before  the  Society  of  Arts  ix  1882, 

Coming-  down  to  more  recent  times,  so  far  as  the  English  literature 
of  the  subject  is  concerned,  the  most  exhaustive  papers  explaiuing 
the  conversion  of  ammonia  and  the  nitrogen  of  organic  substances  into 
nitrates  in  the  soil  are  those  of  Robert  Warington.  In  his  pai:)er  be- 
fore the  Society  of  Arts  *  in  1882  the  theory  of  the  purificatic^n  of  sew- 
age is  so  clearly  set  forth  that  Ave  maj'  quote  from  it  at  length  : 

Dilute  sokitions  of  urine,  or  of  ammnninm  salts,  containing  the  essential  constitu- 
ents of  plant  food,  undergo  no  nitrification,  though  freely  exposed  to  the  air,  if 
only  they  have  Vyeen  pieviously  boiled  and  the  aii'  supijlied  to  them  is  filtered 
through  cotton  wool.  If  to  sjLich  sterilized  solutions  a  small  particle  of  fresh  soil 
is  added,  no  action  at  first  appears,  but  after  a  while  nitrification  sets  in  and  the 
ammonia  or  urea  is  converted  into  a  nitrate.  For  the  production  of  nitric  acid  it  is 
necessary  that  some  base  should  be  present  with  which  the  nitric  acid  may  com- 
bine. The  action  proceeds  best  in  the  dark.  AYlien  a  solution  has  thus  undergone 
nitrifacation,  a  drop  of  it  sriffices  to  induce  nitrification  in  another  solution,  which, 
unless  thus  seeded,  would  have  remained  unchanged.  Boiling  the  soil,  or  tlie  solu- 
tion that  has  nitrified,  entirely  destroys  its  power  of  causing  nitiitication.  The 
presence  of  antiseptics  also  prevents  nitrification.  Lastly,  nitrification  is  confined 
to  the  same  range  of  tcmi^erature  which  limits  other  kinds  of  fermentation.  The 
l^roduction  of  nitrates  proceeds  very  slowly  near  the  fieezing-point,  but  increases 
in  rapidity  as  the  temperature  rises,  reaching  its  maximum  of  energy,  accoiding  to 
8chla?sing  and  Muntz,  at  87"  C.  (99"  Fahr.).  At  higher  temperatures  the  late  of 
nitrification  rapidly  diminishes;  it  almost  ceases,  according  to  the  same  observers, 
at  50"  C.  (12-2''  Fahr.),  and  at  55°  C.  (131  Fahr.)  no  change  occurs.  It  thus  apijears 
that  nitrification  can  only  be  j^roduced  in  the  presence  of  some  nitrified  or  nitrify- 
ing material,  and  the  whole  course  of  the  action  is  limited  to  the  conditions  suitable 
to  the  activity  of  a  living  ferment.  The  French  chemists  claim  to  have  isolated  the 
ferment  by  systematic  cultivation  ;  it  belongs  to  the  family  of  bacteiia. 

The  purifying  action  of  .soil  on  sewage  is  probably  due  to  three  distinct  actions  : 
1.  Simple  filtration,  or  the  sejiaration  of  suspended  matter.  2.  The  precipitation 
and  retention  by  the  .soil  of  ammonia  and  various  organic  substances  previously 
in  solution.  3.  The  oxidation  of  ammonia  and  organic  matter  hy  the  agency  of 
living  organisms.  The  last  mode  of  action  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important,  as 
without  oxidation  the  sewage  matter  must  accumulate  in  the  soil  and  the  filter  bed 
lose  its  efficacy.  The  filtering  power  of  a  soil  will  depend  entirely  upon  its  me- 
chanical condition.  The  precii^itating  power  of  soil  is,  on  the  other  hand,  a  chem- 
ical function,  in  which  the  hydrated  ferric  oxide  and  alumina  and  the  silicates  of 
soils  probably  play  the  principal  part.  The  oxidizing  power  of  a  soil  will  dejiend 
partly  on  its  mechanical,  partly  on  its  chemical,  and  partly  on  its  l)iok)gica]  condi- 
tion. It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the  oxidizing  power  of  a  soil  dejjended  solely 
on  its  porosity,  oxidation  being  assumed  to  occur  by  simple  contact  with  air  in  the 
I^ores  of  the  soil.  We  now  know  that  a  porous  medium  is  by  no  means  essential 
for  nitrification  ;  sewage  may,  indeed,  be  nitrified  in  a  glass  bottle,  or  when  passing 
over  polished  pebbles.  Thoiigh,  however,  porosity  is  by  no  means  essential  to 
the  nitrifying  power  of  a  soil,  it  is  undoubtedly  a  condition  having  a  very  favorable 
influence  on  the  rapidity  of  the  process;  a  porous  soil  of  open  texture  will  present 
an  immense  surface,  covered  with  oxidizing  organisms,  and  generally  well  sujiplied 
with  the  air  requisite  for  the  discharge  of  tlieir  functions.  It  is  doubtless  owing 
to  this  fact  that  nitrification  takes  jalace  M'ith  so  much  greater  rapidity  in  a  .soil 

*Jour.  Soc.  Arts,  April,  1882. 


WARIXGTOX'S   PAPP:ii   OF   1884.  189 

than  iu  a  liquid.  The  sewage  will  itself  supply  the  substances  required  for  the 
nourishmeut  of  the  oxidizing  organisms.  One  material  essential  to  nitrification 
may,  however,  sometimes  be  deficient,  namely,  the  base  with  wliich  the  nitric  acid 
is  to  combine  ;  without  the  presence  of  this  salifiable  base,  nitriticatiou  will  speedily 
come  to  a  stand-still.  In  the  case  of  towns  supplied  with  hard  water,  the  sewage 
may  contain  as  much  carbonate  of  calcium  in  solution  as  will  suffice  for  its  subse- 
quent nitrification  in  the  soil ;  but  in  case  of  towns  supplied  with  veiy  soft  water,  this 
can  hardly  be  the  case,  and  the  presence  of  a  considerable  amount  of  lime  in  the 
soil  itself  will  become  essential  for  efficient  nitrification.  The  organisms  which 
effect  the  oxidation  of  organic  matter  are  abundantly  present  in  surface  soils,  but 
are  probably  absent,  or  nearly  so.  in  subsoils  ;  in  surface  soils  they  will  probably 
be  abundant  in  jjroportiou  to  the  lichness  of  the  soil  in  oiganic  matter.  Sewage 
also  contains  the  organisms  necessary  for  its  own  destruction,  and  under  favorable 
conditions  these  may  be  so  cultivated  as  to  effect  the  purpose.  A  filtering  medium 
of  pure  sand  and  limestone,  treated  intermittently  with  sewage,  will,  after  a  time, 
display  consideiable  pui'ifying  powers,  the  stirfaces  becoming  covered  with  oxidizr 
ing  organisms  derived  from  the  sewage.  No  such  medium  will,  liowever,  equal  in 
efltect  a  porous  soil  rich  iu  organic  life.  It  will  be  gathered  from  the  observations 
now  made  that  it  would  be  possible  to  construct  a  filter-bed  having  a  greater  oxi- 
dizing power  than  would  be  possessed  by  an  ordinary  soil  and  subsoil.  Such  a  bed 
would  be  made  by  laying  over  a  system  of  drain-pipes  a  few  feet  of  soil  obtained 
from  the  surface  (first  6  inches)  of  a  good  field,  the  soil  being  selected  as  one 
porous,  and  containing  a  considerable  amount  both  of  carbonate  of  calcium  and 
organic  matter.  A  filter-bed  thus  pre23ared  would  be  far  more  porous  than  a  nat- 
ural soil  and  subsoil,  and  would  possess  active  oxidizing  ftmctions  throughout  its 
whole  depth.  The  oxidizing  ])ower  of  soil  must  always  be  considerably  greater 
in  summer  than  in  winter.  The  favorable  infiuenee  of  the  warmer  seasons  of  the 
year  is  apparently  seen  in  several  of  Frankland's  experiments  on  the  intermittent 
filtration  of  sewage ;  the  same  influence  of  temperature  will  be  plainly  shown  in 
some  of  the  Eothamsted  resitlts.  When  we  turn,  however,  to  the  analyses  of  the 
effluent  water  from  irrigated  land,  the  fact  is  not  alwaA-«  manifest.  We  must  recol- 
lect, however,  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  nitrates  produced  in  summer  will  be 
a.ssimilated  by  the  growing  croi)s,  and  will  therefore  not  appear  in  the  drainage  • 
water.  The  oxidizing  power  of  a  soil  may  also  be  in  excess  of  the  work  pmvided 
for  it,  so  that  even  with  a  low  tem])erature  the  usual  amount  of  purification  may  be. 
attained.  A  low  temperature  will  also  affect  only  the  oxidizing  functions  of  the 
soil,  its  power  of  preciiiitating  and  retaining  sewage  matter  will  remain  unchanged. 
One  more  point  may  be  worth  notice.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  fact  that 
nitrification,  like  all  other  kinds  of  fermentation,  ceases  iu  the  jiresence  of  anti- 
septics ;  tiie  refuse  of  chemical  works  may  thus  sometimes  prove  a  great  hindrance 
to  the  purification  of  sewage  by  soil. 

Warington's  Paper  of  1884. 

In  1884  Mr.  Waringtoii  read  a  paper  before  the  British  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  *  in  which  he  somewhat  extended  the 
views  of  nitrification  whicli  lie  had  expressed  in  the  paper  before  the 
Societj'  of  Arts  in  1882.  The  foHowinof  extracts  from  the  paper  in  1884 
may  be  made : 

The  evidence  for  the  ferment  theory  of  nitrification  is  now  very  complete.  Nitri- 
fication in  soils  and  waters  is  found  to  be  strictly  limited  to  the  range  of  tempera- 
ture within  which  the  vital  activity  of  living  ferments  is  confined.  .  .  .  Nitrifica- 
tion is  also  dependent  u])on  the  presenc<>  of  plant  food  suitable  for  organisms  of  low 
character.  Recent  experiments  at  Rothamsted  sliow  that  in  the  absence  of  phos- 
phates no  nitrification  will  occur.     Further  proof  of  the  ferment  theory  is  afforded 

*  Report  of  .54th  Meeting  Brit.  Assn.  for  the  Adv.  Sol.,  Montreal,  1884. 


190  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE   UNITP:D    STATES. 

bv  the  fact  that  antiseptics  are  fatal  to  nitrification.  In  the  presence  of  a  small 
quantity  of  chloroform,  carbon  bisulphide,  salicylic  acid,  and  apparently  also 
phenol,  nitrification  entirely  ceases.  The  action  of  heat  is  also  equally  confirma- 
tory. Raising  sewage  to  the  boiling-point  entirely  jjrevents  it  undergoing  nitrifi- 
cation. The  heating  of  soil  to  the  same  tem2Jerature  efl'ectnally  destroys  its 
nitrifying  ijower.  Finally,  nitrification  can  be  started  in  boiling  sewage,  or  in 
other  sterilized  liquid  of  suitable  composition,  by  the  addition  of  a  few  i^articles  of 
fresh  surface  soil,  or  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  which  has  already  nitrified  ;  though 
without  such  addition  these  liquids  may  be  freely  exposed  to  filtered  air  without 
nitrification  taking  place. 

Small  qirantities  of  soil  were  taken,  at  depths  varying  from  two  inches  to  eight 
feet,  from  freshly-cut  surfaces  on  the  sides  of  pits  sunk  in  the  clay  soil  at  Rotham- 
sted.  The  soil  removed  was  at  once  transferred  to  a  sterilized  solution  of  diluted 
urine,  which  was  afterward  examined  from  time  to  time  to  ascertain  if  nitrification 
took  place.  From  the  results  it  would  apjiear  that  in  a  clay  soil  the  nitrifying 
organism  is  confined  to  about  18  inches  of  the  top  soil ;  it  is  most  abundant  in  the 
first  6  inches.  It  is  quite  possible,  however,  that  in  the  channels  caused  by  worms 
or  by  the  roots  of  plants,  the  organism  may  occur  at  greater  depths.  In  a  sandy 
soil  we  should  expect  to  find  the  organism  at  a  lower  level  than  in  clay,  but  of  this 
we  have  as  yet  no  direct  evidence. 

The  later  investig-ations  show  the  presence  of  the  nitrifying-  org-an- 
isrn  at  as  great  depths  in  porous  soils  as  four  feet. 

The  Massachusetts  Investigations. 

The  work  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  on  nitrifica- 
tion, as  published  in  I^art  IT.  of  the  Special  Report,  furnishes  us 
with  a  large  amount  of  recent  information,  and  we  may  conclude 
the  theoretical  part  of  this  chapter  by  quoting  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant iJortions  of  the  discussion :  * 

The  oxidation  of  the  nitrogen  of  ammonia,  and  its  ultimate  conversion  into  nitric 
acid,  is  called  nitrification.  This  change  is  especially  active  in  soils  near  the  sur- 
face, where  nitrates  are  formed  abundantly  from  percolating  waters  which  contain 
much  nitrogenous  matter. 

This  phase  of  nitrification,  the  formation  of  nitrates  in  porous  soil,  has  been  at- 
tentively studied.  But  less  attention  has  been  given  to  the  process  of  nitrification 
as  it  goes  on  in  surface  waters,  such  as  streams  and  ponds  ;  and  it  is  to  this  side  of 
the  question,  namely,  nitrification  as  it  occurs  in  natural  waters,  that  our  study  has 
been  chiefly  directed. 

Some  eighty  samples  of  wate)',  selected  from  two  hundred  and  forty  coming  each 
month  to  the  laboratory  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  were  examined  at  intervals 
of  from  two  to  seven  days  for  ammonia,  nitrites,  and  nitrates.  These  samples  were 
received  from  all  parts  of  the  State,  and  included  all  classes  of  surface  water, 
rivers,  ponds,  and  reservoirs  They  were  examined  rejjeatedly  during  the  months 
of  June,  July,  and  August,  1888. 

The  results  may  T)e  briefly  stated  as  follows  :  The  organic  matter  in  suspension 
decays  in  about  seven  days,  as  shown  by  the  increase  in  "free  ammonia."  In 
about  fourteen  days  this  "  free  ammonia  "  has  disappeared,  and  nitrite  has  taken  its 
place,  reaching  a  maximum  in  about  twenty-one  days.  Later  the  nitrite,  too,  dis- 
appears, and  in  twenty-eight  days  or  more  all  the  nitrogen  has  been  converted  into 
the  form  of  nitrate.  When  the  suspended  matter  is  removed  by  filtration  through 
paper  or  by  precipitation  with  alumina,  no  change  occurs  unless  free  ammonia  were 

*  Investigations  upon  Nitrification  and  the  Nitrifying  Organism,  by  Edwin  O.  Jordan  and 
Ellen  H.  Richards.     Special  Kept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Health,  Part  11.  (1890). 


THE    MASSACIirSKTIS    INVESTIGATIONS.  191 

present  at  the  outset.  ...  It  has  long  been  known  that  the  first  step — the  de- 
compositiou  of  nitrogenous  matter  and  consequent  production  of  ammonia — is  due 
to  the  vital  activity  of  bacteria.  The  early  experiments  of  Schwann  and  Schultze 
(1839),  and  the  later  and  thoroughly  conclusive  work  of  Pasteur,  showed  that 
jjutrefaction  of  organic  matter  is  brought  about  solely  by  the  small  vegetable 
organisms  known  as  bacteria.  Even  after  this  fact  became  generally  known,  it  was 
.some  time  before  the  importance  of  the  complete  range  of  this  discovery  was  sus- 
pected. It  was  still  maintained  that  the  process  of  nitrification  proper — the  oxi- 
dation of  ammonia  to  nitric  acid — was  of  a  purely  chemical  nature,  although  the 
burden  of  proof  was  soon  thrown  on  those  who  upheld  this  view.  The  close 
dependence  of  nitrification  upon  a  rather  narrow  range  of  temperature,  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  process  on  the  addition  of  antiseptics,  the  operation  of  "seeding"  one 
.solution  with  another,  the  impossibility  of  effecting  rapid  nitrification  by  chemicals, 
the  analogous  phenomena  of  putrefaction — all  pointed  clearly  to  the  fact  that 
nitrification  depends  on  the  presence  of  living  organisms. 

Tlie  first  conclusive  proof  that  sm-h  was  the  case,  however,  came  from  the  work 
of  Schloesing  and  Muatz  in  1877.  The  work  of  these  observers  rendered  it  practi- 
cally certain  that  living  organisms  of  some  kind  are  the  true  agents  of  nitrification. 
"It  now  remains  for  us,"  they  said,  "  to  discover  and  isolate  the  nitrifying  organ- 
isms."' Schloesing  and  Muntz,  in  their  subsequent  investigations,  believed  that 
they  had  succeeded  in  making  this  discovery  ;  but  in  view  of  the  facts  of  modern 
bacteriology  we  are  unfortunately  unable  to  assign  much  value  to  this  part  of  their 
work.  It  is  not  easy  to  satisfy  one  s-self  that  Schloesing  and  Muntz  ever  worked 
with  really  pure  cultures  of  isolated  species.  While  the  work  of  these  investi- 
gators established  beyond  all  question  the  fact  that  nitrification,  like  the  analogous 
phenomena  of  fermentation  and  jjutrefaction,  is  caused  by  living  organisms,  it  left 
entirely  open  the  ijrecise  nature  of  these  organisms. 

Tlie  first  experiments  with  species  of  bacteria  isolated  by  modern  methods,  and 
tlierefore  undoubtedly  pure  cultivations,  are  those  recorded  by  Heraeus.  Heraeus 
experimented  with  fourteen  well-known  species  of  bacteria,  and  with  about  as 
many  others  freshly  isolated  by  himself  from  water  and  soil.  He  cultivated  these  in 
an  ammoniacal  solution,  and  obtained  in  the  case  of  several  familiar  species  good 
qualitative  t»^sts  for  nitrous  acid.  Among  these  species  were  Bacillus  prodigiosus, 
the  Finkler  Prior  bacillus,  the  bacillus  of  typhoid  fever,  the  antlirax  bacillus,  and 
others.  Heraeus  concludes  that  all  these  organisms  possess  oxidizing  powers,  since 
they  are  thus  ai)parently  able  to  oxidize  ammonia  to  nitrous  acid. 

The  work  of  Adametz  and  Frank,  on  the  other  hand,  did  much  to  offset  this  posi- 
tive result  reached  by  Heraeus  They  found,  as  other  investigators  had  found  be- 
fore them,  that  the  introduction  of  a  small  (]uantity  of  garden  soil  into  an  ammoni- 
acal solution  would  produce  ra2)id  nitrification.  The  various  species  of  bacteria, 
however,  which  they  isolated  from  this  soil,  and  introduced  as  i)ure  cultures  into 
sterilized  ammoniacal  solutions,  refused  to  nitrify.  In  no  case  was  more  than  a  trace 
of  nitric  acid  observed.  Frank  was  so  influenced  by  his  continued  negative  results 
that  at  a  later  date  he  went  so  far  as  to  deny  that  living  organisms  had  anything 
whatever  to  do  with  nitrification.  This  sceptical  attitude  seemed  for  a  time  to  be 
fully  justified  by  the  experiments  of  Celli  and  Zucco  It  was  soon,  howe%'er, 
demonstrated  again  by  several  skilful  investigators  that  nitrification  could  not  be 
accounted  for  by  purely  chemical  influences.  There  was,  nevertheless,  no  cessation 
in  the  jjublication  of  negative  results.  Tlie  work  of  Heraeus  was  extended  and 
elaborated  by  P.  F.  Frankland  and  l)y  Warington.  Fianklaiul  failed  entirely  to 
obtain  any  evidence  of  oxidation  of  nitrogen  by  individual  species  of  bacteria,  and 
on  this  ])oint  came  into  direct  conflict  witli  Heraeus. 

Not  only  is  the  nitrifying  organism  present  in  Boston  tap-water,  .  .  .  but  it 
ap])ears  to  be  equally  common  in  water  from  all  parts  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts. 
So  far  as  our  experience  has  gone;,  any  natural  water  containing  the  ordinary 
amount  of  free  or  albuminoid  ammonia  contains  also  the  nitrifying  organism,  as  is 
shown  by  our  long  series  of  tests.  In  these  natural  waters  the  nitrifying  organism 
seems  to  be  under  wlK)lly  normal  conditions,  and  to  be  abundantly  able  toefl'ect  the 
oxidation    of   the   small    (piantities   of   nitrogen   usually  i)resent  in   these  waters. 


VJ2  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Waters  that  contain  liigli  "albuminoid  ammonia,"  in  cases  where  this  "ammonia" 
comes  from  the  nitrogeii  in  infusoria,  algfe,  etc.,  go  tlirough  the  same  changes  as 
those  which  contain  "  free  ammonia,"'  but  more  slowly.  The  organisms  in  time  die, 
the  bacteria  set  free  the  nitrogen  of  their  bodies,  forming  free  ammonia,  and  then 
in  turn  nitrites  and  nitrates. 

It  might,  perhaps,  be  reasonably  expected  that,  since  the  nitrifying  organism  is 
undoubtedly  present  in  all  these  waters,  an  examination  of  gelatin  jjlate  cultures  of 
these  waters  would  reveal  some  particular  kind  or  kinds  of  colonies  common  to  all, 
and  in  that  way  aid  in  sifting  out  the  nitrifying  organisms.  .Our  experience  has 
shown,  however,  that  such  a  hope  is  unfounded.  80  far  as  the  inspection  of  gelatin 
plate-cultures  enables  us  to  judge,  no  one  kind  of  colony  is  common  to  all  these 
waters.  This  fact,  on  the  surface,  seemed  to  favor  the  view  that  the  jjower  of  nitri- 
fication was  not  the  propeity  of  any  jiai'ticular  organism,  but  was  very  likely  pos- 
sessed in  common  by  a  number  of  kindred  species. 

There  was  .  .  .  one  possible  exjjlanation  of  our  failure  to  reach  consistent 
positive  results  by  the  use  of  species  of  bacteria  isolated  by  the  method  of  gelatin 
plate -culture.  It  might  be  that  the  nitrifying  organism  did  not  grow  on  gelatin. 
Everything  seemed  to  point  in  this  direction,  and  the  belief  was  further 
strengthened  by  a  very  signiticant  fact  observed  about  this  time.  We  had  known 
for  some  time  that  in  the  history  of  the  tilter-tanks  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment 
Station  speedy  nitrification  was  always  coincident  with  a  marked  decline  in  the 
numbers  of  bacteria.  The  effluents  discharged  from  the  filter-tanks,  although  high 
in  nitrates,  were  low  in  bacteria ;  and,  moreover,  the  more  complete  the  nitrifica- 
tion, the  fewer  were  the  bacteria  in  the  effluent. 

We  also  observed  that,  in  an  ammoniacal  solution  which  is  seeded  with  01  dinary 
l^ond-water  containing  several  species  of  bactena,  there  is  during  tlie  first  few  days 
a  rapid  multiplication  of  the  contained  germs.  Nitrification,  however,  does  not  as 
a  rule  begin  until  from  ten  to  fourteen  days  have  elap.sed.  By  the  time  nitrification 
begins,  the  numbers  of  bacteria,  as  shown  by  gelatin  plate-cultr;res,  have  begun  to 
decline;  and,  while  the  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrites  in  the  solution  is  increas- 
ing, the  numbers  of  bacteria  are  as  steadily  diminishing.  Thus,  in  one  instance, 
an  ammoniacal  solution,  four  days  after  its  inoculation  with  a  cubic  centimetre  of 
Cochituate  water,  contained  8,762,000  bacteria  per  cubic  centimetre.  Nitrification 
had  not  yet  begun.  When  the  first  signs  of  increasing  nitrites  appeared,  the  num- 
bers of  bacteria  had  sunk  to  19,200 ;  and  when  the  nitrites  reached  their  maximum, 
the  bacteria,  shown  by  gelatin  plate-cultures,  were  only  9,454.  It  was  certainly 
difficult  to  understand  why  nitrification,  a  i)rocess  apparently  dependent  upon  the 
life  and  activity  of  Imcteria,  should  .seem  to  flourish  best  under  conditions  in  which 
bacteria  were  perishing.  If,  however,  it  were  assumed  that  the  nitrifying  organism 
could  not  grow  in  the  usual  gelatin  media,  all  the  ])ei'plexiKg  results  above  recorded 
could  be  more  easily  explained.  Under  these  circumstances  it  was  natural  for  us 
to  make  such  an  assumption. 

There  was,  of  course,  the  possibility  that  the  nitrifying  organism,  by  its  growth 
on  gelatin,  had  lost  its  peculiar  property  ;  but  it  did  not  seem  to  us  likely  that  so 
fundamental  a  property  could  Ije  parted  with  in  so  short  a  time.  However  that 
might  be,  we  determined  to  test  the  other  hypothesis  first,  since  we  believed  it  to 
be  the  more  probable  of  the  two.  Accordingly  experiinents  were  begun  to  attempt 
to  isolate  the  nitrifying  organism  by  the  method  of  dilution.  This  is  the  method 
that  was  commonly  used  by  investigators  in  bacteriology  before  the  invention  of 
solid  culture-media.  It  has,  as  is  well  known,  serious  practical  as  well  as  theoreti- 
cal drawbacks.  In  our  practice  a  small  portion  of  an  actively  nitiifying  solution 
is  transferred  on  the  loop  of  a  sterilized  platinum  needle  to  a  sterilized  ammoni- 
acal solution,  and  when  nitrification  is  thus  induced  in  the  second  solution  a  fresh 
transfer  is  made  from  this  to  a  third,  and  so  on.  Rigid  precautions  have  been 
taken  to  avoid  the  introduction  of  foreign  germs. 

Hai-dly  were  these  experiments  well  under  way  before  our  interest  in  this 
method  of  procediu-e  was  stimulated  by  the  publication  of  communications  by- 
Percy  P.  Frankland,  and  Grace  Fiankland,  and  by  Robert  Warington.* 

*  The  Chemical  News,  vol.  Ixi.,  p.  135,  March  21,  1890. 


nilK    MASSACIIUSET'IS    INVESTIGATIONS.  193 

The  Franklands,  having  reached  a  conclusion  similar  to  our  own  regarding  the  be- 
havior of  the  nitrifying  organism  in  gelatin,  had  also  attempted  to  isolate  the  nitri- 
fying organism  by  the  dilution  method,  and  had  succeeded  in  the  attempt.  They 
state,  in  their  abstract  of  the  paper  read  before  the  Royal  Society,  that  '■  after  a  very 
large  number  of  experiments  had  been  made  in  this  direction,  the  authors  at  length 
succeeded  in  obtaining  an  attenuation  consisting  of  about  1-1, 000,000th  of  the  origi- 
nal nitrifying  solution  employed,  •which  not  only  nitrified,  but  on  inoculation  into 
gelatin-peptone,  refused  to  grow,  and  was  seen  under  the  microscope  to  consist  of 
numerous  characteristic  bacilli,  hardly  longer  than  broad,  which  may  be  described, 
as  bacillococci." 

Warington's  communication  entirely  confirms  that  of  the  Franklands,  in  so  far  as 
it  relates  to  their  earlier  and  negative  results.  He  had  not,  however,  at  the  time 
of  writing,  succeeded  in  isolating  the  nitrifying  organism. 

A  paper  by  Winogradsky  followed  soon  after.  He  appears  to  have  discovered 
independently  a  nitrifying  organism,  and  attributes  his  success  largely  to  his  mi- 
croscoijic  examinations  of  the  nitrifying  solutions,  and  to  his  u.se  of  solutions  de- 
void of  organic  matter.  The  following  is  the  composition  of  the  liqiiid  finally 
adopted  by  him  : 

Gramme?. 

Ammonium  suljihate 1 

Potassium    phosphate 1 

Water  from  the  lake  (at  Zurich,  "  tr&s  pure  ") 1,000 

Each  portion  of  100  cubic  centimetres  received  in  addition  .5  to  1  gm.  of  basic 
magnesium  carbonate,  suspended  in  distilled  water.  Winogradsky  found  that  this 
layer  of  magnesium  carbonate  at  the  bottom  of  each  flask  alforded  an  excellent 
gathering  place  for  flocks  of  the  nitrifying  organism.  The  "  nitric  ferment"  does 
not,  as  the  Franklands  had  already  shown,  grow  well  upon  ordinary  gelatin  plate- 
cultures  ;  and  this  is  probably  the  cause  of  the  failure  of  all  jirevious  experimenters 
to  isolate  the  special  ferment.  For  Winogradsky's  detailed  description  of  the  nitric 
ferraeut,  and  for  a  statement  of  his  peculiar  views  concerning  its  function,  "  de 
regnbt fixer  la  circulation  du  carbone  sur  notre  plande"  we  must  refer  to  his  original 
papers.* 

Before  receiving  Winogradsky's  paper,  in  the  spring  of  1890,  we  had  been  using 
in  our  work,  at  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Allen  Hazen,  an  ammouiacal  solution  of  the 
following  composition  : 

Grammes. 

Ammonium  chloride  fresublimed) 1.9070 

Sodium  carbonate. 3.784:2 

Sodium  phosphate 2000 

Potassium  sulphate 2000 

Proceeding  with  this  solution  Viy  the  method  of  dilution,  we  at  length  succeeded 
in  isolating  a  nitrifying  organism.  A  flask  was  first  inoculated  with  a  few  grains  of 
sand  from  Tank  No.  13,  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station,  and  when  nitrification 
was  at  its  height  in  this  solution  a  small  portion  was  transferred  from  this  to  a 
second  flask,  and  so  on.  After  a  large  number  of  unsuccessful  attempts,  two  solu- 
tions were  finally  ol)tained  which  nitrified  well,  but  gave  no  growth  upon  ordinary 
gelatin  plate-cultiires,  although  the  plates  were  allowed  to  stand  for  seven  days. 
Microscopic  examination  of  the.se  solutions  showed  them  to  be  inhabited  by  a  par- 
ticular form  of  bacillus,  and  apparently  by  that  alone.  These  bacilli  are  short,  of 
a  slightly  oval  shape,  and  vary  from  1.1  n  to  1.7  u  in  hnigth  ;  they  are  about  0.8  a  to 
0.9  u  broad.  They  are  grouped  very  characteristically  in  irregular  cluni)is,  and  are 
held  together  by  a  jelly-like  material.  Eacli  aggregation  is  indeed  a  typical 
zofighea  The  aggregations  of  bacteiia  were  found  cliiefly  on  tiie  bottom  of  the 
flasks,  as  was  also  the  case  with  the  organism  described  by  Winogradsky.  These 
masses  of  /oiigloea  obtained  as  a  ])ure  culture  from  a  nitrifying  solution,  resemble 
significantly  the  zooglcea  di.scharged  in  considerable  (piantities  from  tlie  filter-tanks 
at  Lawrence.  .  .  .  The  bacilli  stain  with  some  difficulty  with  the  usual  aniline 
dyes.     We  have  not  ob.served  independent  movement.     Owing  to  the  lack  of  the 

♦Annaleade  rinstitnt  Pasteur,  Tome  iv.,  ISiH),  No.  4,  p.  21S;  No.  5,  p.  257. 
13 


194  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

usual  means  of  diagnosis,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  in  a  short  time  whether  this 
species  is  the  same  as  the  one  described  by  the  Frauklands  and  by  "Winogradsky. 
On  one  important  point  there  appears  to  be  a  diti'erence  between  our  results  and 
those  reached  by  the  above-mentioned  investigators.  The  organism  discovered  by 
them  oxidizes  ammonia  to  nitrite,  but  cai'ries  it  no  further.  Our  own  flasks  give 
complete  oxidation  to  nitrate.  Whether  this  be  due  to  a  difference  of  conditions, 
a  diffei'ence  in  the  virility  of  the  organisms,  or  a  sijecitic  ditierence  in  the  bacteria, 
we  are  not  at  i^resent  prepared  to  say.  The  sliort  time  at  our  disposal  has  made  it 
impossible  to  settle  this  and  many  other  questions  to  our  own  satisfaction.  "We  are 
not  even  prepared  to  say  that  there  may  not  have  been  a  mixture  of  two  or  more 
species  in  our  flasks,  all  agreeing  closely  in  morphological  characters,  and  in  giving 
no  growth  on  gelatin,  but  differing  in  important  ijhysiological  respects.  Further 
investigation  is  necessary  to  settle  this  and  other  important  j^oints  regarding  the 
relations  of  this  organism  to  the  ju'ocess  of  nitrification. 

Whether  or  not  we  accept  the  views  of  Winogradsky,  it  is  certainly  worthy  of 
remark,  as  he  observes,  that  an  organism  should  exist,  which,  without  chlorojjhyll 
and  in  the  apparent  absence  of  organic  nitrogen  and  of  organic  carbon,  should  be 
able  to  multiply  and  thrive  upon  wholly  inorganic  compounds.  It  may  well  be 
doubted,  we  think,  whether  this  is  really  the  case.  It  seems  more  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  exceedingly  minute  quantities  of  organic  nitrogen  and  carbon  are 
actually  present,  and  escape  detection  by  our  ])resent  methods  of  chemical  analysis, 
although  in  reality  sufficient  to  nourish  generations  of  bacteria. 

Our  own  experience,  as  well  as  that  of  ]u-evious  investigators,  seems  to  be  a  warn- 
ing against  a  too  confiding  use  of  the  gelatin  plate-culture  in  bacteriological  work, 
since  in  this  instance  such  confidence  has  left  us  for  a  long  time  in  ignorance  of  a 
common  and  widespread  as  well  as  highly  important  organism. 

Disappearance  of  a  Portion  op  the  Nitrogen. 

In  the  practical  working-  of  intermittent  sand-filters  at  Lawrence,  it 
lias  been  found  (1)  that  during-  the  first  few  weeks  of  service  much  less 
nitrogen  came  away  in  the  effluents  than  was  applied  in  the  sewag-e  ; 
(2)  that  nitrification  is  usually  somewhat  more  active  in  the  spring- 
and  early  summer  than  at  any  other  season,  there  being  at  this  time 
frequently  an  excess  of  nitrogen  in  the  effluent  over  that  apjilied  in 
the  sewage,  caused  by  the  oxidation  of  organic  matter  stored  in  the 
filter  ;  (3)  that  as  a  whole  less  nitrogen  flows  away  in  tlie  effluent 
than  is  applied  in  the  sewage.  The  Report  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Health  for  1891  states  that  Filter  No.  1  stored  fifteen 
per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  applied  in  four  years  of  service,  and 
other  filters  even  more.  The  storage  of  nitrog-en  seems  to  decrease 
from  year  to  year,  but  the  observations  have  not  been  sufficiently  ex- 
tended to  determine  whether  the  storage  would  cease  before  the  filter 
became  too  much  clogg-ed  for  use.  The  experimental  sand-filters  at 
Lawrence  possess  the  power  of  self-cleansing  and  continue  to  act  effi- 
ciently for  a  long  time,  but  to  obtain  the  best  results  it  is  probable 
that  the  surfaces  of  such  filters  require  raking-  over  at  convenient  in- 
tervals, while  after  two  or  three  years,  at  least,  the  top  portion  of  the 
sand  should  probably  be  removed.*  With  ample  filtering  areas,  the 
beds  may  be  given  a  long-  rest,  instead  of  removing  the  sand. 

*  For  extended  discussion  of  this  point  see  Chapter  XIV. 


PKACTICAL    EXPERIMENTS.  195 


Practical  Experiments. 

In  the  course  of  the  work  at  Lawrence  a  number  of  experiments 
were  made  in  reg-ard  to  the  effect  of  different  substances  upon  nitrifi- 
cation.    The  following-  is  a  brief  account  of  the  more  important : 

(1.)  In  April,  May,  and  June,  1889,  instead  of  sewag-e,  there  was  ap- 
plied daily  to  Tank  No.  12  (one  of  the  small  tanks)  1^  g-allons  of  water, 
to  w'hich  had  been  added  enough  baked  and  pulverized  eg-g  albumin 
to  make  2.8  parts  of  nitrogen  per  100,000.  The  first  application  of  this 
mixture  was  made  April  18th. 

Egg-  albumin  is  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  and  the  object  of  this  ex- 
periment was  chiefl}^  to  determine  to  what  extent  it  would  be  rendered 
soluble  and  converted  into  free  ammonia,  or  carried  another  step  and 
become  nitrified,  in  passing  through  the  filter.  The  experiment  was 
interrupted  before  completion,  and  the  results  in  consequence  are 
somewhat  uncertain.  The  indications  are,  however,  that  about  CI 
per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen  contained  in  the  albumin  applied  was 
rendered  soluble  and  converted  into  nitrates.  There  are  no  means 
of  determining-  how  much  of  the  insoluble  nitrog-enous  matter  w^as 
stored  in  the  sand,  though  comparing-  with  results  obtained  with  sew- 
ag-e, it  appears  probable  that  but  little  was  stored. 

This  experiment  was  repeated  from  July  10  to  August  7,  1889,  when 
there  was  applied  three  g-allons  of  water  i^er  day,  containing-  baked 
and  pulverized  blood  albumin  sufficient  to  supply  1.04  part  of  nitro- 
gen per  100,000.  This  exiierimeut  was  also  somewhat  uncertain  as  to 
the  actual  results  obtained,  though  the  indications  are  that  about 
90  per  cent,  of  the  total  nitrogen  of  the  mixture  aiDpeared  as  nitrates 
in  the  effluent. 

(2.)  We  have  already  referred,  in  Chapter  I.,  to  the  experiments 
upon  the  passage  of  Bacillus  prodigiosus  through  the  sand-filters,  and 
we  will  now  describe  some  further  phenomena  developed  by  that  ex- 
periment. 

In  order  to  apply  Bacillus  prodigiosus  a  litre  of  bouillon,  containing  a 
pure  culture  of  many  millions,  was  mixed  with  water  and  applied  to 
Filter  No.  12  on  the  morning  of  August  7,  1889.  On  the  morning,  of 
August  8th  the  number  of  Ijacteria  found  in  the  effluent  was  60  per 
cubic  centimetre.  At  1  p.m.  of  the  same  day  the  number  was  18,440 ; 
two  hours  later  the  number  was  58,000  ;  at  5  p.m.  the  nund)er  had  in- 
creased to  81,700 ;  and  at  9  p.m.  the  count  gave  108,100.  On  August  Otli 
the  number  of  bacteria  was  high  in  the  forenoon,  reaching  12,9(54  at 
noon,  and  decresaing  to  494  at  nine  in  the  evening.  At  9  p.m.  on  Au- 
gust 10th  the  numlx-r  was  3,  and  three  counts  on  August  lltli  aver- 
aged 4. 


196  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

We  have  here  a  large  increase  in  the  amount  of  the  food  material 
added  to  the  tank,  followed  by,  apparently,  a  great  increase  in  the 
number  of  bacteria  in  the  tank,  as  indicated  by  the  increase  of  number 
in  the  effluent.  The  time,  however,  of  such  increase  was  quite  short,  as 
the  effect  of  adding-  the  extra  food  material  appears  to  have  spent  it- 
self on  August  10th. 

The  bouillon  employed  in  this  experiment  consisted  of  beef-tea  en- 
riched with  peptone,  as  ordinarily  prepared  for  a  culture-medium  by 
bacteriologists.  Peptone,  the  principal  nutritive  constituent,  is  sol- 
uble and  therefore  specially  available  as  bacterial  food.  It  is  proba- 
bly superior  in  nutrient  value  to  most  of  the  substances  found  in 
sewage. 

On  September  20, 1889,  the  same  quantity  of  bouillon,  as  previously 
used  on  August  7th,  was  again  applied.  The  bouillon  of  this  second 
experiment  was  of  the  same  quality  as  that  used  on  August  7th,  except 
that  it  was  sterilized  so  that  it  contained  no  bacteria.  On  September 
18th,  19th  and  20th,  before  applying  the  bouillon,  the  average  number 
of  bacteria  in  the  effluent  was  199  ;  on  the  morning  of  September  21st 
the  number  was  found  to  be  51,600 ;  at  1.55  p.m.  of  the  same  day  the 
number  counted  was  57,600  ;  at  9  p.m.  it  was  26,400.  The  greatest  num- 
ber oil  September  23d  was  4,485.  On  September  26th  the  number  at 
the  time  of  greatest  flow  was  1,820  ;  on  October  2d  the  number  at  the 
same  time  was  736. 

In  addition  to  the  experiments  with  bouillon  and  peptone  mixture 
just  described,  experiments  had  also  been  previously  made  in  the 
month  of  March,  1889,  by  the  application  of  a  solution  of  peptone  alone 
to  Tank  No.  11.  The  results  were  essentially  the  same  as  those  found 
later  with  Tank  No.  12.  In  every  case  the  af)plication  of  the  nutrient 
mixture  was  first  followed  by  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of 
bacteria  appearing  in  the  effluent,  followed  later  b}^  a  decrease  in  the 
bacteria  in  the  effluent  with  increased  nitrification. 

The  effect  of  applying  a  nutrient  mixture  to  an  intermittent  filter  is 
summarized  in  the  Special  Eeport  (page  856)  as  follows  : 

At  first  there  is  an  increased  discharge  of  bacteria  and  an  incomplete  oxidation,  but 
this  condition  gradually  changes  to  one  of  ahnost  complete  oxidation,  and  the  dis- 
charge of  very  few,  if  any,  Ijacteria.  This  series  of  events  ajij^ears  to  be  due  to  the 
temporary  over-feeding  of  the  filter,  and  consequent  increase  of  the  bacteria,  fol- 
lowed by  a  new-  balance  of  supply  and  demand.  It  follows  also  that  jiei^tone  is 
readily  and  comijletely  oxidized  by  micro-organisms. 

(3.)  Filter  Tank  No.  13  received  sewage  for  nearly  a  year  previous  to 
January  14,  1889,  at  the  rate  of  60,000  gallons  per  acre  per  day.  Be- 
ginning on  that  date,  at  which  time  the  tank  was  giving  a  perfectly 
nitrified  effluent,  a  solution  of  ammonium  chloride  in  water,  containing 
1  part  ammonia  per  100,000,  was  substituted  for  the  sewage.     Enough 


PRACTICAL    EXPERIMENTS.  197 

sodium  carbonate  was  mixed  with  this  solution  to  combine  with  the 
chlorine  of  the  ammonium  chloride,  and  also  with  the  nitric  acid  equiv- 
alent to  the  ammonia.  Nitrification  was  complete  from  the  first,  the 
efiluent  being  not  onh'  almost  free  from  ammonia,  but  containing-  nearly 
all  of  the  nitrogen  applied  as  nitrates. 

The  strength  of  the  solution  was  increased  from  time  to  time,  until 
on  April  22d  it  contained  34  parts  per  100,000  of  ammonia. 

After  increasing  the  amount  applied  complete  nitrification  was  not 
at  once  obtained,  but  the  effluent  contained  ammonia  and  nitrites. 
Later  the  ammonia  disappeared  from  the  effluent,  to  be  followed  by  the 
nitrites,  while  increased  development  of  the  nitrates  went  on,  until 
finally  a  nearly  complete  nitrification  was  obtained. 

The  effect  of  an  excess  and  deficiency  of  alkali  was  also  experimented 
u]ion  with  Tank  No.  13.  From  July  2  to  August  5,  1889,  the  propor- 
tionate parts  of  the  mixture  added  to  this  tank  was  4  ammonium  chloride 
to  5  of  sodium  carbonate.  This  gave  sodium  carbonate  in  excess  of 
the  amount  required  to  neutralize  the  ammonium  chloride.  Nitrifica- 
tion was  not  in  the  least  interfered  with.  The  excess  of  sodium  car- 
bonate passed  through  without  change,  with  no  other  result  than  to 
increase  the  alkalinity  of  the  effluent. 

Beginning  October  8th,  the  proportion  added  was  •!  of  ammonium 
chloride  to  3  of  sodium  carbonate,  in  which  there  was  a  deficiency  of 
alkali.  The  result  was  an  almost  total  stoppage  of  nitrification,  which, 
however,  after  a  time  began  again,  but  did  not  become  complete. 

An  imexpected  result  of  the  experiment  with  deficiency  of  alkali, 
was  the  production  of  an  enormous  quantity  of  nitrites. 

It  appears,  then,  from  these  experiments  that  an  excess  of  alkali  is 
without  effect  upon  nitrification,  but  on  the  other  hand,  with  an  insuffi- 
cient qujuitity  nitrification  is  incomplete,  the  effluent  containing  ammo- 
nia and  nitrites,  the  latter  often  in  large  quantities. 

(4.)  The  effect  of  acid  upon  nitrification  was  experimented  upon  with 
Tank  15  A,  which  is  one  of  the  small  tanks,  filled  with  very  coarse 
gravel,  the  stones  ranging  between  |  and  1;^  inch  in  diameter.  Before 
placing  in  the  tank  the  gravel  was  carefully  washed  in  order  to  remove 
any  sand,  earth,  or  organic  matter  which  might  otherwise  remain  at- 
tached to  the  stones.  The  empty  space  in  this  tank  amounted  to  about 
37  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  In  Octol)er,  1889,  this  tank  was  puri- 
fying sewage  at  the  rate  of  20,000  gallons  per  day  with  fair  nitrifi- 
cation. Beginning  October  22d,  sulphuric  acid  was  added  to  the 
sewage,  in  quantity  equal  to  22. ")4  i)arts  per  100,000  of  sulphuric  acid 
in  the  solution.  The  result  of  this  treatment  was  a  great  increase  of 
free  ammonia,  with  fluctuation  of  the  albuminoid  ammonia  and 
decrease  of  nitrates  in  the  efflu(Mit.  The  treatment  was  continued  for 
four  months,  during  all  of  which   time  some  nitrification  continued, 


198  SKWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

altlioug-h  gradually  decreasing-  in  amount.     Summarizing-  the  result  of 
this  experiment,  Mr.  Mills  says  (Special  Report,  page  563) : 

We  learn  from  this  exiseriment  that  sewage  coiitaiuiug  a  large  percentage  of 
sulphuric  acid  may  have  a  large  part  of  its  organic  matter  removed  by  intermittent 
filtration  for  a  considerable  time ;  so  that  we  may  not  exi^ect  an  unfavorable  result 
if  sewage  having  an  excess  of  acid  be  occasionally  ajaplied  to  a  filtration  area  ;  but, 
if  it  is  constantly  applied,  it  should  be  neutralized  by  lime  or  some  alkali. 

The  effect  of  using  limestone  to  counteract  the  acidity  of  the  sewage 
was  subsequently  further  experimented  upon  in  Filter  No.  17  A,  in 
which  a  little  limestone  was  mixed  with  the  upper  layers  of  the  filter- 
ing material,  and  strong  lye  and  sewage  applied  for  over  a  3'ear.  The 
effluent  showed  results  comparable  with  those  from  normal  sewage 
filtered,  under  similar  conditions,  through  sand  without  limestone. 

(5.)  The  effect  of  saltpetre  upon  nitrification  was  also  experimented 
with  in  Tank  No.  15  A.  The  i-esult  was  that  when  saltpetre  was  dis- 
solved in  the  sewage  to  the  amount  of  72  parts  of  nitrogen  per  100,000, 
the  quantity  of  nitrates  in  the  effluent  increased  from  2.01  parts  per 
100,000  two  days  before  the  saltpetre  was  applied,  to  61  parts  per 
100,000  four  days  after  the  application.  The  saltpetre  was  discon- 
tinued after  five  days,  and  in  twelve  days  from  the  first  application 
the  nitrates  had  fallen  to  15  parts  per  100,000. 

(6.)  Experiments  were  made  as  to  the  effect  of  common  salt  upon 
nitrification  in  Tank  No.  11,  which,  as  already  stated,  had  been  used 
for  the  experiments  with  the  peptone  solution.  Beginning  July  2, 
1889,  a  solution  of  ammonium  chloride  with  a  suitable  amount  of 
sodium  carbonate  in  water  was  applied  to  this  tank,  the  solution  con- 
taining 2  parts  of  nitrogen  per  100,000.  At  the  end  of  a  month  the  ef- 
fluent contained  nearly  all  the  nitrogen  applied.  On  August  8th,  com- 
mon salt  was  added  in  such  quantity  that  the  charge  contained  1,200 
parts  of  chlorine  per  100,000.  Nitrification  was  checked  and  the 
solution  passed  through  the  filter  almost  unchanged.  August  27th,'the 
addition  of  salt  was  suspended,  the  charge  from  that  time  until  Sep- 
tember 9th  being  the  same  as  previous  to  the  addition  of  the  salt.  On 
September  9th  nitrification  was  again  complete.  Salt  was  again  added, 
but  in  much  smaller  quantities  than  before :  such  addition  being 
followed  by  a  decrease  of  the  nitrates  in  ten  days  from  2.08  parts  per 
100,000  to  0.15  part.  Upon  continuing  the  same  solution  eight  days 
longer  the  nitrates  increased  1.31  part  per  100,000.  The  chlorine  at 
this  time  was  127.1  parts. 

The  quantity  of  salt  in  the  daily  application  was  then  increased  for 
three  weeks,  until  the  chlorine  amounted  to  367.0  parts ;  during  this 
Ume  the  nitrates  decreased  to  0.2  part ;  upon  again  gradually  in- 
creasing the  quantity  of  salt  the  nitrates  also  increased.     On  December 


PRACTICAL    EXPERIMENTS.  199 

14tli  cliIoriDe  leaclied  1,306.0  parts  and  the  nitrates  were  1.0  part  per 
100,000. 
In  regard  to  the  practical  bearings  of  this  experiment  Mr.  Mills  says  : 

By  gradual l_v  increasing  the  amount  of  salt  in  the  solution  to  a  little  more  than 
was  applied  in  August  at  once,  without  time  for  a  gradual  adaptation  of  tiie  filter 
to  the  work  required  of  it,  we  find  a  very  different  result.  In  August  the  same 
quantity  of  salt  caused  uitritication  to  cease,  and  allowed  the  ammonia  to  come 
through  the  filter  nearly  unchanged.  By  the  gradual  application  of  the  salt  in  in- 
creasing quantities,  we  now  find  that,  when  the  same  quantity  is  ajiplied,  the  am- 
monias are  reduced  to  about  12  per  cent,  of  those  which  came  through  in  August ; 
and  the  nitrates,  which  were  zero,  are  now  equal  to  one  i:)art  per  100,000.  From 
this  we  see  that  by  properly  preparing  the  filter,  a  solution  of  ammonia  n)ay  be 
quite  .satisfactorily  purified  by  uitritication,  even  when  it  is  as  salt  as  ordinary  sea- 
wat^er.  Upon  rapidly  increasing  the  amount  of  salt,  from  December  1-4,  1889,  to  Jan- 
uary 8, 1890,  to  about  four  times  that  which  it  contained  on  December  lilh,  so  that  it 
was  nearly  three  times  as  salt  as  ordinary  sea- water,  the  nitrates  were  very  much 
reduced.  OVi'ained  in  the  usual  way  they  amounted  to  .0600  part ;  but  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  method  of  determining  nitrates,  when  the  solution  contains  these 
very  large  amounts  of  .salt,  gives  results  which  are  too  low.  From  these  results  we 
may  conclude  that  quite  satisfactory  nitrification  may  result  when  applying  to  a 
nitration  area  sewage  containing  a  very  large  amount  of  salt,  if  only  it  be  aj^plied 
with  reasonable  regularity. 

(7.)  The  effect  of  sugar  upon  nitrification  was  experimented  with  in 
Tank  No.  12,  which  had  also  been  used  for  filtration  of  sewage  in  the 
experiment  with  egg-albumin  and  water.  Beginning  October  23, 1889, 
and  continuing  to  December  8th,  three  gallons  of  city  water  contain- 
ing granulated  sugar  equal  to  100  parts  per  100,000  of  the  solution 
were  applied  daily.  The  result  was  that  nitrification  decreased  im- 
mediately. The  greater  part  of  the  sugar  passed  through  the  tank  un- 
changed and  in  six  weeks'  time  the  effluent  contained  three-fourths  of 
the  applied  sugar. 

On  December  0th,  three  gallons  of  sewage  were  applied  daily,  with- 
out any  sugar.  Nitrification  was  resumed  at  once,  and  in  live  days' 
time  tlie  nitrates  amounted  to  0.22  part.  During  this  period  the  tem- 
perature of  the  effluent  varied  from  -49°  to  4:0°  F.  In  twelve  days 
the  nitrates  amounted  to  0.86  part. 

Beginning  Januar}'  1,  1890,  sugar  was  applied  to  the  sewage  to  the 
amount  of  10  parts  in  100,000  ;  on  the  13th,  this  amount  was  increased 
to  20  parts.  Tlie  effect  was  to  slowly  reduce  the  amount  of  nitrates  in 
the  effluent  to  0.08  part  on  January  31st,  without  any  increase  of  am- 
monias. From  this  time  the  nitrates  increased,  until  they  reached  1.1 
part  on  February  28th,  the  effluent  then  contained  less  than  one  per 
cent,  of  the  amount  of  sugar  apjilied,  while  in  November  and  the  early 
part  of  December,  from  one-third  U)  three-fourths  of  the  amount 
applied  passed  tlnongli. 

From  this  experiment  if  appears  that  a  considerable  quantity  of 
sugar,  when  first  applied  to  intenniffent  sand-filters,  will  cause  a  de- 
crease of  nitrification  witliout  increase  of  ammonias.     If,  however,  such 


200  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

a  tilter  can  be  g-raclually  adapted  to  the  special  work  of  nitrifying- 
sugar,  the  nitrates  are  formed  about  as  completely  as  when  sugar  is 
absent. 

In  the  special  case  under  consideration  after  the  adaptation  of  the 
filter  to  the  work  during  the  low  temperature  of  winter,  a  satisfactory 
purification  was  finally  attained  of  60,000  gallons  of  sewage  apialied 
per  acre  daily. 

(8.)  The  efiect  of  an  amount  of  free  oxygen  ujion  nitrification  was  also 
experimented  with  in  Filter  Tank  No.  14,  which  was  a  small  tank  filled 
with  sand  of  the  same  quality  as  that  in  Tank  No.  1.  This  tank  had 
been  used,  previous  to  the  special  experiment,  for  sewage  filtration  in 
the  ordinary  way  for  about  a  year. 

For  the  special  experiments  on  the  effect  of  free  oxygen  upon  nitri- 
fication, the  tank  was  fitted  with  a  trap  at  the  bottom,  and  a  cover  to  the 
top,  with  mercury  seal,  which  made  it  air-tight.  A  pressure-guage 
was  connected  with  a  small  faucet.  The  daily  application  of  sewage 
was  put  in  through  a  large  funnel,  with  a  stop-cock  to  prevent  the  ad- 
mission of  air,  and  a  perforated  folate  under  the  cover  distributed  the 
sewage  over  the  surface.  The  trap  at  the  bottom  allowed  the  efiiuent 
to  flow  away,  but  i^revented  the  ingress  of  air  to  the  tank  with  ordi- 
nary pressures.  From  February  21st  to  28th,  nine  gallons  of  sewage 
were  applied  daily.  During  this  time  there  were  a  number  of  leaks,  and 
there  must  have  been  a  good  supply  of  air.  Nitrification  was  nearly 
stopped.  On  March  1st,  the  tank  was  shown,  by  the  pressure-guage, 
to  be  i^erfectly  tight.  The  same  daily  application  of  sewage  was  con- 
tinued and  in  a  week  nitrification  had  stopped,  and  the  efiiuent  flowed 
away  little  better  than  crude  sewage.  On  March  16th,  the  cock  for  ad- 
mitting sewage  was  left  open  in  order  to  ventilate  the  top  of  the  tank. 
The  efiiuent  still  remained  the  same,  and  on  March  27th  the  cover  was 
taken  off.  This  still  did  not  afford  sufficient  air,  the  tank  having 
become  clogged  by  the  organic  matter  which  had  accumulated  during 
the  time  when  the  air  was  excluded.  On  April  2d,  one-half  inch  of  the 
accumulation  was  removed  from  the  surface  ;  and  an  aspirator  attached 
to  one  of  the  side  faucets,  near  the  bottom.  Thereupon  the  efiiuent 
rapidly  improved,  and  in  two  weeks  nitrification  was  again  nearly  com- 
l^lete.  During  April  and  the  following  months  a  number  of  different 
experiments  were  made  as  to  the  effect  of  free  oxygen  upon  nitrifica- 
tion with  this  tank.  The  net  result  of  the  whole  series  is  to  enforce  the 
proposition  that  nitrification  cannot  take  place  in  sand-filters  without 
the  air  in  the  spaces  of  the  filter  contains  oxygen.  Tlie  experiments 
also  show  that  a  small  amount  of  oxygen,  in  the  air  in  the  spaces  of 
the  filter,  is  nearly  as  effective  as  a  larger  quantity,  i^rovided  the  air  is 
changed  often  enough  to  insure  the  presence  of  some  oxygen  at  every 
point. 


DENITKIi'lCATION.  201 


Present  Theory  of  Niteefication. 

We  have  now  exhibited  some  of  the  more  interesting  points  in  con- 
nection with  nitrification  in  its  application  to  sewag-e  disposal.  By 
way  of  presenting  the  present  theory  in  a  concise  form  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  ascertained  facts  indicate  that  nitrification  takes  place 
in  two  stages,  each  characterized  by  a  distinct  organism.  The  ol^ce 
of  one  of  these  is  to  convert  ammonia  into  nitrite  ;  while  the  other 
converts  nitrite  into  nitrate,  whence  we  have  the  nitrous  and  nitric  or- 
ganism or  ferments.*  Both  are  present  in  ordinary  soils  in  enormous 
numbers  ;  they  are  also  present  or  quicklj^  develop  in  sewage,  which 
may  be  considered  a  nutrient  medium  for  them  by  reason  of  contain- 
ing a  large  amount  of  their  natural  nitrogenous  food. 

As  to  which  organism  will  develop  in  any  particular  case  in  the 
greater  quantity  will  depend  upon  the  existence  of  a  number  of  special 
conditions,  some  of  which  are  not  yet  well  understood.  In  the  mean- 
time what  we  do  definitely  know  indicates  that  the  two  organisms  may 
be,  according  to  Warington,  separated  by  "  successive  cultivations  in 
solutions  of  special  composition  favoring  the  development  of  either." 
By  employing  a  solution  containing  potassium  nitrate,  but  no  am- 
monia, we  may  obtain  the  nitric  organism  alone  ;  or  by  employing  an 
ammonium  carbonate  solution  a  few  cultivations  give  us  the  nitrous 
organisms  in  a  pure  state.  The  significance  of  these  facts  in  relation 
to  sewage  purification  is  partially  exhibited  in  the  Lawrence  experi- 
ments already  given. 

Denitrificatiox. 

We  have  seen  from  what  has  preceded  that  soil  possesses  the  jjower 
of  nitrification  in  the  highest  degree.  Under  certain  circumstances, 
however,  it  possesses  the  power  of  rapidly  destroying  nitrates,  and  as 
such  destruction  may  have  its  bearing  on  the  results  of  sewage  purifi- 
cation it  becomes  of  importance  to  understand  the  circumstances  un- 
der which  it  takes  place,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  sewage 
itself  will  destroy  nitrates  in  waters  containing  them,  as  first  observed 
by  Dr.  Angus  Smith  in  1867,  who  also  pointed  out  that  the  nitrogen  of 
the  nitrate  was,  in  the  case  of  denitritication,  by  sewage,  evolved  as  gas. 
AVe  have  then,  as  the  first  condition  for  denitrification,  the  presence  in 
solution  of  nitrat»>s  together  with  oxidizable  organic  matter.  The 
power  of  nitrification  is,  however,  not  lost  when  denitrification    has 

*  For  photographic  illustrations  of  the  nitrons  and  nitric  organisms  see  Kxpcrinicnt  Station 
Bulletin,  Ni).  S,  Lectures  on  the  Investiijations  at  Uotliainsted  Ex|)eriniontal  Station,  by  Robert 
Warington,  F.R.S.,  delivered  before  the  Assn  of  Am.  Ag.  Colleges  and  Ex.  Stations  at  Wash- 
ington, Aug.  rj-lS,  ISOl,  Plates  VI.,  VII.,  and  VIII. 


2<'2  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

taken  place  throug-h  the  action  of  organic  matter ;  in  due  course  the 
organic  matter  disappears  and  nitrification  again  proceeds. 

Denitrification  is  not  in  any  sense  a  chemical  reaction  ;  on  the  cou- 
trar}',  like  nitrification,  it  can  only  take  place  in  the  presence  of  a  liv- 
ing- organism.  The  efi'ects  of  micro-organisms  upon  solutions  contain- 
ing a  nitrate  and  organic  matter  have  been  studied  by  a  number  of 
observers  in  the  last  few  years.  The  result  is  the  determination  of 
from  20  to  30  species  of  bacteria  which  produce  some  kind  of  a  reduc- 
ing effect,  although  onlj^  two  species,  Baderhua  denitrifcans  a  and  /? 
have  been  found  to  certainly  possess  the  property  of  reducing  nitrates 
to  nitrogen  gas.  The  most  common  form  of  reduction  is  from  nitrates 
to  nitrites. 

Denitrification  may  also  be  made  to  take  place  by  the  simple  pro- 
cess of  excluding  oxygen,  as,  for  instance,  by  saturating  a  soil  with 
water. 

In  the  foregoing  we  have  set  forth  some  of  the  more  important  facts 
relating  to  the  subject  of  nitrification.  In  the  chapter  on  Intermit- 
tent Filtration  the  necessary  conditions  for  nitrification  in  its  applica- 
tion to  sewage  purification  are  more  fully  discussed.* 

*  In  addition  to  the  papers  cited  in  the  chapter,  the  following  partial  list  of  "  Rothamsted  " 
papers  on  nitrification  and  allied  subjects,  as  given  by  Mr.  Warington  in  his  Washington  lectures, 
loc.  cit. ,  may  be  consulted  : 

On  Nitrification. — Jour.  Chan.  Hoc,  1ST8,  44. 

On  Nitrification,  Part  \\.  — Trans.  Client.  Soc,  1879,  429. 

On  Alterations  in  the  Properties  of  the  Nitric  Ferment  by  Cultivation. — Rtjiort  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Adi>aii,ceinent  of  Science,  1881,  59.3. 

On  the  Determination  of  Nitric  Acid  by  Means  of  its  Reaction  with  Ferrous  Salts,  Part  I. — 
Trcuis.  Chem.  Soc.,  1S80,  46S ;  Part  II.,  ibid.,  1882,  34.5. 

On  the  Determination  of  Nitric  Acid  in  Soils. — Trans.  Chem.  Soc,  1882,  351. 

Determinations  of  Nitrogen  in  the  Soils  of  some  of  the  Experimental  Fields  at  Rothamsted, 
and  the  Bearing  of  the  Results  on  the  Question  of  the  Sources  of  the  Nitrogen  of  our  Crops. — 
Report  Amcricafi  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.^  1882. 

New  Determinations  of  Ammonia,  Chlorine,  and  Sulphuric.  Acid  in  the  Rain  Water  Collected 
at  Rothamsted. — Jour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc,  1883,  313. 

The  Nitrogen  as  Nitric  Acid  in  the  SoUs  and  Subsoils  of  some  of  the  Fields  at  Rothamsted. — 
Jour.  Roij.  Agr.  Soc,  1883,  331. 

On  Nitrification,  Part  III.  —  2'rans.  CJiem.  Soc,  1884,  937. 

On  the  Action  of  Gypsum  in  Promoting  Nitrification.—  Trans.  Chem.  Soc,  1885,  758. 

On  some  Points  in  the  Composition  of  Soils,  with  Results  Illustrating  the  Sources  of  the  Fer- 
tility of  Manitoba  Prairie  Soils.  —  Trans.  Chem.  /Soc..^  1885,  380. 

On  the  Distribution  of  the  Nitrifying  Organisms  in  the  Soil.  —  Trans.  Chem.  Soc..,  1887,  118. 

A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  Well  Waters — Trans.  Chem.  Soc,  1887,  500. 

The  Chemical  Actions  of  .some  Micro-organisms. —  Trans.  Chem.  Soc.,  1888,  727. 

On  the  Present  Position  of  the  Question  of  the  Sources  of  the  Nitrogen  of  Vegetation,  with 
some  New  Results  and  Preliminary  Notice  of  New  Lines  of  Investigation. — Phil.  Trans.  Roy. 
Soc,  1889,  B.  1. 

The  Hist.iry  of  a  Field  Newly  Laid  Down  to  Permanent  Grass. — Jonr.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc, 
1889. 

The  Amount  of  Nitric  Acid  in  the  Rain  Water  at  Rothamsted,  with  Notes  on  the  Analysis  of 
Rain  Water.— Trans.  Chem.  Soc,  1889,  .^37. 

On  Nitrification,  Part  IV.— Trans.  Chem.  Soc,  1891,  484. 


CHAPTEE  XI. 
CHEMICAL    PEECIPITATION. 

Definition  of  the  Process. 

If  we  refer  to  Table  No.  32,  on  page  152,  we  observe  that  a  portion 
of  the  organic  matter  of  sewage  is  in  suspension  only.  When  sewage 
is  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  hours  a  part  of  the  suspended  matter  will 
be  deposited  at  the  bottom,  through  the  action  of  sedimentation ;  but 
such  action  is  ordinarily  quite  restricted  in  its  range  and  cannot  be 
relied  upon  by  itself  to  effect  the  efficient  purification  of  sewage.  If, 
however,  certain  chemicals  are  added. to  the  sewage,  an  insoluble  pre- 
cipitant is  formed,  which,  under  favorable  circumstances,  maj^  carry 
down  with  it  all  the  suspended  matter,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  dis- 
solved organic  matter.  The  addition  of  the  chemicals,  together  with 
the  working  of  the  various  appliances  for  grinding  and  mixing  of  the 
same,  the  decanting  of  the  efiluent  and  the  caring  for  the  sludge,  all 
constitute  what  is  known  as  the  chemical  treatment  of  sewage,  the 
complete  process  being,  in  reality,  partly  chemical  and  partly  me- 
chanical. 

Reagents. 

An  enormous  number  of  chemical  agents  have  been,  at  various  times, 
proposed  for  this  piirpose ;  but  experience  has  apparently  narrowed 
the  really  useful  ones  down  to  three,  the  others  having  proven  either 
worthless  or  too  expensive  for  general  use.  Those  chiotly  used  at  the 
present  time  are  lime,  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  ferrous  sulphate.  Fer- 
ric sulphate  has  also  been  experimented  with  at  the  Lawrence  Experi- 
ment Station,  and  found  to  be,  in  certain  particulars,  superior  to  the 
others  ;  but  as  yet  this  salt  has  not  been  extensively  used  in  actual 
practice.  The  chemical  reagents  are  used,  either  singly  or  in  combi- 
nation, as  may  be  required  to  fit  the  case  of  each  particular  sewage 
undergoing  treatment. 

Theory  of  Precipitation. 

The  action  of  these  various  substances  in  causing  a  precipitation  of 
the  organic  matter  is  not  definitely  understood,  though,  in  a  general 


204  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

way,  we  may  say  that  the  precipitating  effect  is  exerted  in  accordance 
with  the  following : 

In  the  case  of  lime  there  is  (1)  a  combination  of  some  of  the  lime  with 
free  and  partially  combined  carbon  dioxide  to  form  an  insoluble  car- 
bonate of  lime ;  and  (2)  there  is  probably  a  further  combination  of  an 
additional  part  of  the  lime  with  a  portion  of  the  organic  matters  in 
solution.  The  insoluble  substances  so  formed  sink  to  the  bottom,  car- 
rying with  them  the  major  portion  of  the  suspended  matter  in  the 
sewage  in  the  form  of  sludge. 

Sulphate  of  alumina  exercises  a  precipitating  effect  by  virtue  of  (1) 
a  combination  of  the  sulphuric  acid  with  lime  and  other  bases  in  the 
sewage,  whilst  (2)  alumina  hydrate,  forming  a  flocculent  precipitate, 
entangles  and  carries  down  the  suspended  organic  matters.  Most  of  the 
recent  authorities  have  recommended  a  combination  lime  and  sulphate 
of  alumina  treatment,  the  proportion  in  which  they  are  used  to  be 
such  as  to  yield  as  nearly  as  possible  a  neutral  effluent ;  we  shall  learn^ 
however,  from  the  results  of  the  Lawrence  exi)eriments  that  a  combi- 
nation lime  and  sulphate  of  alumina  treatment  has  little  to  recommend 
it.  Theoretically  frequent  tests  should  be  made  of  the  quality  of  the 
sewage  as  delivered  at  the  disposal  works,  and  the  chemical  treatment 
adapted  to  the  varying  conditions  of  flow.  Practically,  also,  this  has 
been  found  to  be  the  best  method  of  procedure,  and  at  Worcester  such 
tests  are  made  and  the  application  of  the  chemicals  gaged,  in  ac- 
cordance with  results  thereof,  at  times  as  often  as  once  every  half  hour. 
An  extended  account  of  such  tests  is  given  in  Chapter  XXVII.,  descrip- 
tive of  the  Worcester  Disposal  Works,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred 
for  further  information  on  this  point. 

When  iron  salts  are  added  to  sewage  which  is  either  naturally  alka- 
line or  to  which  an  alkali,  as  lime,  has  been  artificially  added,  a  floccu- 
lent hydrated  oxide  is  formed  as  a  precipitate,  which  carries  down  with 
it  the  suspended  organic  matter,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  dissolved. 

Conditions  Essential  for  Success. 

The  conditions  which  insure  the  best  results  from  chemical  treatment 
may  be  stated  as  : 

(1)  That  the  sewage  be  treated  while  fresh. 

(2)  That  the  chemicals  be  added  to  the  flowing  sewage  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  it  before  it  passes  into  the  settling  tanks. 

(3)  That  there  be  a  liberal  amount  of  tank  space. 

(4)  That  the  arrangements  for  removing  the  sludge  be  such  as  to  in- 
sure its  frequent  removal,  for  if  left  in  the  tanks  until  putrefaction  sets 
in  the  sludge  is  likely  to  rise  to  the  surface,  giving  off  foul  odors. 


CAPACITY    OF   PRECIPITATION    TANKS. 


205 


Classification  of  Chemical  Tkeatments. 

Leaving-  out  of  account  the  different  methods  of  combining  the  chem- 
icals we  may  classify  chemical  treatments  as  follows : 

(1)  Intermittent  treatment  in  shallow  tanks  from  5  to  8  feet  deep, 
in  which,  after  the  addition  and  incorporation  of  the  chemicals,  the 
sewage  is  allowed  to  remain  undisturbed  until  the  completion  of  the 
process. 

(2)  Continuous  treatment  in  a  series  of  tanks  through  Avhich,  after 
the  addition  and  incorporation  of  the  reagents,  the  sewage  is  allowed 
to  How  slowly  ;  crude  sewage,  with  freshly  added  chemicals  passing  in 
at  one  end,  and  purified  effluent  passing  out  at  the  other. 

(3)  Vertical  tanks,  through  which,  after  the  addition  of  the  chemi- 
cals, the  sewage  rises  slowly. 


Fig.  11. — Floating  Arm  for  Decanting  Effluent  from  Tanks. 

There  are  a  number  of  variations  of  these  three  systems,  but  none 
of  them  are  impoi-tant  enough  to  justify  further  subdivision  into 
classes. 

In  England,  where  chemical  treatment  was  first  developed,  the  sys- 
tems of  intermittent  and  continuous  treatment  in  shallow^  tanks  are 
used  exclusively.  Tanks  of  both  systems  possess  certain  features  in 
common,  as,  for  instance,  such  arrangement  of  a  gang  of  tanks  as  will 
admit  of  cutting  out  any  one  of  the  series  for  cleaning  and  repairs 
without  interfering  with  the  balance  of  the  gang. 


Capacity  of  Precipitation  Tanks. 

In  operating  precipitating  tanks  intermittentlj^  it  is  necessary  to 
observe  cortuin  principles,  namely,  tln^  amount  of  tankage  should  be 
sutHcicnt  to  aHow  the  sewage  to  stand  at  least  one  hour,  in  order  to 
insure  fairly  thorough  precipitation.  With  some  treatments  the  time 
required  for  complete  precipitation  is  longer  than  one  liour  ;  hence  it  is 


206 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


desirable  before  deciding-  in  any  given  case  the  amount  of  tank  ca- 
pacity to  ascertain  what  form  of  treatment  is  best  suited  to  the  par- 
ticular sewage  in  hand.  The  Lawrence  experiments  on  chemical 
purification  furnish  a  larg-e  amount  of  useful  information  on  this 
point.  In  computing  the  total  tank  capacity  it  is  necessary  to  take 
into  account  the  time  required  for  filling,  precipitating,  and  emptying, 
the  maximum  fiow  of  sewage  to  be  expected  being  taken  as  the  basis 
of  the  computation.  This  portion  of  the  subject  still  lacks  scientific 
treatment,  no  good  generalization  of  the  relation  between  the  quantity 
of  sewage  to  be  treated  and  amount  of  tank  capacity  required  having 
yet  appeared. 

As  an  empirical  statement,  based  on  practice,  we  may  say  the  total 
tank  capacity  for  disposing  of  the  sewage,  from  systems  which  are 
arranged  with  reference  to  receiving  a  portion  of  the  rainfall,  should 
be  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  average  daily  floAv,  an  allowance  of  this 
amount  giving  some  leeway''  for  contingencies  when  required.  For 
further  information  on  this  jDoint  see  Chapter  VII.,  on  Quantity  of 
Sewage  and  Variations  of  the  Kate  of  Flow.  In  any  case,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  enough  tanks,  so  that  when  required  one  or  more 
may  be  out  of  service  for  cleaning  or  other  purposes,  without  crowd- 
ing the  precipitation  in  the  balance  of  the  tanks. 


Table  No.  43. 


Tank  Capacity  in  Relation  to  Population  and  Quantity  op 
Sewage  at  Three  English  Towns. 


oS 

■Si 

j^  >> 

■c 

£=■3 

03  d 

g  c 

t^O.    . 

-"■O 

Place. 

Treatment. 

Popula- 
tion. 

No.  of 
tanks. 

Flow  of  Ffw 
age  in  24 
hours,  gal- 
lons. 

Hi 

Total  capac- 
ity of  tanks, 
gallons. 

Tank  capacit 
head    of    po 
tion,  gallons 

Per  cent,  of 
capacity  to 
flow. 

Bradford 

1 

Intern.ittent 
Intermittent 

225.000 
1 

34 

8,000,000 

3.5 

612,000 

2.7 

7i 

Coventry < 

and 
continuous 

V    48,000 

8 

2,200,000 

46 

1,000,000 

20.8 

45 

Continuous 

40,000 

4 

1,500,('00 

37 

1,000,000 

25.0 

67 

When  tanks  are  operated  continuoush^  the  sewage  should  be  thor- 
oughly screened,  in  order  to  intercept  any  large  masses  of  matter 
before  passing  into  the  tanks.  Tanks  operated  on  the  continuous 
principle  should  be  so  designed  as  to  readil}^  admit  of  emptying  when- 
ever it  is  necessary  to  clean  them,  or  to  remove  sludge. 


Vektical  Tanks. 

The  system  of  vertical  tanks  was  developed  in  Germany,  and,  so  far 
as  the  authors  are  aware,  have  never  been  used  in  England  or  the  Uni- 


METHODS   OF   SLUDGE   DISPOSAL.  207 

ted  States,  except  at  the  Cliicago  Exposition,  where  this  form  of  tank 
has  been  adapted  for  the  sewage  purihcation  works.  They  present 
the  theoretical  anomaly  of  continuous  upward  movement  of  the  sew- 
age and  a  downward  movement  of  the  sludge.  They  are,  nevertheless, 
stated  to  produce  an  efficient  puiitication.  It  is  found  in  practice  that 
there  is,  in  vertical  tanks,  what  ma}'  be  termed  a  neutral  plane  of  pre- 
cipitation. Any  organic  matter  which  may  happen  to  pass  above  this 
plane,  as  it  is  more  thoroughly  acted  upon  by  the  chemicals,  slowly 
falls  back  in  opposition  to  the  upward  current,  to  the  neutral  plane. 
The  tiocculent  matter  collecting-  there  forms  a  sort  of  filtering  medium, 
which  assists  in  arresting  other  matter  which  is  floating-  upward. 
When  a  considerable  mass  has  collected  the  whole  finally  falls  to  the 
bottom,  and  the  process  of  collection  at  the  neutral  plane  again  takes 
place.  In  upright  tanks  the  sludge  is  generally  withdrawn  from  the 
bottom,  without  interfering  witli  the  regular  operation  of  the  tanks;  in 
efiecting  this  a  number  of  devices  are  applied,  to  which  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  refer  here.  Tanks  of  this  form  possess  the  merit  of  large  ca- 
pacity on  small  ground  space,  and  may  be  of  use  in  localities  where 
limited  areas  only  are  available. 

Methods  of  Sludge  Disposal. 

Practicable  methods  of  disposing  of  sludge  may  be  classified  as : 

(1)  The  sludge  may  be  allowed  to  flow  or  may  be  pumped  into 
sludge  basins,  fi-oni  which  it  is  subsequently  conveyed,  either  by 
gravity  or  steam  power,  to  adjacent  areas,  to  be  utilized  as  an  agricult- 
ural fertilizer. 

(2)  The  sludge  may  be  deposited  in  large  open  basins,  surrounded 
by  embankments,  where  it  is  allowed  to  remain  until  the  larger  por- 
tion of  the  water  has  evaporated  or  drained  away,  after  which  it  is  re- 
moved by  carts  or  other  conveyance,  either  for  use  as  a  fertilizer,  or  to 
some  other  point  for  final  disposal,  as  in  filling  in  low  land. 

(3)  Liquid  sludge  may  be  run  directly  on  to  agricultural  areas,  and 
efficiently  disposed  of  by  ploughing  into  the  soil  as  soon  as  possible. 

(4)  Sludge,  either  in  the  liquid  state  or  after  partial  desiccation,  may 
be  mixed  with  combustibles,  such  as  peat,  tanbark,  and  sawdust,  and 
disposed  of  by  burning. 

(5)  Sludge  may  l)o  mixed  with  earth,  rubbish,  vegetable  mold,  marl, 
gy])sum,  stable  manure,  leaves,  or  other  suitable  materials,  to  form 
compost  heaps,  and  in  this  manner  finally  utilized  as  manure. 

(G)  Liquid  sludge  may,  wlien  dis])osal  works  are  situated  within 
reach  of  a  large  and  deep  body  of  water  (and  for  this  purpose  tide- 
water is  preferable),  be  disposed  of  by  running  into  dunqnng  scows 
which    convey    it    to   deep    water    where  it   may  be    dumped.     The 


208  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IX   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

minimum  distance  at  which  this  operation  may  be  safely  performed  in 
large  bodies  of  fresh  water,  like  the  great  lakes,  which  are  also  the 
source  of  public  water  supplies,  is  as  yet  entirely  unknowoi. 

(7)  Sludge  may  be  burned  in  a  furnace  of  form  similar  to  a  garbage 
destructor,  or  in  a  garbage  destructor  in  connection  with  garbage,  as  at 
Coney  Island,  N.  Y. 

(8)  Sludge  may  be  compressed  by  a  filter  press  into  solid  cakes,  in 
which  form  it  may  be  handled  and  conveniently  transported  for  use  as 
a  fertilizer. 

The  use  of  the  filter  press  has  considerably  simplified  the  handling 
of  sludge,  which,  previous  to  its  introduction,  was  a  source  of  great 
difficulty  at  nearly  all  precipitation  works.  At  present  filter  j^resses 
are  in  use  at  only  two  places  in  this  country,  namely,  at  East  Orango 
and  at  Long  Branch.*  For  a  statement  of  some  of  the  results  at  East 
Orange,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Chapter  XXIV.,  treating  of  the  works 
at  that  j)lace.t 

Sludge,  as  it  ordinarily  comes  from  settling  tanks,  operated  by 
either  the  intermittent  or  continuous  system,  contains  from  90  to  95 
per  cent,  water  and  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  solid  matter.  In  upright  tanks, 
from  which  the  sludge  is  removed  by  pumping  without  interfering 
with  the  operation  of  the  tanks,  a  sludge  may  be  obtained  with  only 
70  to  90  per  cent,  of  water. 

Methods  of  Mixing  Chemicals. 

Various  methods  of  mixing  the  chemicals  with  the  sewage  are 
resorted  to.  When  sewage  is  delivered  to  purification  works  by  grav- 
ity, a  salmon  way,  formed  by  placing  bafile  boards  in  the  conduit,  is  a 
convenient  way  of  obtaining  a  thorough  mixing.  When  this  device  is 
employed,  the  chemicals,  after  being  first  thoroughly  ground  and 
mixed  with  water,  or  otherwise  prepared  in  special  small  tanks,  are 
added  to  the  flowing  sewage  just  before  it  reaches  the  salmon  way. 
This  method  of  mixing  the  chemicals  with  the  sewage  is  illustrated  in 
the  plans  of  the  works  at  Worcester  and  East  Orange,  in  Part  II. 

*  Since  the  above  was  written  a  filter  press  has  been  put  in  operation  at  Canton,  O. 

+  For  detaUed  information  in  regard  to  disposal  of  sludge  by  the  use  of  filter  presses,  etc., 
see — 

(1)  On  the  Disposal  of  Sewage  Sludge.  By  Christopher  Clarke  Hutchinson.  Jour.  Soc.  Chem. 
Industry,  Feb.  4, 1884. 

(3)  Composition  and  Manurial  Value  of  Filter  Pressed  Sludge.  By  J.  M.  H.  Munro.  Jour. 
Soc.  Chem.  Industry.  Jan.  29,  188.5. 

(3)  Papers  on  Disposal  of  Sewage  Sludge.  By  J.  W.  Dibdin  and  W.  Santo  Crimp.  Trans. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  vol.  Ixxxviii..  Ses.  1886-1887,  Part  II. 

(4)  Sewage  Disposal  Works,  Crimp,  Chapter  VIII. 

{rt)  Sewage  Treatment  and  Sludge  Disposal.  By  W.  Santo  Crimp,  Eng.  and  Bldg.  Reed.,  vol. 
xxvii.,  pp.  237-238;  pp.  2.56-257;  pp.  277-278  (Feb.  18  and  25,  and  Mar.  4,  1893);  also  ab, 
Btractedin  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.,  pp.   198-9.     (March  2,  1893). 


COST   OF   CHEMICALS.  209 

A  pump  may  also  be  made  to  do  the  work  of  mixing'  when  re- 
quired in  lifting-  the  sewage  for  treatment.  This  method  is  illustrated 
in  the  plans  of  the  Mystic  Valley  Works,  in  Part  II.  Mixing  wheels, 
driven  either  by  the  flowing  sewage  or  by  independent  power,  may  also 
be  used. 

The  Massachusetts  Expeeiments  on  Chemical  Pueefication. 

Our  scientific  knowledge  of  the  chemical  purification  of  sewage  has 
been  largely  extended  by  a  series  of  experiments  made  b}'  Mr.  Allen 
Hazen,  chemist  in  charge  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station,  during 
the  year  1SS9.  The  precipitants  experimented  with  were  lime,  sid- 
phate  of  alumina,  ferrous  sulphate  or  copperas,  and  ferric  sulphate. 

Cost  of  Chemicals. 

Mr.  Hazen  states  that  lime,  containing  70  per  cent,  available  calcium 
oxide,  can  be  bought  (presumably  at  Lawrence)  for  $9  per  net  ton; 
ferrous  sulphate  or  copperas,  containing  26  j)er  cent,  ferrous  oxide,  at 
$10  per  net  ton ;  and  alumina  sulphate,  containing  14  per  cent, 
alumina,  at  S25  per  net  ton.  A  ferric  salt  can  be  made  by  oxidizing 
copperas  with  chlorine,  or  with  sulphuric  acid  and  nitrate  of  soda. 
The  approximate  cost  of  the  oxides  in  solution  is  stated  as  follows : 

Alumiiuim  oxiile 9  cents  per  pound. 

Ferric  oxide 3  cents  per  jDound. 

Ferrous  oxide 2  cents  per  pound. 

Calcium  oxide 5  cent  per  lb. 

In  the  experiments,  the  results  are  generally  stated  in  the  form  of 
annual  cost  per  inhabitant,  a  daily  flow  of  sewage  of  100  gallons  for 
€ach  inhabitant  being  assumed  as  the  basis  of  the  comj)utation.  The 
cost  of  chemicals  has  been  calculated  from  the  foregoing  jtrice  per 
pound  for  the  oxides.  In  regard  to  the  prices  used,  the  authors  are  of 
the  opinion,  after  some  correspondence  with  manufacturers  and 
dealers,  that  the  price  of  $10  per  ton  for  copperas,  as  an  average  price 
for  use  in  this  country,  is  somewhat  low,  $15  being  nearer  correct. 
The  most  of  the  crude  copperas  of  commerce  consumed  in  the  Ignited 
states  is  a  bye-product  from  rolling-mills.  Much  of  it  comes  from 
the  Cleveland  Rolling  Mill  Co.  and  the  Ferric  Chemical  &  Color  Co., 
of  Worcester,  Mass.,  which  takes  wastes  from  the  Washburne  <fc  Moen 
wire  shops. 

Crude  sul])hate  of  alumina  is  worth  at  the  present  time,  on  board  in 
New  York,  ]5oston,  and  Philadelidiia.  from  $20  or  under  to  $25  per  ton, 
the  exact  price  dei^endiug  upon  quality.  The  cost  of  sulphate  of 
14 


210  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THK    rXITEI)    STATES. 

iilumina  is  largely  increased  by  the  i^rocess  of  retiniug.  Manufacturers 
state  that  if  a  product  with  a  little  iron  in  it,  say  four  j)er  cent.,  could 
be  used  it  could  be  produced  and  sold  at  a  little  less  than  a  cent  a 
pound.  If  there  was  a  steady  demand  for  the  chemical  in  car  load 
lots  it  seems  probable  that  in  time  this  price  would  be  still  further  re- 
duced. With  ordinary  sewage  the  iron  in  the  alumina  would  certainly 
not  be  an  objection  and  might  be  an  advantage.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
iron  is  used  in  the  "  alumino  -  ferric "  process  in  connection  with 
alumina.* 

In  regard  to  the  prices  used,  Mr.  Hazen  remarks  that  considering 
the  cheapness  of  the  raw  materials,  it  seems  probable  that  the  cost  of 
both  sulphate  of  alumina  and  ferric  sulj)hate  might  be  materially  de- 
creased from  the  prices  given,  in  case  there  should  be  a  considerable 
demand  for  them.  Lime  and  copperas,  Mr.  Hazen  remarks,  have  al- 
ready a  large  sale,  and  could  not  probably  be  obtained  at  lower 
prices,  by  reason  of  increased  consumption. 

The  authors'  opinion,  as  indicated  in  the  foregoing,  is  that  for  the 
present  the  prices  which  Mr.  Hazen  has  used  are,  as  an  average  for 
the  whole  country,  somewhat  low,  although  for  points  in  the  state  of 
Massachusetts  they  are  undoubtedly  approximately  right.  For  other 
localities  they  may  be  easilj^  corrected  by  ascertaining  the  cost  oa 
board  at  the  place  of  manufacture. 

Detail  of  the  Experiments. 

In  all,  three  series  of  exi3eriments  were  made :  the  first,  in  a  tank 
45  feet  long,  30  inches  wide,  and  10  to  12  inches  deep,  with  a  capacity 
of  about  700  gallons.  The  chemicals  in  solution  were  added  to  th& 
sewage  as  it  flowed  by  gravity,  through  a  trough,  into  the  tank,  where 
it  was  allowed  to  settle.  In  one  experiment,  on  June  1st,  when  the 
tank  was  full,  the  sewage  was  allowed  to  overflow  at  the  opposite  end 
from  that  at  which  it  entered,  the  sewage  with  the  chemicals  flowing 
in  continuously.  The  relation  of  inflow  to  tank  capacity  was  such 
that  the  average  length  of  time  for  the  sewage  to  settle  in  passing 
through  the  tank  was  90  minutes.  In  all  the  other  experiments  of  the 
first  series  the  inflow  of  sewage  was  stopped  when  the  tank  was  filled, 

*See  the  trade  pamphlet.  Practical  Sewage  Purification,  with  a  Description  of  the  Aluniino- 
ferric  Process,  Invented  and  Patented  by  Peter  Spence  &  Sons,  Manchester,  England. 

The  alumino-ferric  is  prepared  in  soluble  cakes,  which  may  be  placed  ni  the  sewage  in  cages  of 
different  heights  so  that  the  amount  dissolved  will  vary  with  the  volume  of  the  sewage  ;  or  it  may 
be  dissolved  in  a  separate  tank  of  either  sewage  or  water  and  so  that  the  sohition  will  be  of  any  de- 
sired strength  and  the  solution  admitted  to  the  precipitation  tanks  as  desired.  According  to 
figures  in  W.  Santo  Crimp's  Sewage  Disposal  Works  (p.  217]  alumino-ferric  is  composed  of  14  per 
cent,  of  soluble  alumina  (equal  to  46.68  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  alumina) ;  0.75  per  cent,  of  per- 
chloride  of  iron  ;  33.8]  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid  in  combination  with  the  above  bases ;  and  51.44 
per  cent,  of  water. 


DETAIL    OF   THE   EXPEKIMENTS. 


211 


aucl  the  time  of  settling  reckoned  from  the  time  when  the  tank  was 
full.  A  summary  of  the  results  of  the  first  series  is  given  in  Table  No. 
44,  in  which  the  column  of  the  cost  of  chemicals  per  year  per  inhabi- 
tant has  been  added  by  the  authors. 

Table  No.  44.— Summary  of  Results  of  Chemical  Treatment  in  Large  Tank 

AT  Lawrence. 


Date. 


May 


1  . 

3  . 

7  . 

9  . 

"    14  . 

"    16  . 

Average . 

June  1  . 
"  1  . 
"  18  . 
"    14  . 


Chemicals  per  l,00O.O('O  gallons. 


1,000  lbs.  of  lime 

2,000  "  "  

2,000  "  "   

2,000  '•  "   

1,600  "  "   

2,100  "  "   

1,800  "  "   

500  lbs.  of  alum 

500       "  "    and  800  pounds  of  lime 

500       "  "     and  800        "        "         

500  lbs.  of  copperas  and  600  lbs.  of  lime  . . . 


Cost  of  chemi- 
cals per  year 
per  inhabi- 
tant. 


$0.16 
0.3.3 
0.3:3 

o.as 

(1.27 
0.35 
0.30 

0.23 
0.36 
0.36' 
0.19 


Organic  matter  removed, 
per  cent. 


Loss  on 
ignition. 


Albuminoid 
ammonia. 


Settled, 
hours. 


13^ 

1 
1 


The  first  series,  while  approximating  closely  to  precipitation  in  a 
sewage  purification  plant,  did  not  prove  satisfactory,  by  reason  of  not 
giving  comparative  results  as  with  the  same  sample  of  sewage.  A 
large  number  of  analyses  have  shown  that  there  is  not  only  a  great 
difi'erence  in  the  composition  of  the  sewage  on  different  days,  but  also 
between  different  portions  of  sewage  required  to  fill  the  same  tank.  In 
order,  therefore,  to  get  results  which  were  strictly  comparable,  it  was 
decided  to  make  parallel  experiments  on  the  same  samples.  To 
accomplish  this,  barrels  were  so  set  that  they  could  be  filled  from  one 
of  the  large  measuring  tanks  at  the  station.  The  measuring  tank  was 
filled,  thoroughly  mixed,  and  while  still  being  stirred,  the  barrels  filled 
from  it  and  chemicals  added  as  desired.  In  order  to  show  the  effect 
of  simple  sedimentation,  one  barrel  was  left  in  each  case  to  settle  with- 
out chemicals.  The  barrels  were  30  inches  high  and  held  about  50 
gallons  each.  A  computation  was  made  of  the  amount  of  the  precip- 
itant per  1,000,000  gallons  required  for  each  barrel. 

The  chemicals  were  mixed  in  each  barrel  and  the  contents  allowed 
to  stand  until  thorough  i)rocipitation  had  taken  place,  after  which  a 
sample  of  the  (^fflncnt  was  drawn  from  a  tap  about  10  inches  above 
the  bottom,  the  li([nid  first  running  freely  for  a  minute,  so  that  a 
samide  fairly  represented  the  contents  of  the  barrel  above  the  sludge. 
In  this  way  a  series  of  about  70  experiments  were  made  in  the  months 
of  May,  June,  and  September,  with  tli(^  final  one  of  the  series  on  Oc- 
tober 1,  1889. 

Beginning  October  2,  1889,  a  third  series  of  experiments,  much  more 


212 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Table  No.   45. — Summary  op  Mr.  Hazen's  Second   Series  op  Experiments  on 
Chemical  Treatment  at  Lawrence. 


Chemicals  per  1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage. 

Cost  of 

chemicals  per 

inhabitant 

annually. 

Number  of 
experi- 
ments. 

Per  cent. 

loss  on 

ignition 

removed. 

Per  cent, 
albuminoid 
ammonia 
removed. 

$0.00 

o.n 
0.-2:i 
0.34 
0.00 
0  20 
0.13 
0.24 

10 
5 
2 
5 
1 
« 
2 
3 

30 
39 
27 
37 
36 
48 
64 
57 

26 

Effluent  with  700  lbs.  of  lime 

33 

Effluent  with  500  lbs.  of  lime 

40 

Effluent  with  500  lbs.  alum  and  700  lbs.  lime 

48 

Effluent  with  500  lbs.  copperas 

21 

Effluent  with  500  lbs.  of  copperas  and  700  lbs.  of  lime  ... 

5U 
33 

Effluent  with  120  lbs.  of  ferric  oxide  and  700  lbs.  of  lime. 

61 

elaborate  than  tlie  previous  ones,  was  made  in  order  to  determine  more 
definitely  the  best  proportion  of  the  various  chemicals  and  their  re- 
spective merits.  These  experiments  were  also  made  in  barrels,  the 
same  as  already  described  for  the  second  series.  In  the  first  and  second 
series  precipitation  had  been  in  some  cases  continued  longer  than  one 
hour,  but  in  the  third  the  time  of  settling  was  taken  uniformly  at  one 
hour.  In  regard  to  this  Mr.  Hazen  says  a  slightly  better  result  would 
be  obtained  by  waiting  longer  before  taking  the  samples ;  but  a  few 
experiments  indicated  only  a  slight  difference  between  1  and  4  hours' 
settling,  and  in  comparative  experiments  on  sewage  the  advantage  of 
making  the  experiments  and  completing  the  analyses  on  the  same  day 
is  very  great.  It  was  also  thought  that  an  hour's  settling  in  a  tank  30 
inches  deep  may  be  equivalent  to  2  or  3  hours'  settling  in  a  tank  6  feet 
deep. 

Experiments  with  Lime. 

Before  giving  the  detail  of  the  third  series  of  experiments,  Mr.  Hazen 
describes  the  method  of  the  analyses  of  sewage  which  has  been  em- 
ployed.    In  regard  to  precipitation  with  lime  it  is  stated : 

The  quicklime  of  commerce  does  not  have  a  constant  composition.  It  has  been 
thought  best,  for  the  purpose  of  these  experiments,  to  take  an  arbitrary  amount  of 
calcium  oxide  in  solution,  as  lime  water,  to  represent  a  ton  of  lime,  rather  than 
weigh  out  lime  for  experiment.  This  method  will  give  strictly  comparable  results, 
while,  if  the  lime  was  weighed  out,  there  would  always  be  uncertainty  as  to  the 
composition  of  the  portion  used,  as  different  lumps  of  lime  from  the  same  barrel, 
and  even  different  portions  of  the  same  lump,  may  differ  widely  from  each  other  in 
composition.  If  pure  calcium  oxide  is  dissolved  in  distilled  water  at  the  rate  of  one 
ton  per  million  gallons,  it  will  have  an  acid  number  of  alkalinity  of  0.8(3  ;  i.e.,  it 
will  require  0.86  cubic  centimetres  of  normal  sulphuric  acid,  49  grammes  i^er  litre,  to 
neutralize  100  cubic  centimetres.  But  quicklime  only  contains,  on  an  average, 
i:)erhaps  80  to  85  per  cent,  of  uncombined  calcium  oxide,  and  a  portion  of  this  is 
difficultly  soluble,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  lime  water  which  represents 
the  full  theoretical  strength  of  the  lime.  In  a  few  experiments  in  dissolving  lime 
in  sewage,  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  lime  proved  to  be  not  easily  soluble.  From 
these  experiments  I  have  assumed  that  lime  will  on  the  average  yield  70  per  cent, 
of  its  weight  of  calcium  oxide  in  solution.     This  is  believed  to  be  a  fair  estimate, 


EXPERIMENTS    WITH    LIME. 


213 


which  can  be  obtained  in  practice.  This  corresponds  nearly  to  an  acid  number  of 
0.60  for  one  ton  per  million  gallons,  and  I  have  taken  that  as  a  basis  for  computing 
the  amount  of  lime  used  in  each  experiment.  The  lime  is  slaked  with  a  large 
amount  of  sewage,  and,  after  settling,  the  acid  number  is  obtained  by  titration. 
From  this  is  calculated  the  amount  of  lime  water  to  be  added  to  the  sewage. 

By  treating  sewage  with  a  large  excess  of  milk  of  lime  the  undissolved  calcium 
hydrate  in  settling  carries  down  the  insoluble  organic  matter  almost  completely, 
and  in  a  very  short  time. 

On  May  10  an  experiment  was  made  as  follows :  A  weighed  portion  of  lime  was 
slaked  in  a  barrel  and  the  barrel  filled  with  sewage.  After  settling  for  a  few  min- 
utes the  cleared  liquid  was  drawn  off  and  the  barrel  again  filled  with  sewage.  This 
was  repeated  until  the  lime  was  exhausted.  In  all  480  gallons  of  sewage  were  treated. 
The  lime  used  was  at  the  rate  of  6,600  iiounds  per  1,000,000  gallons  ;  4.8  gallons  of 
sludge  were  left,  having  4  per  cent,  of  solid  matter.  Tliis  process  could  not  be  used 
on  a  large  scale  owing  to  the  amount  of  lime  required  and  the  excess  of  lime  left  iu 
solution,  which  would  slowly  precipitate  out  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The  com- 
pleteness with  which  the  bacteria  are  removed  or  killed,  and  the  large  volume  of 
liquid  which  can  be  treated  iu  a  small  tank,  might  render  it  of  use  in  some  cases  for 
disinfection.     The  results  were  as  follows  : 


T.\BLE  No.  46. — Results  of  Pkecipitation  with  Lakge  Excess  of  Lime. 

{Parts  per  100,000.) 


May  10,  1889. 


Ori^in:il  sewage     

Filtered  through  paper 

E ■fluent  with  lime  after  5  minutes 

Effluent  after  one  hour 

Effluent  after  i4  hours 

Effluent  from  another  sew,Hge,  5  minutes 

Sluilge  representing  1(10  times  ita  volume  of  sewage 


4.3.2 

17.6 

.38.8 

13.2 

113.4 

11.8 

95.8 

8.0 

93.4 

10.2 

15.5.2 

17.2 

4,067.0 

414.0 

95.6 
25.6 

101.6 
87.8 

m.^ 

138.0 
3,653.0 


1.48 
1.48 

1.48 
1.48 
1.37 
1.92 
3.60 


0.36 
0.22 

0.18 
0.19 
0.18 
0.29 
21.40 


5.24 


5.35 
5.26 
5.31 
5.70 
6.56 


a  «   . 

O   3.3 

pa 


1,881,400 


12 

17 

5 

774 

100 


The  action  of  smaller  amounts  of  lime  is  quite  different.  Calcium  carbonate  is 
then  formetl  with  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  sewage, -and  it  is  thus  the  carbonate  in- 
stead of  the  hydrate  which  clarifies  the  sewage.  Calcium  carbonate  is  somewhat 
soluble  in  water  or  sewage  containing  carbonic  acid.  To  obtain  a  precipitate  it  is 
necessary  to  add  enough  lime  to  combine  with  the  greater  part  of  the  carbonic  acid. 


The  report  g-ives  the  details  of  four  experiments  with  different 
amounts  of  lime.  In  each  case  seven  barrels  were  tilled  frcnii  the  same 
tank  of  sewage  and  varying-  amounts  of  lime  added.  From  the  tabula- 
tions and  diagrams  of  the  results  it  appears  that,  with  increased 
amounts  of  lime,  there  is  a  regular  improvement  in  the  effluent,  until 
the  })oint  is  reached  where  the  lime  is  equal  to  the  carbonic  acid  ; 
beyond  this  point  the  addition  of  a  larger  amount  of  lime  does  not 
usually  remove  any  more  organic  matter.  A  further  increase  does, 
however,  kill  bacteria,  as  shown  by  the  results  in  Table  No.  46.  A 
quantity  of  lime,  equal  or  nearly  equal  to  the  carbonic  acid,  may 
therefore  be  taken  as  the  practicable  limit  of  efficiency  in  a  simple 
lime  treatment.  What  may  be  accomplished  by  such  a  treatment  is 
fully  indicated  in  Table  No.  47. 


214 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE    UNITED    STATES, 


Table  No.  47.— Results  of  Pkkcipit.\tion  when    the    Lime    Used    was    Equal 

OK  NEARLY  EQUAL  TO  THE  CaKBONIC  ACID. 


Amount  of  lime  used,  pounds 

Albuminoid  ammonia  of  sewage  . 

Remaining  after  filtering  through  paper 
Remaining  after  precipitation  . . . 

Loss  on  ignition  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  filtering  through  paper 
Remaining  after  precipitation  . . . 

Turbidity  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  precipitation  . . . 

Bacteria  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  precipitation  . . . 


Oct.  2. 

Oct.  4. 

Oct.  8. 

Oct.  9. 

1,500 

0.^5 

1,600 
0.72 

1,600 
0.56 

1,800 
O.iiO 

47. 
34. 

53. 
44. 

50. 
44. 

55. 

44. 

24.2 
50. 

50. 

23.6 

61. 

56. 

22.0 
60. 

49. 

44.8 

70. 

50. 

1.00 
23. 

0.50 
26. 

O.EO 
2«. 

0.60 
20. 

196.000 
6.2 

1,572.000 
0.73 

1.364,000 
0.55 

Average. 


1,625 
0.76  parts  per  100,000 


51.  per  cent. 
41.  per  cent. 

28.6  parts. 
61 .    per  cent. 
51.    per  cent. 

0.65  parts. 
24.      per  cent. 

1,044.000 
2.5  per  cent. 


This  table  sliows  tliat  by  the  use  of  an  amonnt  of  lime  correspond- 
ing to  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  sewage,  all  of  the  suspended  organic 
matter  has  been  removed,  together  with  20  per  cent,  of  the  soluble 
albuminoid  ammonia,  15  per  cent,  of  the  soluble  loss  on  ignition,  97 
per  cent,  of  the  bacteria,  76  per  cent,  of  the  turbidity,  at  a  cost  for 
chemicals  of  $7.31  per  million  gallons,  or  27  cents  per  inhabitant  an- 
nually. 

Lime  and  Coiteras. 

The  second  series  of  experiments  hud  indicated  that  it  was  necessary 
to  add  lime  with  copperas,  in  order  to  get  the  best  result  from  a 
copperas  treatment.  Additional  experiments  were  carried  out  in  the 
third  series  to  ascertain  how  much  lime  is  required,  the  effect  of 
different  amounts  of  copperas,  and  whether  the  sewage  shall  first  be 
mixed  with  the  lime  or  with  the  copperas. 

The  experiments  with  copperas  show  clearly  that  when  copperas  is 
added  to  sewage  alone,  the  result  is  on  the  whole  no  better  than  may 
be  obtained  from  simple  sedimentation.  In  order  to  produce  jDrecipi- 
tation  it  is  necessary  to  add  lime  enough  to  combine  with  the  excess  of 
the  carbonic  acid  over  the  amount  required  to  form  bi-carbonates  and 
to  combine  with  the  sulphuric  acid  of  the  copperas.  When  the  proper 
amount  of  lime  is  added,  the  acid  number  with  phenoli^hthalein  will 
be  zero.  To  insure  rapid  action,  lime  should  be  added  slightly  in 
excess,  but  no  better  result  will  be  obtained  when  more  than  a  slight 
excess  of  lime  is  used.  If  much  less  than  the  proper  quantity  is  used, 
the  iron  will  not  be  precipitated,  and  the  result  will  be  the  same  as  in 
simple  sedimentation  without  chemicals. 

The  test  with  phenolphthalein  sIioavs  instantly  whether  enough  lime 
has  been  added,  and  it  can  be  used  by  any  one.  If  enough  lime  is 
present  in  the  sewage,  to  which  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  phenol- 


LIME    AND    COPPKUAS. 


215 


phtlialein  iu  alcohol  is  added,  it  will  be  turned  blood-red,  while,  if  the 
amount  is  too  small,  the  sewage  will  remain  uncolored. 

Mr.  Hazen  states  that  this  reaction  is  equally  useful  in  the  precipi- 
tation by  lime  of  acid  sewage  containing  iron  from  manufacturing 
wastes.  In  this  case,  the  copperas  is  already  carried  by  the  sewage, 
and  the  addition  of  lime  is  required  to  neutralize  the  acid,  thus  pre- 
cipitating the  iron  and  rendering  it  available.  An  elegant  application 
of  this  principle  has  been  made  in  the  chemical  treatment  of  the  sew- 
age of  the  city  of  Worcester,  which  is  an  acid  sewage  containing  large 
quantities  of  iron  manufacturing  wastes.  For  further  discussion  of 
this  part  of  the  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Chapter  XX\T;I.  de- 
scriptive of  the  Worcester  disposal  works. 

A  series  of  experiments  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  effect  of  different  amounts  of  copperas  when  used  with  the  proper 
amount  of  lime,  as  indicated  by  the  plienolphthalein  reaction.  The 
results,  with  amounts  of  lime  best  adjusted  to  the  given  amount  of 
copperas,  are  indicated  in  Tables  48  and  49. 

Summarizing  the  results  of  these  two  tables,  it  is  found  that  with 
500  pounds  of  copperas  per  1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage,  and  an  amount 
of  lime  best  adjusted  to  the  copperas,  there  will  be  removed  all  of  the 
suspended  organic  matter,  13  per  cent,  of  the  soluble  albuminoid  am- 
monia, 14  per  cent,  of  the  soluble  loss  on  ignition,  65  i^er  cent,  of  the 
turbidity,  and  88  per  cent,  of  the  bacteria,  with  a  cost  for  chemicals  of 
$5.44  per  million  gallons,  or  20  cents  annually  per  inhabitant. 

AVitli  1,000  pounds  of  copperas  per  1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage,  and 
an  amount  of  lime  best  adjusted  thereto,  there  was  removed  all  of  the 
suspended  organic  matter,  39  per  cent,  of  the  soluble  albuminoid 
ammonia,  39  per  cent,  of  the  soluble  loss  on  ignition,  75  per  cent,  of 

Tabi-e  No.  48. — Results  of  Tre.\tment  of  Sewage  with  about  500  Pounds  of 
Copperas  for  1,000,000  Gallons,  and  an  Amount  of  Lime  best  adjusted 
to  the  Copperas. 


Amount  of  copperas  used 

Amount  of  lime  used    

Albuminoid  ammonia,  sewage 

Keinaining  after  filtering  through  paper 
Remaining  after  precipitation 

Loss  on  ignition  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  filtering  through  paper 
Remiiining  after  precipitation 

Tnrbliiity  of  sewage 

Remaining  aft<T  precipitation 

Bacteria  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  precipitation  


Oct.  11. 

Oct.  18. 

Oct  22. 

500 

800 

400 
(i:;ii 

500 
650 

0.79 
54. 
39. 

0.f>7 
f.O. 
60. 

0.66 
68. 
60. 

25.8 

r>7. 

57. 

21.2 

75. 
73. 

23.8 
71. 

53. 

0..-)0 
30. 

0..-0 
40. 

O.fiO 

oti. 

170.000 
32. 

.322.400 
2. 

507,800 
3. 

Average. 


467  pounds. 
693  pounds. 

0.71  parts  per  100,000 
61.      percent. 
.53.      per  cent. 

23.6  parts. 
71.    percent. 
61.    percent. 

0.53 
.35.      per  cent. 

.335.(00 

12.  per  cent. 


216 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  49. — Results  of  Treatment  of  Sewage  with  1,000  Pounds  of 
Copperas  per  1,000,000  Gallons,  and  an  Amount  op  Lime  best  adjusted  to 
THE  Copperas. 


Amount  of  copperas  used . 
Amount  of  lime  used 


Albuminoid  ammonia  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  filtering  through  paper 
Remaining  after  precipitation 


Loss  on  ignition,  sewage 

Remaining  after  filtering  through  paper 
Remaining  after  precipitation 


Turbidity  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  precipitation 


Bacteria  of  sewage 

Remaining  alter  precipitation . 


Oct.  16. 


1,000 
«U0 

0.94 
70. 
35. 

29.2 

77. 
30. 

0.65 
18. 


1,000 
800 

0.67 
60. 
43. 

21.2 

75. 

57. 

0.50 
30. 

322,400 
2. 


Oct.  22. 


Average. 


1,000 
800 

0.f)6 
68. 
41. 

2.3.8 

71. 

47. 

0.60 

28. 

507,800 
2. 


1,000  pounds. 
bOO  pounds. 

(1.76  parts  per  100,000 
t)6.      per  cent. 
40.      per  cent. 

24.7    parts. 
74.      per  cent. 
45.      per  cent. 

0.58  parts. 
25.      per  cent. 

415,000 
2.      per  cent. 


the  turbidity,  and  98  per  cent,  of  the  bacteria,  witli  a  cost  for  chemicals 
of  $8.60  per  million  gallons,  or  31  cents  per  inhabitant  annually. 


Ferric  Sulphate. 

Mr.  Hazen  states  that  ferric  salts  have  the  advantage  over  ferrous 
salts,  in  that  ferric  hydroxide  is  more  readily  precipitated  and  more 
completely  insoluble  than  ferrous  hydroxide. 

A  number  of  experiments  were  made  to  determine  whether  it  was 
necessary  to  add  lime  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  with  ferric 
salts,  and,  if  so,  how  much  should  be  used ;  also  to  ascertain  the  effect 
of  difiereut  amounts  of  ferric  salts  when  used  alone. 

As  already  stated,  the  ferric  salt  used  for  the  experiments  was  ferric 
sulphate,  but  Mr.  Hazen  says  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that 
exactly  the  same  results  would  be  obtained  with  ferric  chloride  con- 
taining an  equal  amount  of  iron. 

The  experiments,  with  a  combination  treatment  of  lime  and  ferric 
sulphate,  show  that  the  influence  of  the  lime  is  ver}^  small.  With  an 
amount  of  ferric  sulphate  equivalent  to  200  pounds  of  ferric  oxide, 
the  result  was  slightly  better,  when  800  pounds  of  lime  were  used. 
With  the  equivalent  of  400  pounds  of  ferric  oxide,  in  combination  (1) 
with  500  pounds  of  lime  and  (2)  with  1,000  pounds  of  lime  per  1,000,000 
gallons  treated,  the  results  show  that  the  lime  had  almost  no  influence. 
With  300  pounds  of  ferric  oxide,  no  better  result  was  obtained  by 
mixing  the  sewage  with  1,000  pounds  of  lime  before  adding  the  ferric 
sulphate  ;  when  the  lime  was  added  to  the  sewage  after  the  ferric  sul- 
phate, the  result  was  not  quite  so  good  as  when  no  lime  was  used. 

The  conclusion  is,  therefore,  that  the  best  results  will  be  obtained 
from  the  ferric  sulphate  when  used  alone. 


ALUMINUM    SULPHATE.  217 

Table  No.   50. — Results  of  Treatment  of  Sewage   "with   Ferric  Sulphate, 


Ferric  o.xide  used  as  ferric  sulphate. 


Albuminoid  ammonia,  sewage 

RcmaininiT  afier  filtering  through  paper 
Kemainiiig  after  precipitation 


Loss  on  igmtion,  sewage   

Remaining  after  filtering  through  paper  , 
Remaining  after  precipitation 


Bacteria  in  sewage  per  cubic  centimetre 
Remaining  after  precipitation  


Suspended  organic  matter  removed. 


Soluble  albuminoid  ammonia  removed. 

Soluble  loss  on  ignition  removed 

Turbidity  removed 

Bacteria  removed 


Cost  per  inhabitant  annually  for  chemicals  ...   22  cents. 


Nov.  5. 

Nov.  6. 

Nov.  6. 

Nov.  5. 

200 

200 

300 

400 

0.57 
56. 
45. 

0.53 
69. 
59. 

0,52 
69. 
36. 

0.57 
56. 
33. 

22.8 

7(1. 

36. 

22.4 

76. 

42. 

82.4 
76. 

13. 

22.8 
70. 

18. 

218,960 
14. 

1,398,600 
14. 

1,398.600 
9. 

218.960 
3. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

All. 

20. 

7. 

64. 

86. 

l.i. 

0. 

5^s. 

86. 

48. 
21. 

87. 
91. 

41. 
50. 
^2. 
97. 

22  cents. 

22  cents. 

33  cents. 

44  cents. 

Nov.  6. 


400  pounds. 

0.52  parts  per  100,000 
69.  per  cent, 
33.  per  cent. 


22.4  parts. 
76.  per  cent, 
lo.  per  cent, 

l..S98,600 
5  per  cent. 

All. 

52.  per  cent. 
43.  per  cent. 
87.  per  cent. 
95.  per  cent. 

44  cents. 


Table  No.  50  g-ives  tlie  results  of  the  experiments  in  wliicli  ouly 
ferric  sulphate  was  used. 

Aluminum  Sulphate. 

The  next  series  of  experiments  were  with  aluminum  sulphate,  the 
action  of  which  upon  sewaqe  is  analogous  to  the  ferric  sulphate.  Mr. 
Hazen  remarks  that  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  aluminum 
chloride  containing-  the  same  amount  of  alumina  will  give  exactly  the 
same  results  as  the  sulphate. 

The  first  experiments  with  this  salt  were  made  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  (1)  whether  lime  could  be  used  advantageously  with  sul- 

Table  Xo.  5L — Results  op  Treatment  op  Sewage  with  Aluminum  Sulphate. 


Nov,  1. 


Alum  nsed  per  1.000,000 gallons,  pounds.., 

Albuminoid  ammonia,  sewage 

Remain  ng  after  filtering  through  paper  . ., 
Remaining  after  precipitation 

LoMx  r)n  ignition,  sewage 

Kemniniii'.;  after  filterini.'  through  paper. . . 
Remaining  after  precipitation 

Turbidity  of  sewage 

Remaining  after  precipitation 

Bacteria  in  sewaiic.  p  r  cubic  centimetre  . . 

Remaining  after  precipitation 

Suspenilcd  org;inic  matter  removed     

Soluble  albumino'd  ammonia  removed  ..  . , 

Soluble  loss  on  ignition  removed 

Turbidity  removed 

Bacteria  removed 

Cost  of  chemicals  per  I.HOO.IIOO  gallons 

Co<<t  (or  chemicals  per  inhabitant  annually 


500 

0.45 
71. 
64. 

27. 

.5(1. 
52. 

0.40 
.32. 

361  ..328 

3. 

Nearly  all. 

111. 

0. 

«8. 

97. 

«fi.25 
0.23 


Oct.  29, 


Average. 


With  1.000  pounds. 

0.56  parts  per  100,000 
64.  per  cent. 
34.  per  cent. 

28.7  parts. 
53.  per  cent. 
47.  per  cent. 

1.20 
17.  per  cent. 

598.264 
9.  |ier  cent. 

47.  per  cent. 
24.  per  cent. 
83.  per  cent. 
91.  per  cent, 
$12.50 
0.45 


218 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAI,    IN"    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


pliate  of  alumina ;  and  (2)  the  effect  of  different  amounts  of  the  same. 
The  -results  indicate  that,  as  with  ferric  sulphate,  lime  has  little  or  no 
effect.  The  precipitation  is  a  little  more  rapid  when  lime  is  used,  but 
the  short  gain  in  time  wdll  hardly  compensate  for  the  extra  cost. 
Table  No.  51  gives  the  results  of  three  experiments,  in  which  sulphate 
of  alumina  only  was  used  as  a  precipitant. 

The  three  series  of  experiments,  outlined  in  the  foregoing,  indicate 
the  following : 

(1)  That  with  a  given  quantity  of  sewage,  a  certain  definite  amount 
of  lime  gives  as  good  or  better  results  than  either  more  or  less. 

(2)  That  in  general,  the  more  copperas,  ferric  sulphate,  or  aluminum 
sulphate  used,  the  better  the  result. 

(3)  That  ferric  sulphate  and  aluminum  sidphate  usually  require  no 
lime  for  completing  precipitation. 

(4)  That  with  copperas  a  definite  amount  of  lime  must  be  used. 


-    Results  With  Different  Amounts  of  Chemicals  but  of  Equal 

Value. 

In  order  to  compare  the  results  obtained  with  the  best  amount  of 
lime  with  equal  value  of  the  other  chemicals,  when  used  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions  on  the  same  sample  of  sewage,  two  ad- 
ditional experiments  were  made,  the  second  being,  presumably,  for 
the  purpose  of  checking  the  first.  The  results  of  the  first  set  are 
given  in  Table  No.  52.  Table  No.  53  gives  the  per  cent,  of  soluble 
organic  matter  removed  by  chemicals  of  equal  value,  as  determined  by 
the  two  final  sets  of  experiments. 

Taking  the  percentage  of  albuminoid  ammonia  removed  to  repre- 

Table  No.  52. — Results    op    Treatment    of    Sewage    with    Equal  Values  op 
Different  Chemicals  (Nov.  22,  1889). 


* 

, 

« 

."See 

r5 

™c,^ 

g 

Mi! 

"5 

1 

C.2 

1.1 

3 

c 

c 
B 

11 

£  5 

V 

c 
c 

2 

aoteria 
cubic  ce 
metre. 

in 

le  u  - 

a  a  ai 

ii  a.  ^ 

o 

^ 

H 

ij 

fa 

fc. 

*^ 

o 

a 

Sh 

Original  sewage 

0  10 

43  0 

18.0 

V5.0 

1.25 

0.40 

4.86 

25,840 

20,700 

Filtered  through  paper 

34.S 

11.2 

23.6 

1.25 

0.26 

.... 

After  settling  1  hour 

0.30 

38.8 

13.6 

25.2 

1.25 

0.28 

4.82 

10,920 

16,700 

Kfflnent  with  l,)-()(i  ponnf}>;of  lime  per 

1,00(1  000  gallons  of  sewage 

$0.30 

0.08 

45.6 

10.2 

35.4 

1.25 

0.19 

4.83 

1,911 

l.C^O 

Effluent   with    1.000   pounds  of  cop- 

peras and  700  pounds  of  lime. ... 

0.80 

0.12 

4(1.4 

9.2 

r,7.2 

1.25 

0.17 

4.80 

16.044 

4(;0 

Effluent  with  270  pounds  of  ferric  oxide 

0..S0 

0.08 

.38  0 

8.0 

30.0 

1.25 

0.18 

4.92 

2.047 

1,000 

Effluent  with  0.50  pounds  of  alum  .    . . 

0.30 

0.10 

34.4 

8.0 

26.4 

1.50 

0.19 

4.88 

2,475 

3,700 

Effluent  with  8K0  pounds  of  ferric  oxide 

0.40 

0.(17 

37.6 

5.8 

31. S 

1.25 

0.15 

4.96 

1,980 

1,000 

Effluent  with  S70  pounds  of  alum 

0.40 

0.09 

3S.5> 

9.6 

28.6 

1.25 

0.19 

4.81 

1,800 

2,200 

♦  Per  inhabitant  annually. 


DEDUCTIONS. 


219 


Table  No.  53. — Per  Cent,  of  Soluble  Organic  Matter  Removed  by  Chemicals 

OF  Equal  Value,  etc. 


Yearly  cost. 


Thirty  cents. 


Chemicais  used. 


Copperas  |   Ferric 
and  lime,     oxide. 


(  Nov.  22  ■  27 

Soluble  albuminoid  ammonia  removed  <  Nov.  26  •  17 

I  Average.  22 

(  Nov.  22 .  9 

Soluble  loss  on  ignition  removed <  Nov.  26  .  0 

/  Average.  4 

(  Nov.  22  .  SO 

Turbidity  removed   '!  Nov.  26 .  74 

j  Average.  77 

Bacteria  removed,  Nov.  2' it3 

Yeast  removed,  Nov.  22 92 


Amount  of  chemicals  per  1,000,000  gallons  in  lbs.     l.SOO 


35 
24 
29 

18 
24 
21 

70 
70 
70 

38 
98 

1.000 
and 
700 


92 
95 


270 


Sulphate 
of  alu- 
minum. 


27 
14 
20 

29 
30 

30 

75 

78 
77 

91 

82 


650 


Cost  of  chemicals  per  1,000,000  gallons  treated. 


$8.13. 


Forty  cents. 


Ferric 
oxide. 


42 

41 
41 

48 
41 
45 

83 
82 
83 

93 
95 


Sulphate 
of  aUi- 
mmum. 


27 
31 
29 

14 
26 
20 

78 
76 
77 

93 
90 

870 


$10.85. 


sent  org-anic  matter,  it  is  shown  that  in  addition  to  all  suspended  mat- 
ter, the  following-  amounts  of  soluble  organic  matter  have  been 
removed : 

With  lime  costing  30  cents  per  inhabitant  annually 22  per  cent. 

With  copperas  and  lime  costing  30  cents 29  per  cent. 

With  ferric  sulphate  costing  30  cents   32  per  cent. 

With  aluminum  sulphate  costing  30  cents 20  per  cent. 

With  ferric  sulphate  costing  40  cents 41  per  cent. 

With  aluminum  sulphate  costing  40  cents 29  per  cent. 

With  lime  costing  27  cents  per  inhabitant,  annually 20  per  cent. 

With  copperas  ami  lime  costing  20  cents 13  jjer  cent. 

With  cojipeias  and  lime  costing  31  cents 39  jjer  cent. 

With  ferric  .sulphate  costing  22  cents ....  17  per  cent. 

With  ferric  sulphate  costing  33  cents 48  per  cent. 

With  ferric  sulphate  costing  44  cents 46  per  cent. 

With  aluminum  sulphate  costing  23  cents 10  per  cent. 

With  aluminum  sulphate  costing  45  cents 47  per  cent. 


Deductions. 

The  following  conclusions  may  be  drawn  from  Mr,  Hazen's  experi- 
ments : 

(1)  The  first  series  in  large  tanks  (Table  No.  44)  made  between  May  1, 
and  Juno  14,  inclusive,  may  be  considered  as  approximating  more 
nearly  to  the  actual  conditions  at  sewage  disposal  works  in  operation 
than  any  of  the  others  ;  and  the  variation  in  the  results  are  such  as 
may  be  fairly  expected  from  day  to  day  due  to  changes  in  the  com- 
position of  the  sewage.      The  results,  however,  are  not  comparable 


220  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE    UXITKD    STATES. 

one  with  another  by  reason  of  using  samples  of  varying  composition 
taken  on  tlifferent  days. 

(2)  Mr.  Hazen  does  not  consider  the  second  series  in  barrels  as  re- 
liable as  the  latter  ones,  by  reason  of  some  of  the  anaylses  not  being 
made  until  the  day  following  the  experiment.  He  therefore  considers 
it  probable  that  changes  had  occurred  which  affect  the  results. 

(3)  It  may  be  said  of  all  the  experiments  in  barrels  that  {a)  the 
quantity  treated  was  rather  small ;  tanks  holding  from  300  to  600  gal- 
lons would  have  been  preferable,  although  the  use  of  such  would  have 
required  more  time  and  additional  apparatus,  in  the  way  of  special 
appliances  for  mixing ;  and  (Z*)  that  probably  by  reason  of  the  small 
volume  experimented  upon  the  mixing  was  more  thorough  than 
usually  occurs  in  practice.  To  obtain  the  same  results  on  sewage  oi 
the  same  composition  in  actual  practice  will  therefore  necessitate  the 
use  of  amounts  in  addition  to  the  quantities  indicated  by  the  exper- 
iments, of  iDerhaps  5  to  10  jjer  cent. 

(4)  AVitli  lime  largely  in  excess,  as  in  the  experiment  of  May  10,  sew- 
age can  be  treated  on  a  small  scale  in  such  manner  as  to  remove  very 
nearly  all  the  bacteria,  the  result  being  that  with  an  original  sewage 
containing  1,881,400  bacteria  per  cubic  centimetre,  the  number  found 
in  the  effluent  of  5  minutes  time  was  only  12 ;  after  1  hour  17  ;  and  at 
the  end  of  24  hours  5.  This  process,  however,  could  not  be  used  on  a 
large  scale,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  lime  required  and  the  ex- 
cess of  lime  left  in  solution,  which  would  slowly  precipitate  out  on 
exposure  to  the  air. 

(.5)  The  best  practical  results  with  lime  were  obtained  when  the 
amount  used  was  equal  or  nearly  equal  to  the  carbonic  acid  of  the 
sewage.  To  produce  this  condition  a  definite  quantity  is  required  for 
a  given  sewage. 

(6)  The  use  of  copperas  alone  is  without  much  useful  effect  in  the 
treatment  of  an  ordinary  sewage ;  the  result  being  very  little  better 
than  may  be  obtained  by  simple  sedimentation.  It  is  necessary  to 
add  enough  lime,  when  copperas  is  used,  to  combine  with  the  excess 
of  carbonic  acid  over  what  is  required  to  form  bicarbonates,  and  to 
combine  with  the  acid  of  the  copperas,  as  the  necessary  conditions  for 
precipitation.  In  general  terms  we  may  say  that  with  a  lime  and 
copperas  treatment  there  is  a  definite  amount  of  lime  that  will  give 
the  best  results. 

(7)  In  using  lime  and  copperas,  the  lime  should  be  added  first. 

(8)  For  a  given  sewage  treated  with  lime  and  copperas,  the  proper 
proportion  of  each  should  be  determined  by  experiment.  Up  to  one- 
half  ton  per  1,000,000  gallons,  using  in  each  case  a  suitable  amount  of 
lime,  the  more  cop^Dcras  used  the  better  the  result ;  beyond  that  limit 
the  improvement  is  not  commensurate  with  the  cost. 


DEDUCTIONS.  221 

(9)  Other  thing's  being  equal,  ferric  salts  are  preferable  to  ferrous 
salts  by  reason  of  quicker  action  and  more  insoluble  precipitate. 

(10)  Lime  is  of  almost  no  value  for  use  with  ferric  sulphate,  espe- 
cially when  treating-  a  sewage  which  is  already  alkaline. 

(11)  Within  limits,  we  may  say  the  more  of  either  ferrous  or  ferric 
sulphate  used  the  better  the  result. 

(12)  For  the  sewage  experimented  upon,  the  use  of  lime  with  sul- 
phate of  alumina  is  of  very  little  effect  over  what  may  be  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  the  alumina  alone.  The  chief  effect  of  the  lime  is  to  in- 
crease somewhat  the  rapidit^^  of  action,  but  the  gain  in  time  hardly 
compensates  for  the  increased  cost. 

(13)  The  results  in  Tables  52  and  53  are  probably  the  safest  for 
comparison,  subject  to  the  limitations  indicated  in  (3). 

(14)  The  removal  of  bacteria  is  due  partly  to  the  mechanical  action 
of  the  flocculent  precipitates  in  which  they  are  entangled  and  carried 
down,  and  partly  to  the  action  of  the  reagent  as  a  germicide  ;  but  even 
the  best  of  the  various  chemical  treatments  leave  a  relatively  large 
number  of  bacteria  in  the  effluent,  together  with  such  quantities  of 
organic  matter  as  may  lead  in  a  short  time  to  the  development  of  as 
many  as  were  present  in  the  original  sewage.  If  any  so  left  are 
disease  germs  the  effluent  may  be  nearly  as  dangerous  to  public  health 
as  the  original  sewage. 

(15)  The  microscopical  determination  of  the  yeast  may  be  considered 
a  useful  method  of  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the  suspended  organic 
matter  is  really  all  removed. 

(16)  The  effluents  from  treatment  with  iron  salts  are  slightly  colored, 
which,  however,  Mr.  Hazen  does  not  consider  an  objection  to  the 
treatment. 

(17)  The  practical  difficulties  of  working  the  lime  process  renders 
the  results  in  general  inferior  to  those  which  may  be  obtained  at  the 
same  cost  in  other  ways. 

(18)  Copperas  and  lime  treatment  is  difficult  in  practice  owing  to 
the  necessity  for  adjusting  the  quantity  of  lime,  although  when  such 
adjustment  is  properly  made  a  good  result  is  obtained. 

(10)  Ferrous  hydroxide  is  more  soluble  than  ferric  hydroxide,  from 
which  results  a  larger  amount  of  iron  in  the  effluent  from  copperas 
treatment  than  from  a  ferric  salt. 

(20)  The  advantage  of  both  ferric  sulphate  and  aluminum  sulphate 
is  that  their  addition  in  concentrated  solution  can  be  accurately  con- 
trolled without  reference  to  the  adjustment  of  any  chemical  to  the 
sewage. 

(21)  The  results  with  ferric  sulphate  have  been  on  the  whole  more 
satisfactory  than  those  witli  aluminum  sulphate. 

(22)  By  reason  of  («)  variations  in  the  composition  of  sewage  at  dif- 


222 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


ferent  places ;  and  {b)  cliaug-es  in  prices  of  the  reagents  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  say  that  one  treatment  is  universally  better  than  another. 

(23)  An  acid  sewage  containing-  iron  may  be  ]3roperly  treated  with 
lime. 

(2-4)  By  the  use  of  a  proper  amount  of  either  an  iron  or  aluminum 
salt,  from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  organic  matter  of  sewage  may 
be  removed  by  chemical  precipitation.  ^Yith  the  process  carried  out 
in  detail  the  effluent  can  be  discharged  into  a  running  stream  without 
l^roducing  a  nuisance. 

(25)  The  incompleteness  of  the  purification  in  comparison  with  the 
cost  of  the  process  will  be  likely  to  confine  the  application  of  chemi- 
cal purification  to  narrow  limits. 

(26)  There  is  nothing  in  these  experiments  to  indicate  that  the  efflu- 
ents from  chemical  treatment  are  fit  to  drink. 

Purification  of  Sewage  by  Aeration. 

In  Table  No.  53A  are  given  the  results  of  a  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  treatment  of  sewage  by  aeration  made  for  the 
Metropolitan  Board  of  Works  (London),  by  Dr.  A.  Dupre  and  W.  J. 
Dibdin.  In  each  case  1,000  gallons  of  raw  sewage  was  first  treated 
with  5  grains  per  gallon  of  lime  as  lime-water,  and  the  same  amount  of 
copperas.  Series  (1)  and  (2)  show  the  means  for  10  samples  of  raw 
sewage  and  the  effluents  from  the  same.  Series  (3)  shows  (2)  corrected 
for  the  lime-water,  of  which  72  gallons  was  added  in  each  case.     Series 


Table  No.  53A. — Results  of  Treatment  of  Sewage  with  Lime  and  Copperas, 
Followed  by  Aeration  of  Effluent. 

(Grains  per  Imperial  gallon.) 


Description  of  sample. 

Dissolved  .solids. 

Ammonia. 

1 

O 

Suspended 
ter. 

mat- 

Oxygen  ab- 
sorbed. 

1 

g 
5 
c 

"3 
•E 

o 
H 

"5 

.2 
c 

1 

o 

."2 
'S 

c 

1 

< 

S 
o 

1 

5 
o 

00 

a 
c 

S 
in 

S 
s 

§ 

1 

10 
10 
]0 

8 
8 

63.29 
48.22 
51.68 
54.78 
53.62 

42.40 
34.34 
.S6.80 
34.74 
31.31 

21.07 
13.88 
14.88 
20.04 
22.31 

3.942  0.5205 
3.540  0  :^847 
3.803  0.4122 
4.575  0..n4()8 
3.250|  0.5480 

fi.40 
6.32 
6.77 
6.64 
6.80 

11.36 
6.50 
6.96 
1.28 
3.35 

4.84 
5.38 
5.76 
0.89 
2.04 

6.52 
1.12 

1.22 
0.39 

0.853 
0.587 
0,629 
0.710 
0.621 

3.016 

"> 

Effluent  from  (1 ) 

2.274 

3 
4 
5 

Corrected  effluent* 

Effluent  before  aeration  . . 
After  aeration  (4) 

2.300 
2.437 
2.292 

*  In  these  experiments  1.000  imperial  gallons  were  used  in  each  case.  This  quantity  of  sewage  was  diluted 
with  72  gallons  of  clear  lime-water  added  to  each  1,000  gallons  of  sewage;  therefore,  to  compare  the  effluent 
with  the  sewage,  it  is  necessary  to  correct  the  results  of  the  analyses  for  that  degree  of  dilution  with  clear 


water,  thus  : — 


1.000 


1,072 
been  corrected,  making  (3) 


0.933  ;  hence 


result  obtained 
0:933 


corrected  result.     In  this  way  the  results  of  (2)  have 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION.  223 

(4)  is  the  mean  of  8  effluents  wliicli  were  treated  by  aeration  with  the 
result  indicated  in  (5).  In  studying-  the  results  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  (4)  and  (5)  are  different  series  from  (2)  and  (3).* 

By  comparing-  series  4  and  5  of  Table  b'SA  it  will  be  seen  that  aera- 
tion had  but  little  effect  upon  the  sewage.  The  same  conclusion  was 
reai'lied  in  some  experiments  with  diluted  sewage  bj'  Mr.  S.  K.  Hine.f 
Dr.  T.  M.  Drown  in  experiments  with  natural  waters  and  with  water 
to  which  a  small  amount  of  sewage  had  been  added,  concludes  that 
"  Tlie  oxidation  of  organic  mutter  in  water  is  not  hastened  by  vigor- 
ous agitation  with  air  or  by  air  under  pressure. "| 

In  considering  the  significance  of  these  new  views  we  must  not  for- 
get that  the  presence  of  oxygen  is  still  imperative  in  order  to  secure 
the  operation  of  the  living  agents.  Moreover  when  large  quantities  of 
organic  matter  are  present  it  is  still  permissible  to  assume  some 
degree  of  direct  oxidation,  and  it  is  in  this  latter  view  that  we  have 
discussed  the  matter  in  the  beginning  of  Chapter  V. 

Chemical  Precipitation  by  the  Use  of  Manganate  of  Soda  and 

Nitre. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  tendency  of  the  effluents  from  chemical  proc- 
esses, especially  those  dependent  upon  lime,  is  on  the  whole  toward 
putrefaction,  even  when  considerably  diluted  after  discharge  into  run- 
ning streams.  This  result  is  due  primarily  to  a  deficient  su]iply  of 
oxygen,  whereby  the  microbes  of  nitrification  may  develop  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  complete  the  resolution  of  the  organic  matter  still 
remaining  in  the  effluent.  If,  then,  the  chemical  purification  is  effected 
by  some  reagent  Avliich  leaves  a  considerable  quantity  of  oxj'gen  in 
the  effluent,  we  may  expect  an  improvement  in  this  particular. 

*  Table  No.  .53A  is  derived  from  Appendix  D  H  of  the  Report  of  the  Roy.  Com.  on  Met.  Sew. 
Dischg.,  p.  201. 

+  Recounted  in  a  paper  entitled  "  Note  on  the  Direct  Oxidation  of  Organic  Matter  in  Water," 
by  Professor  W.  P.  Mason  and  S.  K.  Hine,  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc,  vol.  xiv.,  no.  7.  The  experi- 
ments were  made  by  Mr.  Hine  and  the  results  presented  as  a  graduating  thesis  at  the  Rensselaer 
Polytechnic  Institute  in  June,  1S'.)2.  Varying  proportions  of  sewage  and  water  were  placed  in  a 
tin  can  or  in  a  glass  stoppered  bottle,  mostly  in  the  latter,  the  receptacle  being  not  over  half  full. 
Tiie  can  or  bottle  was  then  fastened  to  the  connecting  rod  of  a  horizontal  steam- engine  of  10-in. 
stroke  and  the  engine  run  at  7.5  revolutions  per  minute,  so  that  in  an  hour  the  receptacle  was 
shaken  9,0(MJ  times  and  travelled  about  l.'i't  miles.  The  samples  were  shaken  from  lo  to  60  hours 
and  '.'4  samples  were  tried,  analyses  being  made  before  and  after  sliaking.     The  pai)er  states  that : 

An  examination  of  the  results  shows  tliatthe  amount  of  oxidation  which  took  place  during  the 
agitation  of  the  water  was  very  trifling,  a  fin<ling  entirely  in  accordance  with  Professor  Leeds'  ob- 
servations of  the  water  of  the  Niagara  river  before  and  after  passing  Niagara  Falls.  Direct  oxida- 
tion does  not  seem  to  be  a  factor  of  any  consiilerable  importance  in  the  purification  of  polluted 
water. 

*  •■  The  Effect  of  the  Aeration  of  Natural  Waters,"  by  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Drown,  chemist  of  the 
Hoard.  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  of  Health  for  1H«)1.  Also  in  Jour.  New  Eng.  W.  Wks.  Assn., 
Dec,  1892,  and  Eng.  News,  vol.   xxviii,  pp.   lS:i-4  (Aug. '25,  1892). 


224  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

Working"  in  this  direction  Mr.  W.  E.  Adeney,  curator  in  the  Eoyal 
University  of  Ireland,  and  Mr.  "VV.  Kaye  Parry,  of  Dublin,  have  ex- 
perimented on  the  use  of  manganate  of  soda  and  nitre.  Their  results 
are  given  in  two  paj^ers  read  before  the  British  Institute  of  Public 
Health  at  the  1892  meeting-  in  Dublin. 

The  theory  upon  which  they  have  proceeded  is  that  when  nitre  ii* 
added  to  sewage  containing  aerobian  forms  of  bacteria  it  is  readily 
decomposecT  into  nitrogen,  oxygen,  nitric  oxide,  and  potash,  and  thus, 
furnishes  the  oxyg-en  necessary  for  their  g-rowth.  To  secure  such  re- 
sults the  sewage  is  first  cleared  of  suspended  solids  by  a  process  of 
sedimentation,  after  which  it  is  treated  with  from  two  to  five  grains 
per  gallon  of  mauganate  of  soda.  This  reagent  effects  the  oxidation 
of  a  considerable  portion  of  the  organic  matter,  and  becoming  con- 
verted into  the  brown  oxide  of  manganese,  falls  to  the  bottom,  carrying 
with  it  a  portion  of  the  lighter  particles  which  have  not  been  removed 
by  the  previous  sedimentation.  The  sewage  is  now  partiall}^  purified, 
and  it  is  claimed  that  the  addition  of  two  to  three  grains  to  the  gallon 
of  the  nitre  at  this  stage  so  stimulates  the  growth  of  aerobian  forms 
as  to  either  quickly  complete  the  purification,  or  so  far  complete  it 
that  the  effluent  may  be  innocuously  discharged  into  running  streams. 

As  to  the  time  required  for  the  completion  of  the  process,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  less  than  24  hours  will  be  sufficient,  although  at  Dundruui 
Lunatic  Asylum  (Ireland),  where  the  process  is  now  in  operation,  the 
time  consumed  is  about  25  hours,  that  being  the  length  of  time  re- 
quired to  completely  fill  the  tank  space  which  has  been  provided. 
The  effluent  after  this  time  is  stated  to  be  clear  and  bright  and  abso- 
lutely non-putrefactive. 

In  regard  to  the  cost  of  the  process,  it  is  stated  that  all  the  man- 
ganese is  recovered  and  can  be  reconverted  at  about  half  the  original 
cost.  The  length  of  time  required  for  the  completion  of  the  process 
will,  however,  lead,  with  allowances  for  contingencies,  to  a  tank  capac- 
ity somewhat  in  excess  of  the  daily  flow ;  and  this  fact  will  be  likely 
to  limit  the  application  of  the  process,  whatever  its  other  merits  may 
be,  on  account  of  expense.* 

*  For  more  extended  account  see  Purification  of  Sewage  by  Microbes  Eng.  and  Bldg  Rec,  vol 
xxvii,  p.  380  (Nov.  12, 1892). 


CHAPTER  XII. 
BROAD  IRRIGATION. 

Special  Applications  of  Broad  Irrigation  in  the  United  States. 

The  opinion  lias  been  expressed  frequently  that  broad  irrigation  will 
not,  by  reason  of  the  large  amount  of  labor  required  and  the  relatively 
high  price  of  the  same,  be  generally  used  in  this  country.  There  will, 
however,  be  some  exceiDtious  to  this  in  especially  favorable  localities, 
and  in  the  case  of  such  public  institutions  as  asylums,  alms  houses, 
and  reformatories,  where  labor  may  be  furnished  by  the  inmates 
without  exiDense,  or  in  the  West,  where  all  available  water  is  needed 
for  application  to  crops  to  make  up  for  a  deficient  rainfall,  such  use, 
combined  with  a  desire  for  sewage  purification,  being  described  at 
length  in  Chapter  XLIY.,  on  The  Use  of  Sewage  for  Irrigation  in  the 
West. 

Broad  irrigation  is  specially  adapted  for  the  use  of  hospitals  for  the 
treatment  of  the  harmless  insane,  all  the  authorities  now  agreeing  that 
light  out-door  employment  is  the  best  remedy  for  such  cases  that  can 
be  applied.  Some  acc^ount  of  broad  irrigation  is  therefore  imperative 
in  a  volume  professing  to  treat  of  sewage  disposal  with  reference  to 
the  special  conditions  obtaining  in  the  United  States.  Many  phases 
of  the  question,  which  have  been  thoroughly  treated  elsewhere,  will  be 
left  untouched,  the  space  assigned  to  the  subject  being  mostly  taken 
up  with  a  discussion  of  some  points  which  the  authors  deem  of  rela- 
tively more  importance  for  American  readers.  Such  short  discussion 
of  irrigation  as  is  made  will  be  with  reference  to  the  utilization  of  sew- 
age only. 

Preparation  of  Land— Pipe  and  Hydrant  System  op  Distribution. 

In  broad  sewage  irrigation  areas  of  land  are  suitably  prepared  for 
the  distribution  of  sewage  with  reference  to  utilizing  the  manurial  in- 
gredients in  raising  crops.  For  this  purpose  a  number  of  methods  of 
distribution  of  sewage  and  ])r(>])aration  of  irrigated  urotx  are  ein]iloyed 
which  we  may  describe  a  little  in  detail,  the;  pipe  and  jet  mode  of  dis- 
15 


226 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    liST    THE    UXITED    STATES. 


tributin^  sewage  first  claiming"  our  attention.*  In  this  method  a  series 
of  pipes  is  laid  according-  to  a  system  depending  upon  the  topogra- 
phy. At  such  points  as  will  permit  of  conveniently  reaching  all  parts 
of  the  field  stand-pipes  or  hydrants  are  placed,  fitted  with  the  usual 
coupling  for  connecting  hose.     The  sewage  is  forced  through  these 


A.ZZ 


/' 


*v 


•*> 


/- 


/"• 


r  n  A. 


3. a 


Fig.  12. — Plan  and  Section  op  Ridge  and  Furrow  System. 


either  by  steam  power  or  by  gravitation  and  is  distributed  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  field  by  means  of  the  hose,  and  when  necessary  by  the  use 
of  a  jet — the  rapidity  of  the  distribution  depending  upon  the  size  of 
mains  and  amount  of  power  applied. 

With  gravitation  the  power  will  of  course  be  fixed  by  the  height  of 
the  receiving  tank,  into  which  the  sewage  is  first  collected,  above  the 
area  to  be  irrigated  ;  but  in  a  pumping  system  the  power  can  be  va- 
ried the  same  as  in  any  other  application  of  pumping.  The  detail  of 
arranging  either  system  will  readily  present  itself  to  any  skilful  en- 
gineer with  all  the  facts  before  him.  In  England  a  large  number  of 
pipe  distribution  systems  are  to  be  met  with,  while  in  this  country  the 
distribution  at  the  Pullman,  Illinois,  sewage  farm  is  effected  in  the 
same  manner.  (See  Chapter  XXX.)  As  a  very  complete  system  of 
this  kind  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  description  of  a  sewage  farm  at 
Rugby,  England,  laid  out  on  this  system,  as  given  by  Mr.  E.  Scott 
Burn.f 

In  systems  of  gravity  distribution  by  carriers  there  are  two  methods 

"  See  Outlines  of  Modern  Farming,  Part  V.,  Utilizing  of  Town  Sewage,  Irrigation,  etc.  By  Robert 
Scott  Burn,  6th  ed.,  1888. 

t  See  also  Report  on  the  Means  of  Deodorizing  and  Utilizing  the  Sewage  of  Towns.  Bj'  Henry 
Austin,  C.  E.  (1857). 


RIDGE   AND    FUKKOW    SYSTEM. 


227 


in  common  use,  namely,  (1)  the  ridg-e  and  furroAv  or  bed-work  system, 
shown  by  Fig-s.  12  and  13  ;  and  (2)  the  catchwork  system,  shown  by  Fig. 
14.  Which  of  these  to  use  in  any  given  case  will  depend  upon  the 
topographical  features  of  the  area  to  be  irrigated. 

The  ridg-e  and  furrow  system  is  specially  applicable  to  level  or 
nearly  level  land  ;  while  the  catchwork  system  will  be  used  preferably 
in  irregular,  steejD,  or  hilly  g'round. 

Ridge  and  Fuerow  System. 

In  ridge  and  furrow  work  the  land  is  laid  out  in  a  series  of  beds 
along  the  top  of  which  the  irrigating  channels  are  led,  and  from  which 
the  water  flows  over  the  sloping-  sides.  The  ridges  are  laid  out  in 
couples,  with  slopes  varying-  from  1  in  50  to  1  in  150.  The  amount  of 
slope  to  be  given  in  any  particular  case  is  a  matter  of  judgment,  in  the 
decision  of  which  the  controlling  factor  is  porousness  of  the  ground  to 
be  irrigated.  Common  dimensions  of  the  bed  are  a  total  breadth  of 
from  30  to  40  feet,  that  is  a  breadth  of  slope  on  each  side  of  the  ridge 
of  from  15  to  20  feet,  although  in  exceptional  cases  the  breadth  may 
by  made  considerably  greater.  The  land  may  be  underdrained  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rules  for  underdraining  in  ordinary  farming,  the 
same  rules  applying  in  both  cases.*  In  deciding  whether  or  not 
to  fully  underdrain  any  given  area,  it  may  be  remembered  that 
the  porousness  of  the  soil  is   always  increased  by  drainage.     The 


Fig.  13. — Rthor  and  Fi'kkow  Beds  with  Cropping. 

length  of  the  beds  may  be  anywhere  from  100  to  200  feet,  according  to 
circumstances.  The  distribution  channels  along  the  ridge  should  be 
execHtod  with  care  in  order  that  when  full  the  sewage  may  flow  in  a 
thill   film  over  the  edge  at  both  sides  and  so  on  in  a  broad  sheet 


*  For  rules  of  underdraining  see  (1)  Waring's  Draining  for  Protit  and  Draioing  for  Health; 
and  {'.')  Frencli's  Farm  Drainage. 


228 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


over  the  whole  field.  At  the  foot  of  the  slopes  the  furrow  receives 
whatever  water  has  not  been  absorbed  in  the  passage  over  the 
bed  and  conducts  it  away  to  another  and  lower  series  of  beds  or  to  the 
outfall,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  though  ordinarily  the  surplus  water  should 
pass  over  several  areas,  especially  if  constructed  with  about  the  di- 
mensions given  in  the  foregoing.  In  order  to  insure  thorough  re- 
moval of  the  water  at  the  foot  of  the  slopes,  and  to  prevent  the  land 
there  becoming  water-logged,  the  furrow  should  be  made  of  about  the 
same  size  as  the  feeder  on  the  ridge  and  with  enough  fall  to  produce 
quick  drainage.    Fig.  12  shows  in  plan  and  section  the  arrangement 


Fig.  14. — Catchwork  System  of  Irrigation. 


of  a  ridge  and  furrow  system  of  irrigation, 
of  a  ridge  and  iurrow  system  in  crops. 


Fig.  13  is  a  general  view 


Catchwork  System. 

In  the  catchwork  system,  which  as  stated  is  specially  adapted  to 
steep  and  irregular  land,  the  liquid  is  delivered  at  the  highest  point 
of  the  area,  the  same  as  with  ridge  and  furrow.  A  main  carrier  is  led 
along  the  highest  contour,  and  the  irrigation  water  caused  to  overflow 
the  edge   by  damming  at  various  places.     At  some  distance   lower 


COST    OF    DISTRIBUTION    SYSTKMS.  229 

down  a  catch-gutter  is  formed  also  on  the  contour,  into  which  the 
unabsorbed  overflow  of  the  main  carrier  is  caught  as  it  flows  down- 
ward over  the  surface.  The  damming  at  suitable  intervals  of  the  flrst 
catch-gutter  causes  it  again  to  overflow  to  a  second,  and  so  on  down  to 
the  lowest  contour  of  the  area  irrigated.  The  detail  of  this  operation 
may  be  illustrated  by  Fig.  li,  in  Avliich  a  catchwork  system  is  shown 
in  section  b}^  the  upper  portion,  and  in  plan  by  the  lower.  Let  A  rep- 
resent the  main  carrier  at  the  highest  point  of  the  area  to  be  irrigated, 
with  just  fall  enough  to  enable  the  stream  to  flow  gently  from  left  to 
right.  The  relative  position  of  the  gutters  on  the  down-hill  side  are 
clearl}^  shown  by  the  plan  and  elevation.  The  damming  of  AA  at 
various  points  will  cause  the  water  to  flow  over  the  edge,  down  the 
slope  b  to  the  gutter  CC ;  and  so  on  until  the  lower  gutter  JJ  is  finally 
reached.  The  fall  of  the  main  carrier  should  be  about  2  inches  to  100 
feet,  its  breadth  from  18  to  24  inches  and  its  depth  from  8  to  10  inches. 
The  gutters  are  made  level  throughout  their  leng-th,  and  on  very 
irregular  ground  a  considerable  degree  of  skill  is  required  in  order 
to  secure  such  arrangement  as  will  insure  that  all  parts  of  the  area 
receive  their  due  proportion  of  water. 

As  a  further  refinement  of  this  system  of  irrigation  in  the  way  of 
securing  a  more  uniform  distrilnition  of  the  water  over  the  area, 
immediately  below  the  main  carrier  a  series  of  tapering  carriers  are 
cut  in  the  line  of  the  greatest  descent,  as  indicated  by  the  arrows  on 
the  plan  at  Fig.  14.  These  may  also  be  continued  below  the  gutters 
when  necessary'-  to  assist  the  distribution  on  very  irregular  ground. 

Cost  of  Distribution  Systems. 

In  reference  to  the  relative  cost  of  the  three  systems  of  irriga- 
tion which  have  been  descriljed,  it  may  be  remarked  that  distril)utiou 
by  pipes  will  be  fairly  economical.  In  England  a  number  of  such 
systems  have  been  carried  out  with  the  distribution  pipes  of  iron,  but 
at  Pullman  vitrified  tile  pipes  have  been  used  with  good  results.*  The 
advantage  of  pipe  distribution  is  that  it  admits,  when  the  hydrants 
are  ]ilaced  at  short  intervals,  of  a  more  thorough  control  of  the  amount 
of  sewage  distributed  to  any  given  portion  of  the  area  than  can  be 
obtained  by  any  other  method.  No  general  estimate  of  the  cost  of 
distribution  by  this  system  per  acre  can  be  given,  because  the  items 
will  vary  greatly  for  every  difterent  case,  but  as  the  use  of  it  does  not 
involve  any  unknown  conditions,  an  accurate  estimate  can  be  easily 

*  See  Paf)er,  The  Pullman  Sewerajje,  .lour,  of  the  Assn.  of  Eng.  Soca.,  vol.  i.  (June,  1882),  p. 
311.     By  Benezette  Williams,  C.  E. 

Tlie  moat  of  the  pipe  distribution  systems  in  England  have  been  made  rather  expensive  by  the 
use  of  cast-iron  distribution  mains,  etc.,  tlie  cost  reaching  frequently  as  high  as  $40  to  $60  per 


280  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

prepared  in  each  case  after  a  topog-raphical  map  of  the  area  to  be 
irrig-ated  has  been  made. 

The  original  cost  of  preparation  of  ridge  and  furrow  work  in  Eng- 
land has  been  from  $100  to  $250  per  acre,  English  prices,  which,  car- 
ried into  American  prices  for  labor,  would  be  apj^roximately  from  1175 
to  $450  per  acre.  The  latter  figure  has,  however,  included  the  cost  of 
expensive  main  carriers  of  masonry  or  iron,  and  some  other  items 
which  are  not  considered  essential  to  the  success  of  sewage  irrigation 
at  the  present  day.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  as  a  fundamental  maxim 
of  sewage  irrigation,  that  whatever  system  of  irrigation  is  adopted  the 
arrangements  must  be  such  a'S  to  absolutely  prevent  putrefying  sew- 
age from  standing  in  puddles  on  the  ground.* 

acre  served,  American  values.  With  the  experience  vi'hich  has  been  gained  there  they  can,  how- 
ever, be  made  at  the  present  time  at  a  somewliat  less  figure. 

The  necessity  for  economizing  water  in  ordinary  irrigation  operations  has  led  to  a  considerable 
use  of  pipe  systems  of  distribution  in  a  number  of  localities  in  the  West,  as  for  instance  at  Los 
Angeles  and  vicinity  in  Southern  California,  where  cement  concrete,  vitrified  tile,  and  light 
wrought-iron  pipes  have  "been  extensively  used  for  this  purpose.  The  cost  of  these  systems  has 
ranged  in  California  from  $15  to  $50  per  acre,  depending  upon  the  area  served,  topographical  con- 
ditions, etc.  The  hose  and  jet  are  not,  however,  used,  except  incidentally,  in  the  common  irriga- 
tion practice  in  the  West,  the  cost  of  the  additional  labor  prohibiting  such  use.  The  distribution 
is  effected  from  a  cheap  form  of  cast-iron  hydrant  designed  specially  for  irrigation  practice.  As 
an  example  of  such  a  device  which  has  come  to  the  authors'  notice,  the  California  irrigation 
hydrant  manufactured  at  Los  Angeles  may  be  mentioned. 

*Rawlinson's  Suggestions  contain  a  number  of  useful  hints  on  the  prejiaration  of  irrigation 
areas,  some  of  which  may  be  quoted  : 

In  preparing  land  to  receive  sewage  the  greatest  economy  shouM  be  used.  .  .  .  Costly 
brick  or  earthenware  carriers  need  not  be  made  for  towns  below  1(),(HI0,  but  main  carriers  can  be 
constructed,  in  concrete,  while  tiibutary  carriers  can  be  formed  with  i  spade  or  be  ploughed  into 
shape.  Main  carriers  should  be  in  level  lengths,  as  any  required  fall  can  be  obtained  ]>y  vertical 
steps.  On  some  sewage  farms  more  money  has  been  expended  per  acre  in  surface  forming  and 
levelling  than  the  first  cost  of  tne  land,  in  this  way  more  than  doubling  the  rent  without  giving  an 
equivalent  benefit  to  the  land.  In  some  other  cases  nothing  has  been  done  to  the  land  but  to 
bring  the  sewage  and  flood  it  on  in  a  slovenly  way — growing  weeds  rather  than  grass — both  ex- 
tremes are  to  be  avoided.  Crude  sewage  may  be  taken  to  land  in  cheap  conduits,  and  may  be 
applied  direct  in  thin  films  from  contour  grips,  so  as  to  flow  regularly  and  evenly  on  to  the  land, 
where  it  will  be  absorbed  at  once  without  being  any  cause  of  nuisance. 

Tanking  sewage  to  deposit  solids,  and  straining  sewage  through  material  of  any  sort  or  under 
any  arrangement  of  screens,  only  abstracts  the  grosser  portions  of  the  solids  and  flocculent  matters. 
Sewage  may.  however,  be  deprived  of  much  of  its  noxious  matter  in  tanks,  as  also  by  passing  it 
through  what  are  termed  filters  ;  but  the  fluid  remains  unpurified,  and  is  only  in  an  improved  state 
to  be  used  in  irrigation  over  heavy  land  ;  or  to  be  passed  on  to  a  prepared  deep-drained  land-filter ; 
light  free  soils  will  receive  crude  sewage  without  causing  nuisance. 

The  best  land  for  a  sewage  farm  will  have  a  free  loamy  soil  and  open  subsoil ;  tlie  surface  will  be 
tolerably  even,  having  a  southern  aspect  gently  sloping  to  the  south. 

Clay  land  will  require  deep  draining  and  to  have  the  surface  well  Viroken  up,  either  by  spade 
lal)or  or  by  deep  steam-ploughing  ;  the  drains  must  be  so  laid  and  protected  as  to  remove  subsoil- 
water  after  filtration,  and  not  nnfiltered  surface  water  or  sewage  through  cracks  direct  to  the 
drains. 

Every  area,  however  rough  or  uneven,  may  have  level  contour  lines  set  out  over  its  entire  sur- 
face, so  that  by  forming  conduits  on  these  contour  lines  the  surface  may  be  irrigated.  It  will  not 
therefore  be  necessary  to  spend  large  sums  of  money  to  lay  a  sewage  farm  out  like  a  bowling- 
green. 

Land  having  an  irregularly  and  steeply  sloping  surface  may  have  sewage-intercepting  drains  and 
carriers  so  arranged  as  to  intercept  the  sewage  from  the  upper  areas  and  bring  it  over  the  lower 
areas  a  second  or  third  time,  by  such  means  more  effectively  purifying  the  sewage. 

When  land  has  been  properly  prepared  for  the  reception  of  sewage,  it  may  be  irrigated  in  all 
weathers,  so  as  to  purify  the  sewage. 


COST    OF   DISTHIBUTIOX    SYSTEMS. 


281 


The  catcliAvork  system  has  ordinarily  cost,  for  original  preparation 
of  area,  from  SlU  to  $30  per  acre,  English  prices. 

In  Fig.  13*  is  illustrated  a  ridge  and  furrow  system  with  main  carrier 
AA  constructed  of  concrete  masonry.  Distribution  carriers  on  the 
ridge  are  shown  at  D  and  D,  with  a  catch-furrow  at  I.  The  main 
carrier  is  dammed  by  closing  the  gate  F  and  the  flow  deflected  to  the 
distrilmtion  carriers  by  opening  the  gates  CI  and  G ;  from  these  the 
flow  is  again  deflected  over  the  slopes  by  the  gates  D  and  D,  the  por- 


FiG.  15. — Distribution  System  Applicable  to  Land  with  Uniform  Slope. 


tion  which  is  not  absorbed  finally  finding  its  way  into  the  catch  fur- 
row I. 

Fig.  15  illustrates  a  system  which  may  also  be  employed  on  land 
with  a  gentle   slope  in  one  direction  only.     By  it  the  sewage  flows 

A  wet  season  does  not  necessarily  injure  a  sewage  farm,  if  the  means  of  removing  anil  consum- 
ing till-  produce  are  equal  to  the  growth  of  the  crops. 

One  [ftiipi^ridl)  gallon  of  sewage  weighs  10  lbs.;  'J'M  gallons,  or  2, '240  lbs.,  are  one  ton  ;  22,400 
gallons,  or  2"34,000  lbs.,  are  100  tons -equal  to  one  inch  in  depth  over  one  acre  of  land.  Ten 
inohe.-i  equals  1,000  tons,  and  12,0(K)  tons  per  acre  j)er  annum  equals  120  inches  in  dejith,  and  this 
volume  may  be  used  on  well-prepared  land  without  swamping  it.  as  land  will  hlter  several  inches 
in  di'ptli  per  day  whin  the  sewage  is  equally  aiid  evenly  distril)uted. 

It:ilian  rye  grass  will  dispose  of  most  sewage  and  give  heavy  crops  if  the  roots  are  young.  The 
gri-.itrst  piodiicing-j)ower  will  be  in  the  first  year's  growth.  A  second  year  is  probably  the  utmost 
length  of  time  it  should  be  in  the  ground. 

No  larger  area  of  Italian  rye  grass  shoidd  be  sown  than  the  grass  upon  it  can  lie  disposed  of  in 
the  district,  as  it  will  not  keep  nor  bear  distant  carriage.  Sewage-grown  urass  will  make  good  and 
wholesome  hay  if  the  season  will  permit,  or  if  the  grass  can  be  artificially  dried.  (SVv  cjmjitn-  on 
Uxe  of  Silo. ) 

To  give  a  sewa<;e  farm  the  chance  of  pavin'.:,  tlie  land  must  l)e  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price  and 
the  costs  f)f  prcj)aration  must  be  mf)di'rate  ;  tlieri'  must  also  be  reasonable  skill  in  cropping,  in  culti- 
vation, and  in  managemcnl,  under  whiirh  conditions  laud  irrigated  with  sewage  ouglitto  pay  a  rea- 
sonable rent.  If  steam-jiower  has  to  be  used  for  pumping  the  sewage,  this  of  course  must  be  pai<l 
for  in  addition. 

*FromTth  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Hd.  Health. 


232 


SEWAGK  dispo>;al  IX  THE  rNiTP:D  statp:s. 


under  control  tliroiigli  secoudary  carriers  along'  the  line  of  g-reatest 
descent ;  it  is  detiected  from  these  by  gates  into  the  minor  carriers 
which  lead  from  the  secondary  carriers  at  right  angles  across  the  line 
of  greatest  descent,  and  overflowing  the  edges,  spreads  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  beds  from  above  downward. 

Fig.  16  illustrates  a  method  of  distribution  which  may  be  used  in  a 

field  with  a  ridge  running  through  it. 

With  regard  to  secondary  carriers, 
the  present  practice  is  to  make,  them  as 
simple  as  joossible  and,  so  far  as  may  be, 
of  a  temporary  character  by  use  of  spade 
or  plow,  the  advantage  of  this  treatment 
being  that  when  fouled  by  the  subsid- 
ence of  suspended  matter  they  may  be 
purified  b}'  simply  filling  with  clean 
earth  and  digging  others  to  take  their 
place. 

A  modification  of  the  pipe  and  open 
carrier  system,  suitable  for  mild  climates, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  17. 
The  use  or  omission  of  these  various  refinements  will  materially  in- 
fluence the  first  cost  in  any  given  case,  and  clearly  much  must  be  left 
to  the  judgment  of  the  designing  engineer.* 


Fig.  16.— Distribution  System 
Applicable  to  a  Field  In- 
tersected BY  A  Ridge. 


Undeedeaining. 

In  discussing  the  preparation  of  ridge  and  furrow  irrigation  beds  in 
the  foregoing,  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  ordinary  rules  of  under- 
draining  may  be  followed.  In  the  case  of  heavy  clay  lands,  hoAvever, 
an  exception  to  this  rule  may  be  noted  Such  soils  possess  the  prop- 
erty of  cracking  in  dry  weather  by  reason  of  the  contraction  of  the  clay 


*  The  practical  detail  of  laying  out  irrigation  areas  has  been  discussed  at  various  times  in  the 
Jour,  of  the  Roy.  Ag.  Soc.  of  Eng. ,  and  the  following  papers  contained  therein  may  be  con- 
sulted : 

(1)  On  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Water-Meadows.  By  Ph.  Pusey,  M.P.,  vol.  x.  (1849),  p. 
462.  In  this  paper  the  methods  of  forming  both  ridge  and  furrow,  and  catchwater  s3-stems  are 
given. 

(2)  Some  Account  of  the  Formation  of  Hill-side  Catch-Meadows  at  Exmoor.  By  Robert 
Smith,  vol.  xii.  (18.51).  p.  130. 

(3)  On  an  Improved  System  of  Irrigation.     By  John  Bickford.  vol.  xiii.  (18.53),  p.  162. 

(4)  On  an  Improved  and  Cheaper  System  of  Laying-out  Catch- Jleadows.  By  Sir  Stafford 
Northcote,  Bart,  vol   xiii.  (18.52),  p.  172. 

(5)  Review  of  ''Italian  Irrigation."  by  R.  Baird  Smith,  Captain  of  Engineers,  etc.  By  P.  H. 
Frere,  vol.  xxiv.  (ISB-I),  p.  ITS. 

Burns'  Outlines  of  Modern  Farming,  Part  V.,  contains  the  detail  of  preparation  of  sewage  irri- 
gation areas. 


UNDKUDKAINING. 


233 


as  it  loses  water :  hence  the  thorough  draiuing  of  clay  soils  is  likely 
to  result  iu  au  intensification  of  the  tendency  to  crack.  This  will  be 
appreciated  by  considering  that  uudrained  clay  frequently  shows 
cracks  at  least  an  inch  in  width,  and  of  considerable  depth.     AVhen 


iJ^,iftT«?»y;^/g"^-V'^v;aW(Q:?K-^;»3»f^%?a^^g^^ 


■y    --7  ■*^-    -..    w^'-v         ^-— «■.-»•##'^l^^.^^■:='^S^■^<*■- 
Fig.  17. — Combined  Pipe  and  Open  Carrier  Systems  of  Distribution. 


such  soil  is  underdrained  the  cracking  is  so  increased  that  the  applied 
sewage  will  at  times  pass  directly  down  to  the  drains  without  any 
purification  at  all.  This  practical  difficulty  renders  the  use  of  heavy 
clay  soils  undesirable  for  sewage  irrigation  when  any  other  soil  can 
be  obtained. 

In  some  cases,  unfortunately,  heav}^  clays  are  the  only  soils  avail- 
able, and  their  utilization  becomes  in  such  cases  a  question  of  con- 
siderable importance. 

At  the  WiinV)ledon  Sewage  Farm  near  London,  whore  heavy  cla^^s 
are  successfully  irrigated,  the  following  system  has  been  adopted  for 
portions  recently  laid  out,  as  described  by  Mr.  Crimp :  * 

The  surfaces  were  very  carefully  levelled  to  prevent  any  iwmlinp: ;  the  land  was 
divided  into  plots  of  about  4  acres  by  means  of  roads  12  feet  in  width  ;  under  the 
centre  of  eacli  road  a  drain  was  laid  at  a  depth  of  about  fi  feet ;  the  surface,  prior  to 
beinp;  cropped,  was  ploughed  to  a  depth  of  about  9  inches,  and  while  iu  a  rough 
condition,  a  thick  coating  of  screened  town  ashes  was  placed  uj)on  it ;  the  ordinary 
agricultuial  operations  followed,  and,  as  a  result,  a  porous  surface  of  upward  of  a 
foot  in  thickni-ss  has  l)een  obtained,  through  W'hich  the  sewage  passes  in  a  lateral  di- 
rection. As  the  ground  is  ])loughed  every  other  year,  the  ])orosity  of  the  surface  is 
maintained,  and  the  I'esults  have  liitherto  been  satisfactory  ;  certainly  the  troubles 
experienced  in  the  older  parts  of  the  farm  have  been  aUogether  wanting  on  the 
newer  ])ortions.  Tlie  farm  manager,  Mr.  Snook,  recommends  occasional  snbsoil- 
ing,  in  addition  to  deep  ploughing,  for  clay  soils.  These  disturbed  surfaces  will  ab- 
sorb large  ([uantities  of  sewage,  and  if  the  liquid  be  carefully  and  intermittently 
ai)plied,  "  lateral  filtration  "'  will  occur  with  satisfactory  lesults ;  the  quantity  ap- 
plied i)er  acre  ])er  day  should  not  exceed  'JO, 000  gallons,  and  with  that  (plant ity 
pro))erly  a)>i)lied  it  is  doubtful  if  any  water  will  escajie  that  has  not  been  in  actual 
contact  with  the  soil.  The  volume  might  a])iiear  to  be  large,  seeing  tliat  -40  gal- 
lons of  sewage  per  head  per  day,  500  persons  per  acre  would  be  the  unit,  but  it  is 
rarely  the  case  that  more  than  one-fifth  of  a  sewage  farm  is  under  irrigation  at  any 
one  period. 

*  Sewage  Disposal,  [i.   lOG. 


234  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Irrigation  Practice. 

The  process  of  sewag-e  irrigation  consists  in  allowing"  the  sewage  to 
flow  intermittently  over  the  surface  of  the  land,  for  a  few  hours  at  a 
time ;  the  interval  between  periods  of  flow  being-  regulated  by  the 
necessities  of  tiie  crops  raised.  Some  crops,  as  for  instance  vegetables, 
will  take  considerable  amounts  of  sewage  at  certain  periods  of  growth, 
while  later  on,  when  maturing,  the  sewage  needs  to  be  kept  entirely 
off.  This  principle,  moreover,  is  not  applicable  to  sewage  irrigation 
alone,  but  applies  to  any  kind  of  irrigation  whatever.  Thus  the  Cali- 
fornia fruit  growers  have  learned  as  the  result  of  experience  not  to  ir- 
rigate orchards  after  the  period  of  rapid  growth  has  taken  place ;  they 
find,  by  stopping  the  irrigation  when  maturity  begins  that  the  final 
result  is  a  hard,  crisp,  juicy  fruit,  as  finely  flavored  as  that  grown  in 
the  most  favored  regions,  where  irrigation  is  unnecessary. 


Sewage  Irrigation  Fallacies. 

This  experience  of  the  California  fruit  growers  is  specially  referred 
to  because  there  are  some  fallacies  in  regard  to  sewage  farming  float- 
ing about,  which,  while  exploded  many  years  ago  in  England,  where 
they  mostly  had  birth,  are  occasionally  crop]3ing  up  in  this  country 
with  as  much  vigor  as  though  they  were  new  discoveries.  One  of 
these  is  that  vegetables  from  sewage-irrigated  farms  are  of  necessity 
watery  ;  another  is  that  cows  fed  on  sewage-grown  grass  give  less 
rich  milk  than  those  fed  on  ordinary  grass ;  and  a  third,  which  may  be 
considered  a  corollary  to  the  first  two,  that  sewage-grown  products 
are  less  healthful  than  those  from  an  ordinary  farm.  In  regard  to  all 
these  points  the  English  experience  is  amply  sufficient  to  demonstrate 
that,  with  proper  management  of  the  irrigated  areas,  no  difficulty  will 
be  found  in  securing  products  which  are  fairly  equal  to  those  from  or- 
dinary farming.  In  considering  the  real  significance  of  much  of  the 
jjopular  discussion  of  the  value  of  sewage-grown  produce  which  has 
taken  place  in  England,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  early  days 
of  sewage  purification  ^'ery  extravagant  views  were  entertained  in  re- 
gard to  the  A^alue  of  the  sludge  to  be  obtained  from  chemical  purifica- 
tion processes  for  manurial  purposes.  The  difficulty  of  so  utilizing  the 
manurial  elements  of  untreated  sewage  in  farming  operations  as  to  re- 
turn a  commercial  profit  was  realized  at  an  early  day,  and  large 
amounts  of  capital  were  embarked  in  chemical  processes,  nearly  all  of 
which  were  either  secret  or  ]^atented.  The  irrigation  processes,  on 
the  contrary,  were  unprotected  by  patents,  and  in  the  fierce  commer- 


EEPORT    OF    THE    SEWAGE    QF   TOWNS    COMMISSION.  235 

cial  competition  which  ensued  many  statements  in  regard  to  their 
utility  passed  current  for  a  time,  which  are  not  substantiated  in  the 
light  of  later  experience. 

Keport  of  the  Sewage  of  Towns  Commission. 

Questions  in  relation  to  the  benefits  which  may  be  derived  from 
properly  conducted  sewage  irrigation  were  probably  more  thoroughly 
discussed  in  the  three  reports  of  the  Sewage  of  Towns  Commission 
than  in  any  other  place.*  This  Commission,  as  originally  constituted, 
consisted  of  the  Earl  of  Essex,  Henry  Ker  Seymer,  Eobert  Rawlinson, 
Professor  Way,  J.  B.  Lawes,  Dr.  Southward  Smith,  John  Simon,  and 
Htnny  Austin.  Mr.  Brunell  was  also  appointed  on  the  Commission, 
but  was  subsequently  relieved  from  serving  on  request.  The  Commis- 
sion begin  in  their  first  report  by  giving  a  resume  of  the  more  salient 
questions  of  sewage  purification  of  the  day,  as  the  result  of  which  they 
state  that  they  have  arrived  at  the  following  conclusions  : 

1.  That  the  increasing  pollution  of  the  rivers  and  streams  of  the  country  is  an 
evil  of  national  importance,  which  urgently  demands  the  application  of  remedial 
measures  ;  that  the  discharge  of  sewage  and  of  the  noxioivs  refuse  of  factories  into 
them,  is  a  source  of  nuisance  and  danger  to  health  ;  that  it  acts  injuriously  not 
only  on  the  locality  where  it  occurs,  but  also  on  the  population  of  the  districts 
through  which  the  polluted  rivers  flow  ;  that  it  poisons  the  water,  which  in  many 
cases  forms  the  sole  supply  of  the  po[)alation  for  all  purj^oses,  including  drinking  ; 
that  it  destroys  the  fish,  and  generally  that  it  impairs  the  value  and  the  natural 
advantages  derived  from  rivers  and  streams  of  water. 

2.  That  this  evil  has  largely  increased  with  the  growing  cleanliness  and  internal 
improvements  of  towns  as  regards  water-supply  and  drainage  ;  that  its  increase  will 
continue  to  be  iu  direct  proportion,  to  such  improvements;  and  that  as  these  im- 
provements are  yet  very  ])artial,  the  nuisance  of  sewage,  already  very  sensibly  felt, 
is  e.\tremely  slight  as  compared  to  what  it  will  become  when  sewage  and  drain- 
age works  have  been  carried  into  full  effect. 

3.  Tliat  in  many  towns  measures  for  improved  water-supply  and  drainage  are 
retarded,  from  the  difficulties  of  dis])osing  of  the  increased  sewage  which  results 
from  them  ;  that  the  law  wliicli  regulates  the  rights  of  outfall  is  in  an  anomalous 
and  undefined  condition  ;  that  judicial  decisions  of  a  confiicting  character  have 
been  arrived  at  in  diiferent  instances,  and  that  consequently  the  authorities  of 
towns  have  constantly  before  them  the  fear  of  harassing  litigation. 

■4.  That  the  methods  which  have  been  adopted  with  the  view  of  dealing  with 
sewage  are  of  two  kinds  :  the  one  bring  the  application  of  the  whole  .sewage  to 
land,  and  the  nthm-  that  of  treating  it  by  chemical  processes,  to  separate  its  most 
otlensive  portions  ;  tliat  tlie  direct  a])i)lication  of  sewage  to  land  favorably  situated, 
if  judiciously  carried  out  and  confined  to  a  suitable  area  exclu.sively  grass,  is  jirof- 
itabh^  to  ])ersons  so  employing  it  :  that  where  the  conditions  are  unfavorable,  a 
small  payment  on  the  ])art  of  the  local  authorities  will  restore  the  lialance. 

.").  Tliat  this  mt^thod  of  sewagi^  a]i])lication,  conducted  with  moderate  care,  is 
not  productive  of  nuisance  or  injury  to  health. 

G.  Tliat  when  circumstances  ])ievent  the  disjiosal  of  sewage  by  direct  application 
to  land,  the  processes  of  iireciiiitation  will  greatly  ameliorate,  and  inactically  ob- 
viate, the  evils  of  sewage  outfalls,  especially  where  there  are  large  rivers  for  the 
discharge  of  the  licpiid  ;  that  such  methods  of  treating  sewage  do  not  retain  more 

*  Ist,  :id,  and  M  Kepts.  Sew.  Towns  Com.,  ISoS-l 801 -18(15. 


236  SEWAGK    DISJ'OSAL    IN    'IIIK    IMTKl)    STATP:.S. 

tlian  a  small  portion  of  the  fertilizing  matter,  and  that  althou^yh  in  some  cases  the 
sale  of  the  manure  may  repay  the  cost  of  i^roduction,  they  are  not  likely  to  be  suc- 
cessful as  private  speculations. 

7.  That,  considered  merely  as  the  means  of  mitigating  the  nuisance,  these  pre- 
cipitating processes  are  satisfactory ;  that  the  cost  of  them  in  any  case  is  such  as 
town  iJ02)ulations  may  reasonably  be  called  upon  to  meet ;  that  the  necessary  works 
need  not,  if  properly  conducted,  be  a  source  of  nuisance  ;  and  that,  by  modifica- 
tions of  the  existing  methods,  even  the  slightest  risk  of  nuisance  may  be  entirely 
obviated. 

8.  That  the  employment  of  the  one  or  other  method  of  disposing  of  sewage,  or 
of  both  conjoined,  must  depend  upon  locality,  levels,  markets,  and  a  variety  of 
other  circumstances,  and  that  the  case  of  each  town  must  be  considered  ui^ou  its 
own  peculiarities. 

9.  That  there  is  good  ground  for  believing  that  the  methods  yet  proi^osed  for 
dealing  with  sewage  are  not  the  best  that  can  be  devised,  and  that  further  investi- 
gation will  probably  result  in  the  discovery  of  jjrocesses  more  thoroughly  equal  to 
the  suppression  of  the  nuisance,  and  at  the  same  time  calculated  to  give  more  val- 
uable products. 

10.  That  the  magnitude  of  a  town  presents  no  real  difficulty  to  the  effectual 
treatment  of  its  sewage,  provided  it  be  considered  as  a  collection  of  smaller  towns. 

In  their  second  Eeport  the  Sewag-e  of  Towns  Commission  state 
that  a  committee  of  members  of  the  Commission  personal!}'  visited 
and  examined  a  number  of  rivers  and  streams  which  are  rej)orted  as 
seriousl}'^  polluted.  They  also  state  the  result  of  examining-  various 
chemical  processes  of  purification,  tog-ether  with  statement  in  detail  of 
the  results,  to  the  date  of  the  second  Rejoort,  of  the  series  of  experi- 
ments carried  out  by  J.  B.  Lawes  at  liugby,  by  order  of  the  Commis- 
sion. 

The  object  of  these  experiments  is  stated  as  being  to  determine  so 
far  as  possible  : 

1.  The  amount  and  composition  of  the  produce  in  relation  to  the  volume  of 
•water  supjilied  to  the  land  by  irrigation,  to  the  amount  of  manurial  constituents 
so  aj^plied,  and  to  the  jiojjulation  contributing  the  manurial  constituents  of  the 
water. 

2.  The  most  jn-ofitable  method  of  applying  the  produce,  that  is,  whether  it  should 
be  used  in  the  green  state  or  as  hay  ;  whether  for  the  i)roduction  of  milk  or  as 
meat ;  and  whether  it  should  be  consumed  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  other  food. 

For  the  purpose  of  the  experiments,  two  fields  of  five  acres  and  ten 
acres  area,  respectively,  were  selected,  and  each  divided  into  four 
equal  parts.     The  four  jilots  of  each  field  were  treated  as  follows : 

Plot  1,  Avithout  sewag-e;  Plot  2,  with  3,000;  Plot  3,  with  6,000;  and 
Plot  4,  with  9,000  (long)  tons  of  sewage  per  acre  per  annum. 

In  Tables  Xos.  54  and  55  are  given  some  of  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ments on  the  two  fields.  Table  No.  54  shows  the  amount  of  grass 
raised  on  each  of  the  four  j^lots  for  the  j^ears  1861-18G3.  Table  No. 
55  is  self-explanatory.  Table  56  gives  the  results  of  a  series  of  experi- 
ments in  feeding-  sewage  grass  to  milch  cows.  The  fig-ures  in  Table 
54  have  been  reduced,  from  long  tons,  hundredweight,  quarters,  and 
pounds,  to  an  equivalent  in  pounds,  for  convenience. 


REPORT    OF   THE   SEWAGE    OF    TUWXS    COMMISSION. 


287 


Table  No.  54.  —  Results  of  Three  Years'  Experiments  at  the  Skw age-Farm 

IN  Rugby,  England. 


Five-acre  field. 

Ten-acre  field. 

Year. 

Without 
sewage. 

With  sewage. 

Without 
sewage. 

With  sewage. 

Lotl 

Lot  2 

Lots 

Lot  4 

Lotl 

Lot  2 

Lots 

Lot  4 

1861 

1862  . 

20,814 
18,294 
11,069 

.33,244 
62,514 
49,851 

60.602 
77,299 
78,231 

7.3,564 
71,766 
80,941 

19,951 
36,985 
18.023 

35,478 
61.732 
56,596 

51,268 

51,028 
71,946 
68,500 

65,8i5 

59.792 

70  8;32 

1863 

78,337 

Average 

16,725 

48,5:^6 

72,044 

76,424 

24.986 

69,654 

Table  No.  55.- 


Per  Cent,  of  Dry  Substance  in  Crops  Raised  on  Experimen- 
tal Fields. 


Five-acre  field. 

Ten-acre  field. 

Number  of  crop. 

Without 
sewage. 

With  sewage. 

Without 
sewage. 

With  sewage. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1 

2 

3 

4 

1861. 

1 

27.9 
24.4 

.30.5 
19.8 
13.4 

26.9 
14.2 
13.7 
15.4 

2T.7  : 

13.3 

12.9 

9.6 

15.9 

i 

15.3 
19.4     , 
14.2     j 

22.0 
26.9 

23.3 
17.1 
12.6 
16.9 

17.5 

19.5 
16.2 
14.5 

21.4 
15.1 
7.3 
15.1 

18.4 
16.1 
14.4 
17.8 

2 

3 

4 ..     .. 

Mean 

26  2 

26.7 
22.  S 

21.8 

22.8 
14.3 
18.2 

17.6 

14.4 
16.4 
12.9 

24.5 

26.9 
17.9 

.... 

14.7 

13.5 
19.0 
14.4 
33.8 

15.6 

20.0 
16.3 
14.6 
13.9 

16.2 

16.7 

Vi  \ 

1862. 

1 

2 

3 

16.7 
15.8 
33.8 

4 

Mean 

24.8 

36.1 
34.4 

18.4 

21.5 
18  5 
17.7 
15.8 

18.4 

14.6 

17.6 
14.9 
10.9 
13.0 

16.3 

16.3 
.   17.8 
17.6 
12.3 
15.3 

22.4 

398 
18.2 

16.4 

18.6 
17.7 
12.4 

15.2 
14  6 

1863. 

1 

2 

18  8 

3 

15.8 
13.6 

4 

5 

35.3 

14.1 

15.9 

29.0 

16.2 

15.6 

In  tlie  third  report  the  discussion  of  these  experiments  is  con- 
tinned,  und  the  Commission  o-ives  in  dftail  the  results  obtained  from 
definite  areas  treated,  under  th(>  followinir  heads  : 

1.  Quantities  of  sowap;c  applied  and  of  green  produce  obtained. 

2.  Experiments  witli  Italian  rve-grass. 

3.  Experiments  with  fattening  oxen. 

4.  Experiments  witli  milking  cows. 

5.  Composition  of  the  lUigln-  sewage  water. 

6.  Estimated  composition  of  ^letropolitan  sewage. 

7.  Composition  of  the  Kugby  drainage  water.     (Effluent.) 


238 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  56. — Results  op  Feeding  Unsewagkd  and  Sewaged  Gbass  to  Milch 

Cows. 

(Parts  per  100.) 


Cows  fed  on 

grass  alone. 

Cows  fed  on  grass  and  oil- 
cake. 

Un.sewaged, 

mean  of 
nine  samples. 

Sewaged, 

mean  of 

ten  Bamples. 

Unsewaged, 

mean  of 
four  samples. 

Sewaged, 

mean  of 

four  samples. 

3.246 
3.604 
4.405 
0.153 

3.241 
3.430 
4.218 
0  776 

3.352 
3.657 
4.561 
0.740 

3.423 

Butter 

3.707 

4.689 

0.771 

Total  solids 

12.008 
87.992 

11.665 
88.335 

12. .310 
87.690 

12  050 

Water 

87  950 

Total 

100. 

100. 

100. 

100. 

8.  Composition  of  the  unsewaged  and  sewaged  grass. 

9.  Effects  of  sewage  on  the  mixed  herbage  of  grass-land  in  developing  the  more 
freely  growing  at  the  exj^euse  of  the  less  freely  growing  plants. 

10.  Composition  of  the  milk  yielded  from  the  unsewaged  and  sewaged  grass. 

11.  Experiments  of  the  application  of  sewage  to  oats  in  1863. 

12.  Miscellaneous  results  obtained  in  1864. 

All  the  questions  formally  enumerated  in  the  foregoing-  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  Report  in  detail,  finally  folloAved  by  a  summary  in  which 
the  main  points  in  the  discussion  are  saliently  presented.  The  report 
as  a  whole  furnishes  the  most  complete  information  on  the  subject 
treated  that  has  thus  far  been  given.  The  more  useful  jjortions  of  the 
summary  are  as  follows : 

1.  As  there  is  a  daily  supply  of  sewage  the  year  round,  which,  on  sanitary  and 
engineering  grounds,  it  is  essential  to  dispose  of  as  soon  as  it  is  j^roduced,  and  as 
passing  it  over  land  is  the  best  mode  both  of  purifying  and  utilizing  it,  it  should 
be  employed  for  purposes  of  irrigation,  and  be  ajiplied  in  winter,  when  of  compar- 
atively little  value,  as  well  as  in  summer,  when  of  more. 


KESULTS     OBTAINED   ON   THE    APPLICATION     OF    SEWAGE 

GBASS. 


TO    MEADOW   AND   ITALIAN    ETE- 


2.  By  the  application  of  sewage  to  grass  land  during  the  winter  months  a  very 
early  cut  or  bite  of  green  food  may  be  obtained,  but  the  amount  of  increased  pro- 
duce due  to  the  winter  aiJijlication  is  comparatively  small  for  the  amount  of  sewage 
employed. 

3.  By  means  of  sewage  irrigation  the  ]")eriod  during  which  an  abundance  of  green 
food  was  available  was  extended  con.sideral)ly  at  the  end  as  well  as  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  season,  and  the  more  so  the  larger  the  quantity  of  sewage  ajiplied,  al- 
most up  to  the  highest  amount  employed — namely,  9,000  tons  per  acre.* 

4.  One  of  the  experimental  fields  gave  much  less  produce  per  acre  without  sew- 
age than  the  other,  and  analysis  showed  its  soil  to  be  much  less  naturally  fertile; 
but  it  gave  fully  as  much  ]iroduce  per  acre  under  the  influence  of  liberal  dressings 
of  sewage  as  the  naturally  much  more  fertile  soil. 

*  It  will  be  understood  that  in  this  quotation  long  tons  (;i,240  pounds)  are  meant. 


REPORT    OF    THE    SEWAGE    OF   TOWNS    COMMISSION.  239 

5.  Taking  the  average  over  three  years,  and  iu  the  two  tield.s,  the  amount  of  pro- 
duce obtained  without  sewage  was  about  9^  tons  of  green  grass  per  acre  per 
annum,  equal  about  3  tons  of  hay  ;  and  with  3,000,  6,000,  and  9,000  tons  of  sewage 
per  annum  the  amounts  were,  respectively,  about  22^,  30^^,  and  32^  tons  of  green 
grass — equal  respectively  (reckoned  according  to  the  percentage  of  dry  substance 
in  each)  about  5,  5|,  and  6i  tons  of  hay. 

6.  Tiie  largest  quantities  of  produce  per  acre  were  obtained  iu  the  third  year  of 
the  experiments,  and  with  9,000  tons  of  sewage  per  acre  per  annum  ;  namely,  in  one 
field  35  tons,  and  in  the  other  37  tons  of  green  grass,  equal  respectively  about  6 
tons  12f  cwts.,  and  7  tons  1  cwt.  of  hay. 

7.  The  average  increase  obtained  for  each  1,000  tons  of  sewage  was — when  3,000 
tons  i^er  acre  per  annum  were  applied,  about  5  tons  of  green  grass ;  when  6,000  tons 
were  applied,  -i  tons  2i  cwts. ;  and  when  9,000  tons  were  aiJiJlied,  3  tons  3^  cwts.  of 
green  grass. 

8.  The  amount  of  produce  per  acre  was  the  greater,  the  greater  the  quantity  of 
sewage  applied,  up  to  9,000  tons  per  acre  ;  but  the  amount  on  increase  of  produce 
obtained  for  a  given  amount  of  sewage  was  the  less  where  the  gi'eater  amounts  were 
applied. 

9.  Experiments  with  rye-grass  were  made  in  one  season  only,  sewage  was  not  ap- 
plied until  the  end  of  April,  and  comparatively  small  quantities  were  put  on.  The 
results  so  obtained  indicated  much  about  the  same  amount  of  increase  of  produce 
for  a  given  amount  of  sewage  as  with  meadow  grass. 

RESULTS  OBTAINED  WITH  FATTENING  OXEN. 

10.  When  cut  and  given  to  fattening  oxen  tied  \\p  under  cover,  more  sewaged 
than  unsewaged  grass,  reckoned  in  the  fresh  or  green  state,  was  both  consumed  by  a 
given  weight  of  animal  within  a  given  time,  and  required  to  produce  a  given  weight 
of  increase  ;  but,  of  real  dry  or  solid  substance,  less  of  that  of  the  sewaged  than  of 
the  unsewaged  grass  was  required  to  produce  a  given  eftect. 

11.  Wlien  cut  grass  was  given  alone  the  result  was  very  unsatisfactory  ;  but  when 
oilcake  was  given  in  adtlition  the  amount  of  increase  upon  a  given  weight  of  animal 
within  a  given  time,  and  for  a  given  amount  of  dry  substance  of  food  consumed, 
was  not  far  short  of  the  average  result  obtained  when  oxen  are  fed  under  cover 
on  a  good  mixed  diet. 

12.  The  money  return,  whether  reckoned  jaer  acre  or  for  a  given  amount  of  sew- 
age, was  much  less  with  fattening  oxen  than  with  milking  cows. 

RESULTS   OUTAIXED    WITH    MILKING    COWS. 

13.  When  cows  were  fed  on  unsewaged,  or  sewaged  grass,  as  much  as  they  chose 
to  eat,  a  given  weiglit  of  the  animal  was  more  productive,  l)oth  of  milk  and  in- 
crease, but  especially  of  milk,  on  the  unsewaged  than  on  the  sewaged  grass. 

14.  From  a  given  weight  of  unsewaged  grass,  reckoned  in  the  fresh  or  green 
state,  more  milk  was  produced  than  from  an  ecjual  weight  of  fresh  sewaged  grass  ; 
but  a  given  weight  of  the  dry  or  solid  substance  sui)plied  in  sewaged  grass  was  on 
the  average  more  productive  than  an  equal  weight  supplied  in  un.sewaged  grass. 

l.j.  Tii(i  milk-])i'')(liu'ing  quality  of  the  grass  was  very  different  in  difterent 
season-,  and  at  dirt'erent  j)eri()ds  of  the  same  season.  It  was  very  inferior  in  the 
wet  and  cold  seasons  of  18(52,  and  toward  the  clo.se  of  the  seasons  as  compared 
with  the  earlier  jx-riods.  It  appears  i)robable  that  Italian  rye-grass  deteriorates 
less  toward  tiie  end  of  a  season  than  meadow  grass.  On  the  average,  about  six 
parts  by  weight  of  fresh  grass  yielded  one  ])art  by  weight  of  milk. 

16.  By  the  aid  of  sewage,  the  time  that  an  acre  would  keep  a  cow,  and  the 
amount  of  milk  yielded  from  the  produce  of  an  acre,  were  increased  between  three- 
and  four-fold. 

17.  So  far  as  the  results  of  the  experiments  afford  the  means  of  judging,  it  is 
estimated   that  with  an  application  of  about  5,000  tons  of  sewage  per  acre  per 


240  sp:\vagk  disposal  in  the  united  states. 

annum  to  meadow  land,  an  average  gross  produce  of  not  less  than  1,000  gallons  of 
milk  per  acre  per  annum  may  be  expected. 

18.  In  experiments  conducted  with  Italian  rye-grass  (but  in  one  season  only), 
more  milk  was  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  given  amount  of  sewage  applied  to  it  than 
meadow  grass. 

19.  With  an  application  of  about  5,000  tons  of  sewage  per  acre  per  annum,  an 
average  gross  return  of  from  306  to  356  per  acre,  in  milk  at  8d.  per  gallon,  may  be 
anticipated. 

COMPOSITION   OF   THE   KUGBY   SEWAGE. 

20.  The  mean  of  93  analyses,  of  as  many  samples,  of  the  Eugby  sewage,  collected 
over  a  period  of  31  months,  shows  6i  grains  of  ammonia,  and  87*  grains  of  total 
solid  matter,  per  gallon  ;  equal  to  207f  lbs.  of  total  solid  matter  per  1,000  tons. 
Or,  taking  the  mean  of  the  average  composition  fixed  by  the  analyses  for  each  of 
the  31  mouths,  instead  of  the  direct  mean  of  the  total  93  analyses,  the  average  con- 
tents would  be  almost  exactly  7  grains  of  ammonia,  and  92^  grains  of  total  solid 
matter  per  gallon  ;  equal  to  224  lbs.  or  2  cwts.  of  ammonia,  and  2,960  lbs.,  or  about 
26i  cwts.  of  total  solid  matter,  per  1,000  tons. 

21.  Although  each  sample  analyzed  was  the  mixture  of  portions  taken  every  two 
or  three  hours  for  several  days  together,  the  variation  in  composition  at  diflerent 
times  was  very  great  ;  the  amount  of  ammonia  varying  in  the  diflerent  mixed  sam- 
ples from  2Jr  to  about  15i  grains  per  gallon,  or  from  81ii  to  500^  lbs.  per  1,000  tons, 
whilst  the  total  solid  matter  varied  from  about  37^  to  about  270  grains  per  gallon, 
or  from  1,203  to  8,637  lbs.  per  1,000  tons. 

22.  1.000  tons  of  the  average  sewage  of  Eugby  represent  the  excretal  and  other 
matters  of  from  17  to  18  average  individuals  of  a  mixed  poimlation  of  both  sexes 
and  all  ages  for  a  year,  and  contain  ammonia  equal  to  that  in  from  11  to  12  cwts.  of 
Peruvian"  guano  ;  or  about  1,700  tons  of  such  sewage  would  contain  nitrogen  reck- 
oned as  ammonia  equal  to  tliat  in  1  ton  of  Peruvian  guano. 

23.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  at  Eugby,  including  rainfall,  etc.,  on  the  aver- 
age from  55  to  60  tons  of  sewage  per  head  of  the  population  per  annum. 

24.  Judging  from  the  average  composition  of  the  Eugliy  sewage  and  of  various 
crops,  it  is  concluded  that  potash  would  be  more  likely  than  phosphoric  acid  to  be- 
come deficient  where  town  sewage  was  applied  constantly  to  grass  land,  while  phos- 
phoric acid  would  be  more  likely  to  become  deficient  than  potash  if  it  were  ai^plied 
to  the  ordinary  crops  of  rotation. 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION   OF   THE   GRASS. 

35.  The  sewaged  meadow  grass,  as  cut  and  given  to  the  animals,  contained  a  less 
proportion  of  dry  or  solid  substance  than  the  unsewaged  ;  and  the  grass  cut  during 
the  later  portions  of  the  season  (both  unsewaged  and  sewaged)  contained  less  solid 
matter  than  that  cut  during  the  more  genial  periods  of  growth. 

36.  Italian  rye  grass,  in  the  condition  as  cut,  was  also  found  to  be  more  succu- 
lent and  to  contain  less  solid  matter  when  grown  with  sewage  than  without  it ;  but 
the  proportion  of  dry  substance  diminished  less  as  the  season  advanced  in  its  case 
than  in  that  of  the  meadow  grass. 

37.  The  proportion  of  nitrogenous  substance  (and  also  of  impure  waxy  or  fatty 
matter)  was  much  greater  in  the  solid  matter  of  the  sewaged  than  in  that  of  the 
unsewaged  grass.  The  ])roi)ortion  of  nitrogenous  substance  was  also  much  higher 
in  the  solid  matter  of  the  grass  grown  toward  the  end  than  earlier  in  the  .season. 
The  proportion  of  indigestible  woody  fiV)re  Mas  much  about  the  same  in  the  dry 
substance  of  the  unsewaged  and  of  the  sewaged  grass.  It  progressively  diminished 
as  the  season  advanced,  and  was  generally  lower  in  the  dry  substance  of  the  Italian 
rye  than  in  that  of  the  meadow  grass. 

"  38.   A  given  amount  of  the  dry   substance  of  grass  grown  in  a  cold  and  wet  sea- 
son, or  during  the  cold  and  wet  periods  of  the  year,  generally  contains  more  nitroge- 


REPOKT    OF    THE    SEWAGE    OF   TOWNS    COMMISSION.  241 

nous  substance,  but  is  less  productive  than  that  of  grass  grown  in  more  genial 
weather. 

39.  The  greater  productiveness  in  milk  and  increase  of  a  given  amount  of  the 
solid  matter  of  the  sewaged  grass  appears  to  depend  more  on  a  favorable  condition 
of  maturation,  digestibility,  and  assimilability  of  the  constituents  than  on  the 
actual  jjercentage  amount  of  any  of  those  determined  and  above  enumerated. 

EFFECTS   OF   SEWAGE   ON   THE   MIXED   HERBAGE   OF   GF.ASS   LAND. 

40.  The  effect  of  sewage  irrigation  on  the  mixed  herbage  of  grass  land  is  to  de- 
velop the  graminaceous  plants  chiefly,  nearly  to  exclude  the  leguminous,  and  to 
reduce  the  prevalence  of  miscellaneous  or  weedy  plants,  but  much  to  encourage  in- 
dividual species. 

41.  Among  the  grasses  which  have  been  observed  to  be  the  most  encouraged  by 
sewage  ai'e  (according  to  locality  or  other  circumstances)  rough  meadow  grass, 
<;ouch  grass,  rough  cock's  foot,  woolly  soft  grass,  and  perennial  rye  grass  ;  two  or 
three  only  remaining  in  any  considerable  proportion  after  sewage  has  been  liberally 
applied  for  some  years. 

42.  The  jiroduce  of  sinvagp-irrigated  meadows  being  generally  cut  or  grazed  very 
young,  the  tendency  which  the  great  luxuriance  of  a  few  very  free-growing  grasses 
has  to  give  a  coarse  and  stemmy  later  growth  is  not  an  objection,  as  in  the  case  of 
meadows  left  for  hay  ;  a  given  weight  of  the  dry  or  solid  substance  of  the  more 
simple  .sewaged  grass  being,  wlien  consumed  green,  more  iiroductive  than  an  equal 
weight  of  that  of  the  more  complex  unsewaged  herbage. 

COMPOSITION   OF   THE   JIILK    FKOM   THE   UNSEWAGED   AND   THE   SEWAGED   GRASS. 

43.  Although  more  milk  was  obtained  from  a  given  weight  of  the  dry  or  solid  sub- 
stance of  sewaged  tlum  of  unsewaged  grass,  there  was  comparatively  little  difference 
in  tlie  comijosition  or  richness  of  tlie  milk  from  the  two  kinds  of  grass.  That  from 
the  sewaged  grass  was.  liowever,  slightly  tlie  less  rich,  containing  somewhat  less  of 
oasein,  butter,  sugar,  and  total  solid  matter  (though  more  mineral  matter)  than 
that  from  the  unsewaged. 

44.  When  oil-cake  was  given  with  the  grass  (whether  sewaged  or  unsewaged),  the 
richness  of  the  milk  was  notably  increased. 

KESULT.S    OBT.VIXED   ON   THE   APPLICATION   OF   SEW.\GE   TO   0.\TS. 

45.  In  an  experiment  with  oats,  in  which  135^  tons  of  sewage  were  applied  per 
acre,  the  gross  value  of  the  increased  produce  amounted  to  more  than  5d.  per  ton 
of  the  sewage  employed,  or  to  about  three  times  the  market  value  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  sewage,  sujjposing  them  to  have  been  extracted  and  dried  ;  and  in 
another  experiment,  in  whicli  510  tons  were  applied  \iev  acre,  the  gross  value  of  the 
increased  produce  amounted  to  about  1^'/.  ]>or  ton  of  the  sewage  emjjloyed. 

46.  In  the  experiment  witli  the  small(>r  rpiantity  of  sewage  the  supply  of  water 
was  equivalent  to  something  under  an  additional  1^  inch  of  rain  at  the  critical 
period  of  growth,  and  in  that  with  the  larger  amount  to  about  5  inches,  whicli 
proved  to  be  a  gieat  excess  at  the  period  of  the  .season  at  which  it  was  applied, 
there  being  an  ov(>r-i)roduction  of  straw,  and  the  crop  being  much  laid.  Both  ex- 
])eriiiients  were  made  in  the  unusually  productive  season  of  1»S()3,  and  with  sewage 
of  ai)Out  double  tlie  average  strength  of  that  of  tlie  Metroi)olis.  which  was  apj)lied 
during  a  ))eriod  of  very  dry  weatlier.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  the  results  were 
quite  exceptional,  and  cannot  be  taken  as  indicating  what  might  be  ex]iected  from 
tiie  a])plication  of  small  quantities  of  sewage  to  corn  crops  on  different  soils  and 
on  tlie  averagf!  of  seasons. 

47.  It  is  probable  that  500  tons  of  sewage  per  acre  is  more  than  would  be  appro- 
priate to  arable  land  otherwi.se  treated  in  the  ordinaiT  way,  taking  the  average  of 
soils  and  seasons  ;  and  it  is  certainly  more  than  would  be  appropriate  for  lieavy 
lauds  and  for  wet  seasons. 

IG 


242  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    r:NITED    STATES. 


GENERAL   CONCLTTSIOKS. 

48.  To  obtain  a  maximum  amount  and  gross  value  of  produce  from  a  given 
amount  of  sewage,  it  sliould  be  applied  in  small  quantities  ])er  acre  and  in  dry 
weather  ;  but  the  great  dilution  of  town  sewage,  its  large  daily  sujjply  at  all  sea- 
sous,  and  its  greater  amount  in  wet  weather,  when  the  land  can  least  bear,  or  least 
requires,  more  water,  render  it  quite  inappropriate  for  application  on  a  compre- 
hensive scale  to  arable  land  for  corn  and  other  ordinary  rotation  crops. 

49.  Supposing  arrangements  were  made  for  distributing  sewage  over  a  sufli- 
ciently  large  area  to  command  a  full  value,  both  as  manure  and  as  water,  at  the  most 
favorable  jieriods  of  the  year,  the  cost  of  main  distribution  Vvould  be  very  great ;  the 
application  to  the  arable  land  would  require  to  be  chiefly  by  the  exjiensive  means 
of  piping  and  hose  and  jet,  instead  of  open  runs,  and  but  a  small  proportion  of  the 
total  sewage  could  be  so  used,  leaving  the  remainder  to  be  ajiplied  in  large  quanti- 
ties to  grass  land,  at  the  less  favorable  periods  of  the  year,  and  of  course  to  real- 
ize a  much  lower  value. 

50.  Having  regard  to  the  cost  of  distribution,  it  is  i>robable  that  the  most  profit- 
able mode  of  utilization  would  be  to  limit  the  area  by  sijecially  adai:)ting  the 
arrangements  for  the  apjjlication  of  the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  to  permanent 
or  other  grasses  laid  down  to  take  it  the  year  round,  trusting  to  the  occasional  use 
to  other  ciops  within  easy  reach  of  the  line  or  area  so  commanded,  but  relying 
mainly  on  the  periodically  broken  up  rye-grass  land  and  on  the  application  to 
arable  land  of  the  solid  manure  resulting  from  the  consumption  of  the  sewaged 
grass  for  obtaining  other  produce  than  milk  and  meat  by  means  of  sewage. 

51.  It  is  probable  tluxt  about  5,000  tons  of  sewage  per  acre,  judiciously  applied 
to  grass  laud  properly  laid  down  to  receive  it,  would,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases, 
secure  the  most  profitable  utilization. 

52.  Supposing  an  application  of  5,000  tons  of  sewage  per  acre  per  annum  to 
grass  land,  the  purification  of  the  water  would  doubtless  be  sufficient  to  admit  of 
the  drainage  being  turned  into  the  rivers  without  fear  of  detriment  to  fish  ;  while 
any  streams  receiving  such  drainage,  instead  of  that  direct  from  the  towns,  would 
at  any  rate  be  vastly  improved  from  their  previous  condition  as  a  water-sup])ly  : 
but  whether  the  purification  would  be  sufficient  with  such  an  application  is  a 
question  which  requires  further  experience  and  investigation  to  answer  satisfac- 
torily, and  which  will  probably  receive  a  different  answer  in  different  cases. 

53.  Assuming  that  the  average  dilution  of  the  Metropolitan  sewage,  including 
rainfall  and  subsoil  water,  will  amount  to  100  tons  per  annum,  5,000  tons  would 
represent  the  excreta!  and  other  matters  of  50  average  individuals  ;  and  a  popula- 
tion of  3,000,000  would  require  about  60,000  acres  constantly  under  irrigation. 

54.  The  only  records  of  exact  quantitative  results  obtained  on  the  application  of 
town  sewage  to  corn  crops  are  those  of  the  exjieiiments  of  the  Earl  of  Essex  on 
wheat,  and  those  of  the  experiments  with  oats  at  Eugby,  given  in  this  Eeport,  and 
in  both  cases  the  increase  of  produce  represented  a  very  high  gross  money  return 
per  ton  of  sewage  emjiloyed.  The  circumstances  of  the  ex]jeriments  at  Eugby 
were,  however,  quite  exceptional ;  and,  where  the  most  extensive  trials  of  the  appli- 
cation of  sewage  to  corn  cro]is  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  profit — namely,  afc 
Watford,  Eugby,  and  Alnwick — the  practice  has  been  abandoned  ;  while  neither  at 
Edinburgh,  nor  Croydon,  where  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  with  gi-ass, 
does  the  apijlicatioii  to  corn  and  other  rotation  crops  constitute  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral system  adopted. 

55.  Judging  both  from  the  results  of  the  experiments,  and  from  the  experience 
of  common  practice,  it  is  considered  that  the  most  profitable  utilization  of  town 
sewage  will  in  most  cases  be  attained  by  the  application  of  about  5,000  tons  per 
acre  "to  meadow  or  Italian  rye  grass,  but  that  the  farmer  would  not  pay  fr/.,  and 
probably  not  id.,  per  ton,  the  year  round,  for  sewage  of  the  average  strength  of 
that  of  the  Metropolis  (excluding  storm  water),  delivered  on  his  land. 

The  experiments  of  the  Sewag-e  of  Towns  Commission  indicate 
varying-  amounts  of  sewag-e  as  applicable  to  different  crops,  the  quan- 


THE    ROYAL    AGRICULTtTRAL    SOCIETY.  24?3 

tity  necessary  for  efficient  results  ranging-  from  less  tlian  500  gross 
tons  per  acre  per  annum  on  heavy  laud,  in  wet  seasons,  to  about  9,000 
tons  per  acre  on  grass  lands.  Assuming,  for  American  conditions,  a 
daily  average  of  80  U.  S.  gallons  ^er  head,  the  sewage  of  each  person 
amounts  to  97  gross  tons  per  annum  ;  whence  we  derive  that  the 
api^lication  per  acre  pev  annum  will,  according  to  the  Sewage  of 
Towns  Commission,  vary  from  the  sewage  of  5  persons  to  93.  If  we 
include  some  additional  sewage  which  the  land  may  be  made  to  clarify 
without  reference  to  the  results  of  cropping,  we  may  take  from  50  to 
150  persons  per  acre  as  the  average  for  the  whole  year,  though  the 
quality  of  the  soil  and  the  amount  of  dilution  of  the  sewage  will  both 
influence  the  result.  With  unfavorable  soils  and  a  large  dilution,  50 
persons  per  acre  will  be  sufficient ;  while,  with  favorable  soils  and  a 
concentrated  sewage,  we  may  go  as  high  as  from  150  to  200  persons  to 
the  acre.  The  pro^^er  solution  in  each  case  will  depend  entirely  upon 
the  local  conditions.  * 


The  Koyal  Agricultural  Society's  Sewage  Farm  Competition. 

In  1879  the  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  offered  two  prizes 
each  of  the  value  of  £100  for  the  best-managed  sewage  farms  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales.f  Messrs.  Baldwin  Latham,  Clare  Sewell  Read,  and 
Thos.  H.  Thurslield  were  designated  as  the  judges  to  make  the  award. 

In  the  first  class  the  following  sewage  farms  were  entered :  Alder- 
shot,  Bedford,  Guisborough,  and  Wrexham ;  in  the  second  class, 
Birmingham,  Croydon,  Doncaster,  Reading,  and  Leamington.  The 
report  of  the  judges  contains  full  information  in  regard  to  the  area, 
cost  of  operation,  i^opulation  contributing  sewage,  and  various  other 
items  necessary  to  a  full  understanding  of  the  relative  efficiency  of 
the  several  different  farms.  A  tabulation  is  also  given  of  the  chief 
physic;al  properties  of  the  soils  of  the  different  farms,  the  whole  fol- 
lowed by  a  statement  in  detail  in  regard  to  kind  of  crops,  acreage,  and 
various  other  items  for  each  competing  farm.  Many  of  these  tabula- 
lations  are  of  great  interest  and  value,  but  their  length  precludes  in- 
troducing them  here. 

In  class  1  the  jiidges  decided  that  the  sewage  farm  of  the  Corpora- 
tion of  Bedford  and  that  of  Wrexham  were  equal  in  merit.  The  first 
prize  was  therefore  adjudicated  to  them  jointly. 

*  In  the  19th  An.  Rcpt.  Mass.  St.  B<1.  Health  (1888)  it  is  stated,  p.  ;^8,  that,  on  an  ordinary  farm 
in  Mass.,  2,500  gals,  per  acre  per  day  are  as  much  as  could  be  applied  to  any  valuable  grass  crop, 
and  there  would  be  rerpiired  400  acres  of  irrigation  ground  for  each  1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage; 
from  which  it  in  concluded  that  irrigation  alone  cannot  be  depended  upon  in  the  more  thickly 
settled  portions  of  that  State  for  j)reventing  the  pollution  of  streams. 

tSee  Kept.,  in  vol.  xvi..  Sec.  Ser.  (1880),  pp.  1-80. 


244 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


In  class  2  the  prize  was  awarded  to  tlie  Leamiugtou  sewage  farm. 
Tlie  judges,  however,  say  they  are  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  a 
second  prize  should  be  awarded  in  this  class  to  the  Doncaster  sewage 
farm,  which  they  deem  an  admirable  example  of  thrifty  management, 
also  showing  how  sewage  can  be  applied  in  general  farming.  A  study 
of  this  report  will  be  of  use  to  any  one  interested  in  sewage  farming. 
In  regard  to  the  crops  raised,  the  rejjort  shows  that  almost  any  crop 
which  can  be  raised  in  ordinary  farming  in  England  can  be  cultivated 
on  proi^erlj^  managed  sewage  farms  with  good  effect.  At  the  Leam- 
ington farm,  cropping  for  1879,  and  the  area  into  each  crop  were  as 

follows : 

A.  K.  P. 


Italian  rye  grass, 49    0  37 

Seeds,        16    2  23 

Pasture, 86    2  14 

Potatoes, 40  0 

Oats 18    0  5 

Mangolds, 23    3  34 

Carrots, 23  0 


A.  R.  P. 

Cabbage, 60  0 

Barley, 18    2  0 

Parsnips, 6    3  17 

Beans, 45    2  9 

Turnips, 23    3  24 

Wheat, 68    2  35 

Rhubarb, 02  0 

371     0  38 


The  following  details  in  regard  to  the  crops  raised  at  Leamington 
in  1879  are  also  given  : 

Eye  grass. — This  crop  is  grown  both  for  sale  and  home  consumption.  It  is  not 
allowed  to  stand  longer  than  two  rears,  and  about  25  acres  are  sown  every  year — 
usually  in  the  autumn,  at  the  rate  of  three  bushels  of  seed  per  acre.  A  crop  sown 
in  September,  1877,  was  cut  eight  times  in  1878  and  twice  in  1879,  and  then 
ploughed  up  ;  the  land  was  pressed,  sewaged,  and  sown  on  the  flat  broadcast  on 
the  15th  of  June,  1879,  with  green-top  turnips  and  swedes,  which  looked  well  and 
promising  at  the  time  of  our  visit  in  August.  In  1878  the  cutting  of  rye  grass  com- 
menced on  the  2d  of  February.  In  1879  it  commenced  on  the  7th  of  Aiu-iJ,  having 
been  sown  in  September,  1878.  The  first  cutting  yielded  4  tons  per  acre  of  green 
grass;  the  second,  on  the  4th  of  June,  yielded  16  tons  of  grass  per  acre;  the 
third  cutting,  on  the  8th  of  July,  14  tons  o'f  grass  per  acre  ;  fourth  cutting,  on  the 
14th  of  August,  8  tons  ;  fifth  cutting,  on  the  12th  of  September,  6  tons  ;  sixth 
cutting,  on  the  6th  of  October,  5  tons  ;  seventh  cutting,  in  November,  2  tons 
per  acre.  A  field  of  rye  grass  was  seeded  as  an  experiment  with  10  lbs.  per 
acre  of  trifolium  ;  but  it'^did  not  answer.  Eye  grass  is  occasionally  made  into  hay  ; 
but  when  this  is  the  case,  it  is  carted  on  to  the  meadows  to  finish  the  drying  pro- 
cess. This  crop  receives  enoimous  dressings  of  sewage  during  the  period  of  its 
growth,  as  will  be  seen  on  reference  to  the  tables  showing  the  quantities  of  sewage 
that  have  been  applied  to  the  land. 

MASCJOiiDS.— This  is  a  crop  largely  grown  on  this  farm.  It  is  drilled  on  the  flat, 
the  drills  being  26  inches  distant,  and  the  plants  are  hoed  out  to  10  inches  distance 
in  the  rows.  Sewage  is  not  applied  to  the  crop  until  the  plants  begin  to  bulb. 
They  are  then  irrigated.  This  crop  in  1878  received  21  dressings  of  sewage  while 
under  cultivation,  or  8,265  tons  of  sewage  per  acre,  equivalent  to  an  irrigating 
depth  of  81.8  inches  of  water  in  addition  to  the  rainfall.  The  mangolds  of  1878, 
when  examined  in  the  spring  of  1879,  we  found  to  be  sound  and  good,  but  not 
equal  in  weight  and  bulk  to  tliose  grown  on  the  Eeading  sewage  farm.  One  field 
of  mangolds  was  poor  and  stunted  ;  but  on  the  higher  and  light  land  they  were  a 
capital  crop,  and  in  all  cases  were  clean,  and  the  i)]ants  regular  but  late. 

Cabbage. — Ordinary  cabbages  for  market  are  planted  on  the  level  in  rows  22 
inches  distant,  and  the  plants  are  17  inches  apai't  in  the  rows.  Savoys  are  planted 
in  a  similar  manner.     Drumhead  cabbages  are  also  planted  on  the  flat,  26  inches 


THE    KOYAL    AGRICULTURAL    SOCIETY.  245 

distant,  in  rows,  and  2-4  inches  from  jjlant  to  plant.  All  the  cabbages  are  irrigated 
during  the  period  of  growth,  and  in  1878  this  croj)  on  one  field  received  17  dress- 
ings of  sewage,  or  about  6,102  tons  per  acre,  equal  to  an  irrigating  depth  of  60.4 
inches. 

Parsnips. — This  croji  is  grown  on  the  level.  Six  lbs.  of  seed  per  acre  is  drilled  in 
rows  14  inches  distant,  and  hoed  out  to  six  inches  in  the  rows.  The  crop  is  not 
irrigated,  but  usually  succeeds  cabbage  or  the  second  year's  rye-grass,  which  has 
been  sewaged.     The  crop  was  clean,  and  promised  to  be  a  fair  one. 

Carkots. — These  are  drilled  in  rows  on  the  level,  at  14  inches  distance,  and  are 
hoed  out  to  from  4  inches  to  6  inches  in  the  rows.  Six  lbs.  of  seed  per  acre  are 
sown.  This  crop  was  not  good,  nor  was  it  looking  well,  although  it  was  clean.  It 
is  not  directly  irrigated  with  sewage,  but,  like  parsnips,  succeeds,  either  directly  or 
after  two  years,  a  crop  that  has  been  heavily  dressed  with  sewage. 

Potatoes. — The  varieties  grown  were  "  Myatt's  Early  Rose"  and  "Victoria." 
They  are  planted  in  drills  from  24  inches  to  26  inches  apart,  and  12  inches  from 
2)lant  to  plant  in  the  rows.  The  crop  of  1879  was  planted  on  the  9th  of  April,  and 
succeeded  rye-grass  that  had  been  cut  four  times  the  previous  year.  It  was  then 
sewaged,  broken  up,  and  sown  at  the  end  of  July  with  turnips,  which  were  fed  o& 
on  the  ground  with  sheep.  This  year  the  potato  crop  had  been  sold  at  the  time  of 
our  visit  in  August  at  £17  10s.  per  acre,  the  buyer  having  to  raise  the  crop  and  take 
all  risk.  Potatoes  are  not  directly  sewaged  during  the  period  of  their  growth,  and 
the  crop  of  1879  was  not  so  good  as  usual. 

llHCB.iRB. — At  Leamington,  as  on  most  sewage  farms,  this  is  one  of  the  ^lerma- 
nent  oops.  It  costs  about  £50  per  acre  to  purchase  roots,  prepare  the  ground,  and 
l^lant  out ;  and  the  crop  realizes  about  £40  per  acre  every  year.  The  roots,  how- 
ever, require  to  be  taken  up  every  three  years,  to  be  divided  and  rej^lanted  ;  they 
are  planted  30  inches  apart,  and  are  irrigated  with  sewage  during  the  period  of 
growth.  After  the  pulling  for  market  is  finished,  no  further  use  is  made  of  the 
crop.     The  purchaser  of  the  crop  pulls  and  markets  the  produce. 

Wheat. — A  large  acreage  of  this  crop  is  grown  on  the  farm,  but  as  a  rule  not 
under  the  influence  of  sewage.  Taking  the  fields  of  wheat  grown  during  1879,  we 
found  in  the  first  example  that  the  previous  crojis  had  been  bare  fallow  in  1878, 
wheat  in  1877,  beans  in  1876,  oats  in  1875,  wheat  in  1874,  beans  in  1873,  wheat  in 
1872,  permanent  pasture  and  mangolds  in  1871,  and  none  of  these  crops  were  irri- 
gated. The  second  example  was  immediately  preceded  by  barley  in  1878,  turnips 
in  1877,  wheat  in  1876,  beans  in  1875,  wheat  in    1874,  mangolds  in   1873,  wheat  in 

1872,  and  swedes  and  peas  in  1871.  The  turnip  crop  preceding  barley  was  irri- 
gated in  1877.  The  wheat  stubble  was  irrigated  in  1874  and  the  bastard  fallow  for 
wheat  in  1872.  The  third  example  was  immediately  preceded  by  beans  in  1878, 
and  before  that  by  grass  in  1877,  mangold,  cabbage,  etc.,  in  1876,  jiarsnips  and 
potatoes  and  carrots  in  1875,  parsuips  and  potatoes  in  1874,  wheat  in  1873,  Italian 
rye-grass  in  1872,  and  Italian  rye-grass  in  1871.  Mangolds  were  sewaged  in  1876, 
cabbages,  etc.,  in  1875,  bastard  fallow  was  sewaged  in  1874,  and  rye-grass  in  1872. 
The  wheat  croj)  of  the  present  year  was  sown  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre,  about  the  middle  of  October,  1878.  The  wheat  was  seeded  with  one  peck  of 
rye-grass,  10  lbs.  of  red  clover,  5  lbs.  of  trefoil  and  alsike  mixed.  The  plant 
looked  well,  especially  the  "  thick  set  "  or  square-headed  wheat,  which  promi.sed  a 
good  if  not  a  heavy  yield.     The  Browick  wheat  was  also  good. 

Oats.  — Oats  were  heavy  and  lodged.  Tlie  land  was  sown  on  the  22d  of  April  at 
the  rate  of  4  l)U3hels  of  seed  per  acre.  This  crop,  like  the  wheat,  is  not  directly 
irrigated.  This  year's  crop  succeeded  Italian  rye-grass,  which  had  been 
grown  on  the  farm  the  two  preceding  years,  and  had  been  heavily  dressed  with 
sewage. 

Beans. — The  winter  beans  were  drilled  on  the  23d  of  October,  1878,  and  were  a 
jxjor  plant.  The  spring  beans,  however,  drilled  on  the  10th  of  ^Nlarch,  1879,  were 
a  ca])ital  crop.  This  crop  is  not  directly  irrigated  with  sewage.  The  seed  is 
drilled  in  rows  at  intervals  of  15  inches,  and  3  bushels  ])er  acre  are  used.  The  jn-e- 
cediiig  crojisvarv  very  mncli  ;  fur  exam])l(>,  beans  in  1H79  were  ])receded  in  one  case 
by  wlieat  both  in  187H  and  1.S77.  clover  in  187(5,  oats  in  1875,  mangold  in  1874  and 

1873,  beans  in  1872,  and  oats  in  1871.     The  only  sewage  applied  to  these  crops  was 


246 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITP:D    STATES. 


to  the  mangold  in  1874.  Another  field  of  beans  in  1879  was  preceded  bv  wheat  in 
1878,  seeds  in  1877,  oats  in  1876,  mangolds  and  swedes  in  1875,  oats  in  1874,  wheat 
in  1873,  beans  in  1872,  and  wheat  in  1871.  The  only  sewage  applied  was  to  the 
mangolds  in  1875.  A  third  field  of  beans  in  1879  was  preceded  Viy  Italian  rye- 
grass in  1878  and  1877,  wheat  in  1876,  beans  in  1875,  grass  in  1874  and  187s,  wheat 
in  1872,  and  swedes  in  1871.  The  crop  was  irrigated  with  sewage  in  1878,  1877, 
1876,  1874,  1873,  and  in  1872. 

Baeley. — Barley  was  a  fair  standing  crojx  It  was  sown  at  the  rate  of  two 
bushels  per  acre  on  the  22d  of  April.  The  crop  is  not  irrigated  directly  with  sewage. 
Of  two  fields  of  this  crop  in  1879,  one  was  preceded  by  turnips  and  parsnips  in  1878 ; 
parsnips,  cabbage,  and  turnips  in  1877  ;  potatoes,  carrots,  etc.,  in  1876  ;  mangolds 
in  1875;  Italian  rye-grass  in  1874  and  1873;  barley  in  1872;  and  swedes  in  1871. 
Of  the  above  crops  the  cabbage  in  1877,  fallow  in  1876,  fallow  for  mangolds  in  1875, 
Italian  lye-grass  in  1874  and  1873,  and  fallow  for  grass  in  1872,  were  irrigated  with 
sewage.  A  second  field  of  barley  in  1879  was  preceded  by  turnips  in  1878,  barley 
in  1877,  wheat  in  1876,  clover  in  1875,  barley  in  1874,  swedes  in  1873,  and  wheat  in 
1872.  The  clover  and  seeds  in  1875  were  the  only  crops  previously  occupying  the 
ground  that  were  irrigated. 

TuBNiPS  AND  SWEDES. — Green-top  turnips  are  usually  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate 
of  3  lbs.  of  seed  per  acre,  and  are  fed  off  on  the  ground  by  sheep.  Swedes  are  also 
grown  on  this  farm.  They  are  tlrilled  on  the  flat  at  16  inches  distant,  and  the  bulbs 
are  hoed  out  to  9  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Two  lbs.  of  seed  were  drilled  per  acre. 
The  crop  is  irrigated  with  sewage  to  a  moderate  extent.  Turnips  and  swedes 
iisually  follow  a  straw  crojj  of  either  wheat,  barley,  or  oats,  and  occasionally  green- 
top  turnips  are  cultivated,  chiefly  after  Italian  rye-grass. 

Seeds  are  usually  sown  with  the  straw 
crops.  The  variety  and  quantity  of  seed 
sown  has  already  been  given  under  the 
head  of  wheat.  Clover  is  occasionally 
irrigated  in  dry  seasons  with  moderate 
dressings  of  sewage.  By  reference  to  the 
returns,  however,  we  find  that  seeds  have 
not  been  sewaged  since  the  year  1875. 

Prickly  comfkey.  —  This  is  a  crop 
which  has  been  grown  ujDon  this  farm 
for  two  years,  and  has  been  given  up,  as 
it  was  found  that  the  horses  and  cattle 
would  not  eat  the  produce  by  choice. 
It  appears,  however,  that  the  croj),  when 
once  planted,  is  difficult  to  eradicate 
from  the  ground,  as  upon  the  Y>\ot  upon 
which  it  had  been  grown  during  the 
present  year  a  number  of  young  iJlants 
had  made  their  appearance. 


In  referring-  to  these  crops  it 
will  be  noticed  that  all  of  them 
are  crops  common  to  American 
farming-,  excejDt  Italian  rve-grass, 
Lolivm  Ifolicvm,  shown  by  Fig.  18, 
which,  while  not  \ei  cultivated  to 
any  very  great  extent  in  this  conn- 
try,  is  still  one  of  the  best  known 
grasses  in  Europe.  It  is  suited 
above  all  other  grasses  for  irrigation,  and  in  Italy,  Scotland,  and 
elsewhere  yields  on  sewage-irrigated  meadows  prodigious  crops  of 


Fig.  18. — Italian  Rye-grass. 


A    NEW    PHASE   OF   SEWAGE    FARMING. 


247 


forage  of  the  best  qiialit}'.  It  is  extensively  grown  in  Italy,  and  the 
peculiar  excellence  of  the  cheese  of  that  country  is  said  to  be  due  to 
the  quality  of  this  grass,  which  is  the  chief  food  of  the  cattle.  It  is 
stated  as  not  only  adding  to  the  flavor  of  butter  and  cheese,  but  as 
also  increasing  the  How  of  milk.  With  sewage  irrigation  it  has  yielded 
at  times  over  GO  tons  of  green  forage  per  acre.* 

There  are  a  number  of  other  grasses  which  may  be  utilized  in  sewage 
irrigation,  although  the  rye-grass  j)roperly  heads  the  list.  Osiers  are 
also  one  of  the  most  useful  crops  in  sewage  irrigation  by  reason  of  the 
large  quantities  of  liquid  which  they  can  appropriate  without  detri- 
ment during  the  growing  season. 

Table  No.  57. — Statistics  op  Foreign  Sewage  Irrigation  and  Filtration. f 


Locality. 


Nature  of  the  soil. 


Berlin,  Malchow  . 


Doncaster , 

Berlin.  Falkenburg 

Leamington 

Berlin,  Osilorf 

Berlin.  Grot-sbeeren   . . . 

Paris,  Gennevilliere Sand  and  gravel 


Heavy. 

Sand  or  gravel. 

Heavy. 
Mostly  gravel. 

Sa"n<iy. 


Croydon,  Beddington Gravel. 

Paris I     Sand  and  gravel. 


Irrigation. 


Market  gardening. 
Filtration  and  cul- 
tivation. 
Experiments. 
Filtration  without 
cultivation. 
Broad  irrigation. 
Maximum  limit. 


•i 

Volume  of  sewage. 

^  1-    . 

Per  acre  per 
nniiuiu, 
tons. 

Per  acre  )ier 
day  (yearly 
average), 
cubic  feet. 

2.'.)25 

2^S 

2.41 

3..514 

34« 

2.90 

■1.01  (i 

39.5 

3.31 

4,907 

4SB 

4.04 

5,5.>j 

.54H 

4..5S 

fi.Sfll 

fil6 

5.16 

(),.511 

«40 

5.37 

13,270 i 

1,30.5 

10.94 

19,4S3 

1,916 

16  06 

19,905 

1.959 

16.40 

36,70.3 

3  616 

30.30 

39,24.3 

3.*^  HO 

32.34 

39.^09 

3,915 

32.81 

Date. 


1554-85 
lS8e-«7 

1S75 
lS86-!.7 
li7S 
18S6-S7 
1SS6-57 
1S75-S3 

1SS3 


lSSl-82 

187^79 

1884 


t  Compiled  by  Chas.  S.  Swan.  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.      See  paper,  Notes  on  European  Practice  in  Sewage  Disposal, 
in  Jour.  AK.sn.  of  Eng.  Socs.,  vol.  vii..  No.  7,  pp.  24S-257  (July,  1888). 
X  Working  average  for  the  series  of  years  1875-1683. 

Table  No.  57  may  be  taken  as  showing,  subject  to  the  limitations  in- 
dicated, the  amount  of  sewage  which  can  be  applied  in  broad  irrigation 
to  various  soils. 

A  New  Phase  of  Sewage  Farming. 

The  Rugby  experiments  of  the  Sewage  of  Towns  Commission  indi- 
cated that  sewage-grown  grass  when  made  into  hay  was  especially 
valual)le  food  for  milch  cows,  hence  the  practical  deduction  is  to,  so  far 
as  possible,  operate  sewage  farms  as  dairy  farms.  Until  recently,  how- 
ever, there  has  been  a  practical  difficulty  in  the  way  of  realizing  the 
conclusion  to  whicli  th(^  commission  arrived  over  25  years  ago,  namely, 
the  apparent  impossibility  of  curing  into  hay  the  heavy  ci'ops  of  grass 

*  For  more  complete  account  of  Italian  rye-cfrass  and  its  adaptability  to  American  conditions, 
see  Bull.  No.  73,  N.  Carolina  Ag.  Expt.  Sta.  (Oct.  1.5,  IS'.IU),  p.  30. 


248 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


raised  during-  the  g-rowing-  season  in  order  to  provide  fodder  for  winter 
use.  The  sewage-irrigated  grass  crops  have  been  mostly  disposed  of 
green,  which  has  again  considerably  complicated  the  management  of 
sewag"e  farms.     Italian  rye-grass,  the  most  valuable  grass  for  sewage 


Fig.  19. — View  op  Sewage  Farm  at  Bedford,  England;  Field  beyond 
Bushes  is  Used  for  Irrigation. 

irrigation  bj^  reason  of  its  capacity  to  receive  large  doses  of  irrigation 
without  injury,  is,  further,  the  grass  which  has  been  found  the  most 
difficult  to  cure  into  hay,  especially  in  seasons  which  are  at  all  wet. 
The  extensive  use  in  the  last  few  years  of  silos  has  developed  an  en- 
tirely new  phase  to  this  question  and  may  possibly,  by  putting  it  in  the 
power  of  sewage  farmers  to  make  a  specialty  of  dairying  for  the  whole 
year,  assist  in  securing  an  adequate  commercial  return  on  the  whole 
investment  in  sewage  farming  operations.  At  any  rate  the  subject 
appears  of  importance  enough  to  justify  a  chapter  On  Silos  and  Their 
Use  in  Sewage  Farming,  and  to  that  chapter  the  reader  is  accordingly- 
referred  for  further  information  on  tl;is  branch  of  the  subject. 


Exploded  Oejections. 

The  objection  has  been  frequently  ui^ged  against  sewage  farming 
that  the  fields  are  likely  to  become  exceedingly  offensive  from  the 
production  of  an  effluvium  nuisance.  It  is  true  when  improperly  or 
carelessly  managed  they  are  likely  to  be  at  times  open  to  this  objec- 


explodp:d  objections. 


249 


tiou.  Tlie  same  is  also  true  of  neglected  barnyards,  althoug-h  in  the 
present  state  of  agricultural  development  no  one  would  serioush'  pro- 
pose to  abolish  all  barnyards  because  of  this  patent  truth  ;  neverthe- 
less it  is  exactly  what  is  proposed  in  the  case  of  sewage  farms.  That 
such  farms  are  not  necessarily  offensive  as  managed  in  the  present 
time  iiiEngland  is  abundantly  shown  by  Figs.  19  to  21,  illustrating  a 
number  of  sewage-irrigated  fields  and  showing  clearly  their  proximity 
to  a  good  grade  of  residential  property.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Clarke, 
from  whose  report  tliese  views  are  taken,  "  that  in  none  of  these  cases 


Fig.  20. — View  of  Sewage  Farm  at  Wimbledon,  England,  with  Pkkcipitation 
Tank  ix  Foregkound  ;  the  Fields  are  Occasionally  Used  for  Irrigation. 


did  the  farms  cause  any  nuisance,  and  that  the  neighboring  property 
was  not  depreciated  in  value."  * 

In  the  discussion  of  Mr.  Allen's  paper  on  Sewage  Disposal,  read  be- 
fore the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  in  1888,  the  question  of 
the  production  of  bad  odors  from  sewage  farms  was  discussed,  and  a 
number  of  American  engineers  who  had  examined  the  English  and 
other  foreign  seAvage  farms  gave  their  experience  on  this  point  at 
length.  The  discussion  is  too  long  to  quote  here.  Its  chief  interest 
centres  in  the  pertinent  illustration  which  it  affords  of  the  widely 
varying  vieMs  which  different  peoph^  will  obtain  of  the  same  ques- 
tion.f 

*  Rcpt.  of  Eli.>t  C   f'lnrkc  to  Mass.  Drain.  Com.  (1885),  p.  126. 
+  Trans.  Am.  See.  C.  E.,  vol.  xvii.,  pp.  29-34. 


250 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


In  a  paper  read  before  the  British  Medical  Associatiou  in  1888,  Dr. 
Alfred  Carpenter,  of  Croydon,  England,  who  has  for  years  watched 
closely  the  operation  of  the  Bedding-ton  sewag-e  farm,  said  ; 

(1)  That  the  application  of  the  sewage  of  a  water-closet  town  to  land  in  close 
proximity  to  dwelling-houses  is  not  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  of 
those  houses  provided  the  sewage  be  fresh  ;  that  it  be  applied  in  an  intermittent 
manner,  and  the  effluent  be  capable  of  rapid  removal  from  the  irrigated  fields. 

(2)  The  judicious  application  of  sewage  to  soil  of  almost  any  kind,  if  it  be  mainly 
inorganic,  will  satisfactorily  cleanse  the  effluent  water,  and  fit  it  for  discharge  into 


Fic.  21. — YiKW  OF  Sewaok  Fri,TH.\TioN-  Fields,  Mitciiam,  England. 


anv  ordinary  stream,  provided  the  area  treated  is  not  less  than  an  acre  for  each  250 
persons. 

(8)  That  vegetable  j^roducts  grown  u]>on  fields  irrigated  by  sewage  are  satisfac- 
tory and  safe  as  articles  of  food  for  both  animals  and  man. 

(4)  That  sewage  farms,  if  properly  managed,  do  not  set  up  either  parasitic  or 
epidemic  disease  among  those  working  on  the  farm  or  among  the  cattle  fed  upon 
its  produce. 

(5)  That  this  immunity  exists  because  the  conditions  necessary  for  the  propa- 
gation and  continuance  of  those  disease  germs  which  aftect  man  and  animals  are 
absent  ;  the  microbic  life  on  sewage  farms  being  antagonistic  to  the  life  of  disease 
germs,  the  latter,  therefore,  soon  cease  as  such  to  exist. 

(6)  That  sewage  farms  maybe  carried  on  in  perfect  safety  close  to  })opu]ations. 
It  is  not,  however,  argued  that  the  effluent  water  is  safe  to  use  for  dietetic  jjur- 
poses. 

(7)  That  there  is  an  aspect  in  sewage  farming  which  shows  that  it  is  a  wise 
policy  for  the  nation  to  encourage  ihat  form  of  utilization  from  a  j^olitical  economy 
point  of  view. 

^8)  That  to  be  financially   successful    such  farms    require  that  the  rainfall   be 


KXPLOUED    OBJECTIONS.  251 

separated  from  the  sewage  ;  the  area  large  enough  for  alternate  cropping,  and 
the  capital  employed  sufficient  to  insure  a  continuous  and  rapid  consumption  of 
the  crops  produced. 

(9)  That,  if  practicable,  sewage  utilization  by  siarface  irrigation  should  be,  for 
financial  reasons,  within  the  area  of  its  own  watershed  and  close  to  the  populations 
producing  the  sewage ;  but  it  is  not  a  necessity  that  it  should  be  so,  provided  it  be 
applieel  to  the  land  within  a  few  hours — not  more  than  twelve— of  its  discharge, 
and  that  there  is  no  arrest  of  movement  for  more  than  very  short  periods  before  it 
is  so  utilized. 

From  all  the  evideDce  now  at  hand  it  may  be  concluded  that  prop- 
erly' managed  sewage  farms  will  not  render  the  neighborhood  in  which 
they  are  situated  sijecially  objectionable  for  residence  by  reason  of  the 
production  of  oliensive  effluvium  nuisances. 

Another  question  Avliich  is  cognate  to  that  of  effluvium  nuisance  is 
in  relation  to  the  effect  of  sewage  farming  as  a  whole  on  health. 

Obviously,  if  sewage  farms  are  so  managed  as  to  prevent  any  serious 
pollution  of  the  air  in  their  neighborhood,  one  chief  source  of  objec- 
tion is  removed.  It  is,  however,  possible  that  wells  in  the  vicinity  may 
be  affected,  though  the  arrangement  of  the  underdrainage  wath  refer- 
ence to  the  natural  direction  of  flow  of  the  ground-water  will  reduce 
this  danger  to  a  minimum.  When  imperfectl}'  puritied  sewage  flows 
over  the  surface  into  streams  some  pollution  maj'  also  result.  For 
this  latter,  Avhen  a  high  degree  of  purity  of  effluent  is  essential,  the  prop- 
er remedy  is  to  prepare  area  enough  to  insure  the  required  degree  of 
l")urit3^  With  regard  to  the  danger  to  wells,  the  Berlin  sewage  farm 
of  about  19,000  acres  may  be  cited,  where  a  large  population  of  labor- 
ers live  permanently  on  the  farm  and  draw  their  entire  water  supply 
from  wells  sunk  wherever  required  throughout  the  fields.  It  is  stated 
that  no  bad  effects  on  health  have  thus  far  been  observed.  In  the  Re- 
port of  the  judges  appointed  1)V  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  in 
the  sewage-farm  competition  already  referred  to,  it  is  stated  that  "  the 
results  .  .  .  show  that  sewage  farming  is  not  detrimental  to  life 
or  health."  A  large  amount  of  authoritative  opinion  substantiating 
this  view  can  be  quoted,  but  the  foregoing  may  be  deemed  sufficient 
for  the  present  purpose.* 

*  Probably  the  best  example  of  successful  sewage  farms  on  a  large  scale  are  those  of  the  city  of 
Berlin,  where  about  I'.l.tXK)  acres  have  been  purchased  by  the  city  for  sewage  irrigation.  Of  this 
area  only  about  1 1 ,000  acres  had  been  used  for  sewage  irrigation  at  the  four  original  farms  of 
Osdorf,  Gross  Beeren,  Faikenberg,  and  Malchow  to  March  ol,  1890.  8ewage  irrigation  was  begun 
at  Osdorf  in  Jannarj-,  1S7()  ;  Gross  Becrcn  in  Jidj',  1S8'2;  Faikenberg  in  March,  1870;  and  at 
Malchow  in  Octoljer,  IS'-a.  Additional  areas  not  in  use  in  180(1  have  been  purchased  at  Schenken- 
dorf,  Sputendorf,  Klein  Beeren,  Blankenfelde  and  Hellersdorf.  At  the  four  original  farms  a 
portion  of  the  area  was  still  without  special  j)r('paration  in  1800,  at  which  date  about  8,000  acres 
had  been  specially  prepared.  The  population  of  Berlin  in  December,  1800,  was  1,1178,700,  whence 
the  number  of  inhabitants  per  acre  of  specially  prepared  area  was  roundly  198.  Tlie  tpiautity  of 
sewage  avenages  about  'M  U.  S.  gallons  per  head  of  jjopulation  per  year.  The  special  areas  are 
added  to  from  year  to  year. 

The  most  complete  account  of  the  Berlin  sewage  farms  in  English  engineering  literature  is  that 


252 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


There  is,  moreover,  some  reason  for  belieyiug-  that  well-maiiag-ed 
sewage  farms  are  not  only  not  unliealthful  to  the  neighborhood  in 
which  they  are  situated,  but  that  they  may  be  even  in  some  degree  the 
source  of  an  increased  healthfulness  of  the  region  immediately  sur- 
rounding them.  This  apparently  paradoxical  conclusion  is  derived 
primarily  from  the  statistics  of  mortality  among  those  employed  and 
living  on  sewage  farms,  from  which  it  appears  that  sewage-farm  lab- 
orers are  as  a  class  quite  as  healthful  as  a  similar  class  elsewhere. 
The  following  figures  in  illustration  of  this  point  are  from  the  report 
of  the  Judges  in  the  sewage  farm  comj)etition : 


Name  of  farm. 


Aldershot. .. 

Bedford 

BirminghaDi 

Croydon 

Doncasti  r . . . 
Guisboroiigh 
Leamington. 

Beading 

Wrexham... 

Totals.. 


Number  of 

years  in 
operation. 


93 


Persons  em- 
ployed or  liv- 
ing on  farm. 


25 

28 
28 
94 
44 

Q 

46 

gs 

19 


380 


Children  liv- 
ing on  farm. 


12 
B 
9 
30 
23 
~4 
14 
32 


Number  of 
deaths  oc- 
curring. 


0 
0 

2  t 

5  t 

0 

0 

2 

1 

0 


10 


*  These  figures  do  not  include  the  men  engaged  in  laying  out  additional  land  for  sewage  purposes. 
+  These  deaths  occurred  in  connection  with  sewage  tanks  and  not  sewage  farm. 

t  These  deaths  have  occurred  within  the  last  10  years. 


As  stated  by  the  judges,  "  An  examination  of  this  table  will  shoAv  that 
the  rate  of  mortality  on  an  average  of  the  number  of  years  these  farms 
have  been  in  ojDeration  does  not  exceed  3  per  annum." 

If  we  consider  that  during  the  growing  season  the  vegetation  on  a 
well-managed  sewage  farm  is  three  or  four  times  as  luxuriant  as  in  or- 
dinary agricultural  regions,  we  have  a  good  explanation  of  why  the 
irrigated  areas  are  not  necessarily  more  unhealthy  than  other  similar 
agricultural  regions  without  irrigation.  The  ofhce  of  growing  plants 
in  converting  carbon  dioxide,  on  the  one  hand,  into  carbonaceous  sub- 

of  H.  A.  Roechling,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  as  given  in  his  paper,  The  Sewage  Farms  of  Berlin, 
in  Proc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  vol.  cix.,  Ses.  1891-92.,  Part  III.  Mr.  Roechling  has  there  presented  the 
complete  statistics  and  details  of  management  of  these  extensive  sewage  farms.  The  paper  came 
to  hand  too  late  to  make  extended  extracts,  but  to  give  an  idea  of  its  contents  the  heads  dis- 
cussed are  included  as  follows  : 

Area  and  General  Statistics  of  Berlin  ;  Sewerage  of  Berlin  ;  Sewage  Farms  ;  Purchase  of  Sew- 
age Farms  ;  Distribution  of  the  Sewage  ;  Application  of  Sewage-water  to  the  Land  ;  Laying  out 
of  the  Farms  ;  Productive  and  Unproductive  Acreage  ;  Drainage  of  the  Plats  ;  Capital  Expendi- 
tures on  Farms;  Management  of  the  P'arms  ;  Labor  on  the  Farms;  Cattle  kept  on  the  Farms; 
Meteorological  Conditions  Prevailing  on  the  Farms  ;  Results  Obtained  from  the  Working  of  the 
Farms  ;  Quantity  of  Sewage  Treated  on  the  Farms  ;  Crops  ;  Sewage  Irrigation  during  the  Winter 
Months  ;  Letting  of  Sewage-treated  Land  ;  Harvest  Returns  ;  Financial  Returns  ;  Degree  of 
Purification  Attained  ;  Comparison  of  the  Berlin  Results  with  those  of  English  Sewage  Farms  ; 
Alleged  Liability  of  the  Land  to  become  Sewage-choked  ;  Utilization  of  the  Manurial  Elements 
of  Sewage  ;  Quantity  of  EflBuent  Water  ;  Sanitary  Condition  of  the  Berlin  Sewage  Farms. 


EXPLODED    OBJECTIONS.  253 

stances  (carbohydi-ates,  etc.),  which  go  to  make  up  the  structure  of 
the  xjhmt,  and,  on  the  other,  into  free  oxygen,  which  passes  into  the 
g-eneral  stock  in  the  atmosphere,*  is  well  known.  The  increase  in 
energy  of  these  natural  purifying  agencies  may  be  considered  suffi- 
cient to  render  the  quantity  of  oxygen  in  the  air  in  the  vicinity  of 
sewage  farms  somewhat  greater  than  in  average  agricultural  districts  ; 
thereby  counterbalancing  any  possible  slight  unhealthful  tendency 
by  reason  of  the  presence  of  large  quantities  of  sewage,  some  of  which 
may  be  decomposing. 

This  view  is  fui-ther  supported  by  the  researches  of  Dr.  Daubeny, 
late  Professor  of  Botany,  etc.,  at  Oxford,  who  has  shown  that  growing 
plants  not  merely  evolve  oxygen,  but  evolve  it  in  the  form  of  ozone.f 

*  Sachs'  Physiology  of  Plants,  Part  III.,  Nutrition  ;  Lecture  XVII.,  Source  of  the  Nitrogen  in 
Growing  Plants — Source  of  the  Carbon  ;  Lecture  XVLIL,  Evolution  of  Oxygen,  etc. 
t  Jour.  Chem.  Soc,  Jan.,  1867. 


CHAPTEK  Xin. 

ON  SILOS  AND  THEIR  USE  IN  SEWAGE  FARMING. 

The  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  call  attention  to  a  system  of  preserv- 
ing- forage  crops  which  is  likely  to  materially  influence  the  future  de- 
velopment of  sewage  farming,  and  to  indicate  some  of  the  sources 
from  which  more  detailed  information  can  be  obtained. 

Definition  of  Teems. 

The  terms  silo,  silage,  and  ensilage  will  be  used,  so  far  as  the  con- 
fusion which  exists  will  permit,  in  accordance  with  the  following- defini- 
tions: 

(1)  Silo,  the  theoretically  air-tight  structure  in  which  fodder  is  pre- 
served. 

(2)  Silage,  the  fodder  or  material  i^reserved  in  silos. 

(3)  Ensilage,  the  process  of  preservation. 

How  Silage  is  Produced. 

In  order  to  produce  silage  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  a  pit  or  chamber 
either  in  the  ground,  with  a  brick  or  stone  impervious  lining,  or  by  build- 
ing the  same  above  the  surface.  The  object  to  be  gained  is  the  depositing- 
of  the  green  crop  in  an  air- and  water-tight  receptacle  under  conditions 
admitting  of  subjecting  it  to  considerable  pressure,  by  which  nearly  all 
the  contained  air  is  forced  out.  This  is  effected  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
as  :  (1)  By  treading  the  green  crop  as  it  is  deposited,  and  covering  with 
a  couple  of  feet  of  well-packed  earth  ;  (2)  by  constructing  the  silo  with 
a  movable  covering  arranged  with  chains  and  rollers  for  raising  and 
lowering,  which,  after  the  crop  is  placed  in  the  silo,  is  lowered  and 
weighted  to  the  extent  of  about  85  to  125  pounds  per  square  foot  of  sur- 
face ;  (3)  silage  is  sometimes  made  in  stacks  either  in  the  open  air  or 
under  sheds  open  at  the  sides,  the  partial  decay  of  a  portion  of  the 
material  on  the  outside  furnishing  the  necessary  impervious  coating. 
Salt  is  sometimes  added  as  the  crop  is  placed  in  the  silo,  to  assist  the 
process  of  preservation.  Closed  silos  are  kept  sealed  until  opened 
for  use. 


THE   MODERN   USE   OF   SILOS.  255 


Eaely  Use  of  Silos. 

In  its  original  sense  a  silo  was  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  cellar 
used  for  storing"  grain,  for  which  purpose  underground  pits  have  been 
used  in  eastern  countries  since  a  very  early  period,  instead  of  x>lacing 
it  in  granaries  above  ground.  Such  pits  are  stated  to  have  been  used 
by  the  nomadic  tribes  of  Arabia,  in  order  to  prevent  victorious  enemies 
from  obtaining  possession  of  their  food  supplies.  The  Spaniards 
learned  the  art  from  the  Moors,  and  in  Spain  it  acquired  a  new  use  for 
the  purely  commercial  object  of  storing  up  grain  in  times  of  plenty  and 
low  prices  in  order  to  preserve  it  to  times  of  scarcity  and  high  lorices. 
From  Spain  the  silo  found  its  way  into  France  and  Germany,  from 
whence  its  use  finally  extended  to  England  and  this  country.  * 

The  first  record  of  the  modern  use  of  the  silo  in  France  is  about  1820 
and  1821,  when  the  proprietor  of  an  estate  in  the  Puy  de  Dome  stored 
his  grain  harvested  in  those  years  in  silos  constructed  for  the  purpose 
and  kept  it  until  1828,  when  prices  having  risen  to  double  the  figure  of 
seven  years  before,  the  silos  were  opened,  and  with  the  exception  of  a 
thin  layer  at  the  top  the  grain  was  found  perfectly  preserved. 

The  Modern  Use  of  Silos. 

The  use  of  silos  for  preserving  fodder  crops  has,  however,  grown  up 
in  England  and  this  country  mostly  since  about  1880.1 

*  A  French  work  on  agriculture,  the  first  edition  of  which  was  puVjlished  in  1600,  contains  the 
following  description  of  what  we  now  call  the  silo  : 

There  remains  for  me  to  speak  about  another  sort  of  granary,  as  novel  as  anj'  I  have  seen,  as  there 
seems  reason  to  disbelieve  the  experience  of  good  found  in  their  use.  They  are  used  in  La  Oascoyne 
and  La  (Juyenne,  where  they  employ  these  granaries  more  than  in  any  other  province  of  this 
kingdom.  They  are  deej)  pits  dug  in  the  ground,  called  "  r;-o.<,"  into  wliich  one  descends  with 
ladders  for  bringing  in  or  carrying  away  the  fodiler,  etc.  Pliny  considered  such  pits  to  be  the  best 
■way  of  preserving  corn,  etc..  as  was  practised  in  his  time  in  TIn-aoe,  Cappadocia,  Harbary,  and 
Spain.  Varro  was  also  of  his  opinion  asserting  that  wheat  can  be  ke{)t  sweet  and  entire  .50  years, 
and  millet  IDO  ;  at  the  same  time  stating,  so  as  to  strengthen  his  opinion,  that  when  Pompey  the 
Great  was  sweeping  the  sea  of  pirates,  tliere  was  found  at  Amijratiaa  large  supply  of  beans  (in  "good 
anfl  sound  condition),  in  a  cavern  where  they  had  remained  stored  away  since  the  time  when  King 
Pyrrhus  was  fighting  in  Italy,  and  nearly  1:20  years  had  then  passed. 

In  the  edition  of  the  same  work  of  1804  it  is  stated  : 

In  1707  there  was  discovered  in  the  citadel  of  Metz  a  large  quantity  of  corn,  placed  there  in  ir)'38, 
in  one  of  the  un  lergroimd  room-;,  where  it  was  so  well  preserved  that  tl;e  brt-ad  which  was  made 
from  it.  two  centuries  after  it  had  be-n  placed  there,  was  found  very  good.  There  exists  now  (1.S04) 
at  A-idres,  department  of  the  Pas  de  Calais,  one  of  these  underground  places  made  by  the  Romans. 

+  Professor  J.  F.  W.  .lohnson  described  the  German  system  of  silos  for  sour  fodder  or  sour  grass 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  in  1S43.  His  paper  is  a  clear  account 
of  ensilage  as  practised  at  that  time,  and  may  be  jw-rtly  reproduced  here  as  a  useful  contribution  to 
the  English  literature  of  the  subject. 

A  method  has  lately  been  tried  in  Germany,  which,  by  the  aid  of  a  little  salt,  seems  in  a  great 
ni'-asure  to  attain  this  oliject  (i.e..  to  preserve  the  feeding  properties  of  grass  more  com])letely  than 
by  the  process  of  haymaking).  Pits  are  du-;  in  the  earth  from  10  to  13  feet  square,  and  as  many 
deep;  these  are  lineij  with  wood,  and  [)uddle<l  below  and  at  tlie  sides  with  clay.  'fliey  may  ob- 
viously be  made  of  any  other  suitable  (iimensions,  and  may  be  lined  with  brick.  '  Into  tliis  pit  the 


256  sewagp:  disposal  in  the  united  states. 

In  Hung-aiy,  sour  grass  lias  been  in  use  for  many  generations,  but 
the  modern  practice  of  x^reserving  g-reen  fodder  as  sweet  silage  appears 
to  have  been  used  there  for  only  about  the  last  40  years.  In  Germanj' 
Herr  Reihlen,  of  Stuttgart,  described  his  appliances  in  1862  ;  while  in 
France  the  use  of  the  silo  for  preserving  green  fodder  apparently  dates 
from  .1870,  although,  as  stated  above,  used  long  before  that  time  for 
preserving'  grain.* 

The  Y.\lue  of  Ensilage  in  Sewage  Farming. 

The  chief  value  of  the  jjrocess  of  ensilage  in  its  application  to  sew- 
age farming  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  large  forage  crops  wdiich  are  pro- 
duced by  sewage  irrigation  may  be  successfully  i^reserved  for  feeding- 
during  the  winter,  esjoecially  in  wet  seasons,  when  the  making  of  hay 
is  more  difficult  than  in  dry.     A  succession  of  wet  seasons  in  England 

green  crop  of  grass,  clover,  or  vetches  is  put  just  as  it  is  cut.  Four  or  5  cwts.  are  introduced  at 
a  time,  sprinkled  with  salt  at  the  rate  of  1  lb.  to  each  cwt.,  and  if  the  weather  and  consequently 
the  crop  be  dry,  two  or  three  quarts  of  water  to  each  cwt.  should  be  sprinkled  over  every  successive 
layer.  It  is  only  when  rain  or  a  heavy  dew  has  fallen  before  mowing  that,  in  East  Prussia,  this 
watering  is  considered  unnecessary.  Much,  however,  must  depend  upon  the  succulency  of  the 
crop.  Each  layer  of  4  or  5  cwts.,  as  spread  evenly  over  the  bottom,  is  well  trodden  down  by  five  or 
si.x  men,  and,  especially,  is  rammed  as  close  as  possible  at  the  sides  with  the  aid  of  wooden 
rammers.  Each  layer  is  thus  salted,  watered  if  necessary,  and  trodden  in  succession  till  the  pit  is. 
perfectly  full.  Much  depends  upon  the  perfect  treading  of  the  grass  for  the  exclusion  of  the  air, 
and,  therefore,  for  a  pit  of  10  feet  square,  4  cwts.  are  as  much  as  ought  to  be  put  in  for  each  laj-er. 
Between  each  layer  may  be  strewed  a  few  handfuls  of  stiaw,  in  order  that,  when  emptying  the  pit 
afterwards  for  the  daily  consumption  of  the  stock,  the  quantity  taken  out  may  be  known  without 
the  necessity  of  a  second  weighing  When  the  pit  is  full,  the  topmost  layer  is  well  salted,  the  wlole 
then  covered  with  boards  or  a  well-fitting  lid,  and  upon  these  a  foot  and  a  half  of  earth,  for  the 
more  perfect  exclusion  of  the  air.  A  pit  lU  feet  square,  and  as  maTiy  deep,  will  hold  about  5  tons  of 
fresh  grass,  and  each  pit  should,  if  possible,  be  filled  in  not  less  than  two  days. 

When  covered  up,  the  grass  speedily  heats  and  ferments,  and  after  the  lapse  of  about  six  days, 
when  the  fermentation  has  ceased,  the  whole  has  sunk  to  about  one-half  of  its  original  bulk.  The 
lid  must  be  examined  during  the  fermentation  at  least  once  a  day,  and  the  earth,  as  it  sinks,  care- 
fully replaced  wherever  crevices  appear  ;  for,  if  the  air  be  allowed  to  gain  admission,  a  putrefactive 
fermentation  will  come  on,  which  will  impart  a  disagi  eeable  odor  to  the  fodder,  though  it  will  not. 
prevent  it  from  being  readily  eaten  by  the  stock.  Wlien  the  first  fermentation  has  ceased,  the  lid 
may  be  removed,  the  pit  again  filled  with  fresh  grass,  trodden  in,  salted,  and  covered  as  before.  A 
pit  10  feet  square,  when  perfectlj'  full  of  this  fermented  grass,  will  contain  nearly  10  tons — equal 
to  2  or  3  tons  of  dry  hay.  The  grass,  when  thus  fermented,  hax  the  appearance  of  haviny  hi'fn 
boiled,  has  a  sharp  acid  taste,  and  is  ffreedily  eaten  Vjv  the  cattle.  The  pits  should  be  kept  cov- 
ered for  at  least  six  weeks,  after  which  they  may  be  opened  successively  as  they  are  required,  and 
may  be  kept  open  till  their  contents  are  consumed  by  the  cattle  without  suffering  any  injury  from 
the  contact  of  the  atmospheric  air.  Of  the  feeding  qualities  of  this  salted  fodder,  one  experi- 
menter says  that,  by  giving  only  20  lbs.  a  day  of  it,  along  with  chopped  straw,  he  kept  his  cows  ir» 
condition  during  the  whole  winter.  His  green  crop  was  vetches,  and  the  twentj'  pounds  of  salted 
fodder  were  equal  to  or  would  have  made  less  than  four  pounds  of  vetch  hay.  Another  experi- 
menter says  that  on  a  daily  allowance  of  28  lbs.  of  his  salted  fodder  his  cows  gave  a  rich  andwell- 
tasred  milk. 

This  method  of  salting  and  preserving  green  crops  in  their  moist  state  appears  to  afford  an 
answer  to  the  first  question  which  is  naturally  asked  when  we  are  told  of  the  difference  in  feeding 
value  between  the  same  grass  when  first  cut  and  when  dried  into  hay.  It  is  proVjable  that  the  fer- 
mentation which  takes  place  in  the  pit  may  in  some  degree  diminish  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
grass,  but  the  likelihood  which  exists  that  a  very  large  proportion  of  this  value  will  be  retained 
renders  the  method  of  salting  in  this  manner  well  worthy  the  attention  of  our  more  skilful  agri- 
culturists. It  would  greatly  benefit  both  theorj'  and  practice  also  were  careful  series  of  experi- 
ments to  be  made  in  different  localities,  with  the  view  of  determining  the  true  relative  value  in 
feedingof  stock  of  the  grass  of  the  same  field  when  newly  cut  and  when  salted  and  preserved  in  the 
manner  above  described. 

*  The  foregoing  account  of  the  early  history  of  the  use  of  silos  is  abstracted  from  a  Report  on 
the  Practice,  of  Ensilage  at  Home  and  Abroad,  in  the  Jour,  of  the  Roy.  Ag.  Soc.  of  Eng.,  vol.  xx. 
sec.  set.,  p.  126.     By  H.  M.  Jenkins,  Sec.  of  the  Soc. 


SOURCES    OF    IX FORMATION.  257 

duriug'  the  last  few  years,  where  the  practice  of  ensilage  is  very  com- 
mon, have  demonstrated  that  even  when  made  in  open  stacks  the 
forag-e,  by  taking  the  proper  precautions,  can  be  quite  successfully 
preserved.* 

Ensilage  in  the  United  States. 

Having  given  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  some  of  the  main  facts  in 
the  early  history  of  ensilage,  we  may  now  consider  the  present  state 
of  the  art  as  it  exists  in  the  United  States.  A  number  of  the  Agricult- 
ural Experiment  Stations  have  experimented  on  the  various  methods 
of  preserving  forage  in  silos  which  have  been  proposed,  and  conducted 
various  investigations  as  to  the  philosophy  of  the  process  and  the  best 
methods  of  using  it  in  our  climate. 

At  the  Illinois  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  Professor  T.  J. 
Burrill  has  studied  the  biology  of  the  process  in  considerable  detail. 
His  paper  thereon  may  be  consiilted  for  a  good  presentation  of  the 
present  views  in  regard  to  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  silo,  but  its 
length  precludes  giving  more  than  the  summarj^  as  follows  if 

Ensilage  is  a  very  variable  product.  The  variations  are  due  to  so  many  factors — 
including  differences  in  tlie  original  material,  in  the  states  and  conditions  of  the 
weather,  and  in  the  construction  of  the  storage  bins — that  great  care  and  much 
knowledge  must  be  required  to  secure  reasonably  uniform  results. 

Ensilage  is  never  truly  pieserved  fodder,  but  is  more  nearly  such  when  the  mass 
has  been  very  hot  for  a  time  and  then  has  the  air  most  thoroughly  excluded  by 
the  projjer  construction  of  the  silo  and  the  densest  attainable  condition  of  the  ma- 
terial. The  initial  high  temperature  is  probably  mostly  servicealile  by  causing 
this  closer  packing  of  the  mass  rather  than  by  killing  the  germs  or  other  ferments. 

No  appreciable  alcoholic  fermentation  occurs.  The  very  high  temiierature  often 
attained  is  due  to  two  or  more  species  of  rod-like  bacilli,  which  appear  to  cause 
butyric  fermentation  and  its  allies. 

Lactic  fermentation  is  most  abundant  in  the  earlier  transformations  of  ensilage 
not  originally  rising  to  a  high  temperature. 

Acetic  fermentation  only  occurs  when  the  temperature  sinks  below  35^  C.  (95 
F.).     A  large  proportion  of  water  is  favorable  to  this  change,  and  the  sharply  acid 
material  is  much  less  likely  to  be  attacked  by  decomposing  agents  (other  bacteria 
and  mould  fungi).     Except  for  the  difference  in  density  of  the  material,  that  origi- 
iiully  hot  subsequently  sours  nearly  as  rapidly  as  that  less  heated  at  first. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  by  the  most  nearly  i^erfect  exclusion  of  air.  For 
this  purpose  uniform  distril)ution  upon  filling  the  silo  is  of  more  importance  than 
persistent  tramping,  because  the  pressure  of  the  mass  must  be  mostly  relied  upon. 


Sources  of  Information. 

In  regard  to  the  construction  of  silos,  the  paper  in  the  .Journal  of 
tli<'    Royal    Agricultural    Society    for    1884   contains    descriptions   of 

*  ExyierimentR  in  Makint;  Knsilagi-  ilnriii^'  the  Wet  Season  of  1888.     Jour.   Roy.   Ag.    See.  of 
Eng  ,  vol.  XXV.,  sec.  Rcr.,  p   'J8(l.     Hy  H.  Kains-Jackson. 

tThe  Biology  of  Ensilage.     By  T.  J.  Burrill.     Bull.  No.  7,  Nov.,  1889,    Univ.  III.  Ag.   Ex.  Sta 
17 


258  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

nearly  every  form  of  silo  that  has  been  used  abroad.     The  matter  is 
there  treated  under  the  following-  heads  : 

(I.)  Silo  withoiit  roof. 
(II.)  Roofed  silos  with  portable  weights. 

a.  Silage  uuehopiied. 

b.  Silage  partly  chopped. 

c.  Silage  entirely  chopped. 

(III.)  Silos  with  mechanical  means  of  compression. 
(IV.)  Foreign  silos. 
(I.  France. 
b.  The  Netherlands. 

The  author  of  the  paper  states  that  he  has  refrained  from  giving- 
details  of  American  practice,  in  consequence  of  differences  in  climate 
rendering  it  an  uncertain  guide  to  English  farmers.  It  is  clear,  how- 
ever, in  the  light  of  the  more  extended  experience  of  the  present  day, 
that  generally  the  results  of  English  and  French  practice  are  applica- 
ble here,  and  the  paper  may  be  accordingly  referred  to  for  excellent 
illustrations  of  many  useful  forms  of  silos. 

The  construction  of  silos  has,  however,  been  discussed  at  length 
during  the  last  8  to  10  years  in  nearly  all  the  American  agricultural 
journals,  and  experiments  as  to  the  best  form  for  American  conditions 
made  by  some  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations.  A  reference  to 
the  bulletins  of  the  several  stations,  and  Reports  of  State  Boards  of 
Agriculture,  will  furnish  the  necessary  information  to  anyone  propos- 
ing to  build  silos,  or  in  pursuit  of  information  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
silage  for  feeding  stock.* 

EXPEEIMENTS    WITH    RyE-GKASS, 

In  the  chapter  on  Broad  Irrigation  it  was  remarked  that  one  chief 
difficulty  in  the  way  of  making  sewage  farming  return  a  commercial 
profit  has  thus  far  been  the  impossibilit}^  of  preserving  the  large 
forage  crops  of  Italian  rye-grass  for  use  in  winter.  Experiments  have 
been  made  in  England  in  reference  to  preserving  the  rye-grass  in  silos, 
with  the  result  of  indicating  that  superior  silage  may  be  made  from 
rye-grass  by  this  process.  Further,  the  ease  with  which  corn  forage 
crops  may  be  grown  after  ordinary  grain  crops  are  harvested  in  July, 

*  The  following  Reports  and  Bulletins  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations,  Agricultural 
Boards,  etc.,  may  be  consulted  : 

(1)  Illinois  (University  of)  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,  Bull.  No.  2,  Aug.,  1888.  Ensilage.  By  Thomas  J. 
Hunt.  Gives  an  account  of  the  filling  of  a  silo,  with  statement  of  conditions  of  content.s  when 
opened  6!^  months  after  filling,  with  feeding  experiments,  etc.     10  pp. 

(2)  Maine  (.State  College)  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,  An.  Rept.  for  1889.  Discusses  composition  of  silage  ; 
digestible  matter  of,  compared  with  hay;  digestibility  of,  compared  with  corn  fodder,  etc.,  pp. 
46-80. 

(3)  Michigan  Board  of  Agriculture   Reports  for  the  years  18S.5,  1887,  1888,  1889,  and  1890. 

In  the  24th  An.  Rept  (1885)  is  given  an  account  of  experiments  with  "  ensilage  "  made  in  1881-3 


EXPKRIMKXTS    WITH    KYE-GRASS.  259 

and  forced  forward  during-  the  warm  weather  of  that  month  and 
August  and  the  early  part  of  September  by  judicious  sewage  irriga- 
tion, and  when  mature  preserved  by  ensilage,  gives  sewage  irrigation 

and  1882-3,  including  cost  of  constructing  silo,  feeding  same,  etc.,  with  results  of  feeding  ex- 
periments, pp.  100-120. 

In  the  26th  An.  Kept.  {18S7J  is  given  a  discussion  on  Ensilage  at  the  Fremont  Institute,  Feb. 
3,  1887,  pp.  379-382. 

In  the  27th  An.  Rept.  (1888)  information  is  given  in  regard  to  cost  of  new  silo  built  at  the 
college  farm  the  previous  year,  etc. 

In  the  28th  An.  Rept.  (1889)  under  the  head  Silos  and  Ensilage  the  following  special  points  are 

discussed  : 

I.  Seven  years'  experience  with  Silos  and  Ensilage  at  the  College  Farm. 
II.  Views  of  Prominent  farmers  of  Michigan  on  Ensilage. 

III.  Experiments  with  Ensilage  vs.  Com  harvested  in  the  ordmary  manner. 

IV.  Comparative  test  of  varieties  of  Ensilage  Corn. 

V.  Forage  plants.  Lucerne.     On  hard  grass.     Pp.  252-272.      (Reprint  of  Bull.  No.  47.) 

The  chemical  composition  of  ensilaged  corn  is  given  in  Bull.  No.  49,  reprinted  in  An.  Rept.,  pp. 
296-300. 

Professor  A.  J.  Cook  also  discusses  "  Silo  and  Ensilage"  in  the  Report,  being  a  lecture  at  the 
Centreville  Institute,  Feb.  19,  1889. 

In  the  29th  An.  Rept.  (1890)  Professor  A.  J.  Cook  contributes  a  paper,  The  Silo,  in  which  the 
main  heads  are  : 

I.  Importance  of  the  Silo. 
II.   The  best  crop  for  Silage. 

III.  How  shall  we  plant  V 

IV.  Location  of  the  Silo. 
V.   Building  a  Silo. 

VI.  Size  of  the  Silo.     Pp.  420-424. 

In  the  same  Rept.,  pp.  13(i-138,  Dr.  R.  C.  Kedzie  presents  tabulated  analyses  showing  the 
changes  which  take  place  in  the  silo. 

(4)  Minnesota  (University  of)  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,  Bull.  No.  8  (July,  1889).  Short  account  of  an  ex- 
periment m  ensilaging  clover. 

(5)  New  Hampshire  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,  Bull.  No.  1  (April,  1888),  on  "  Ensilage. "  Bull.  No.  3  (July, 
1888),  "Ensilage  "  in  Dairy  Farming. 

(6)  New  York  State  Ag.  Sta.  at  Geneva,  An.  Reports  for  1885,  1887,  1888,  1889,  1890. 

The  (5th  and  7th  An.  Reports,  1887  and  1888,  contain  an  account  of  a  successful  experiment  in 
preserving  Silage  in  the  open  air.     ((ith  Rept.  pp.  73-75.     7th  Rept.  pp.  326-330.) 

Analyses  and  results  of  experiments  on  digestibility  of  silage  are  given  in  the  8th  An.  Rept. 
(1889),  pp.  93-94. 

A  number  of  comparative  feeding  experiments  are  given  in  the  9th  An.  Rept.  (1890). 

(7)  Pennsylvania  State  College  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.  Reports  for  1889  and  1890,  contain  the  results  of 
a  number  of  comparative  experiments.  See  Rept.  for  1889,  "  Comparison  of  Ensilage  and  Field- 
Curing  for  Indian  Corn,"  pp.  li:i-i:!7;  Rept.  for  1890,  "  Ensilage  and  the  Corn  Crop,"  pp.  43- 
123  ;    Bull.  No  9  (Oct.,  1889),  on  Digestibility  of  (.^orn  Fodder  and  Silage,  may  be  also  consulted. 

(8)  Vermont  Uth  An.  Rept.  State  Bd.  Agriculture,  1889-90,  "Corn  Fodder  and  Ensilage."  By 
Homer  W.  Vail,  pp.  251-324.     See  also  3d  and  4th  An.  Repts.  State  Ag.     Ex.  Sta.,  1889  and  1890. 

(9)  Wisconsin  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,  Oth  and  7th  An.  Repts.  (1889  and  1890).  In  the  (ith  An.  Rept. 
(1889),  "  Experiments  with  Fodder  Corn  and  Ensilage,"  pp.  123-145.  In  7th  An.  Rept.  (1890), 
"Corn  Silage  vs.  Dry  Fodder  (^orn  for  Milk  and  Butter  Production,"  pp.  80-97  ;  also  "Compari- 
son of  Siloing  and  Field-Curing  of  Indian  Corn,"  pp.  215-237. 

Bull.  No.  28  (July,  1891),  "  The  Construction  of  Silos,"  maybe  consulted  for  many  details  of 
recent  silo  construction  in  this  country. 

The  foregoing  list  of  recent  American  literature  of  the  silo  and  process  of  making  sila^'e  makes 
no  claim  to  completeness.  It  merely  represents  wliat  the  authors  have  been  able  to  get  together 
witho\it  special  effort.  The  subject  is  discussed  in  several  reports  and  bulletins  of  the  Agricult- 
ural Experiment  Stations  not  referred  to  here.  In  addition  a  number  of  special  treatises  have 
been  published. 


260  sp:\vag?:  disposal  in  the  unitp:d  states. 

farmers  a  command  of  the  situation  which  they  have  not  previously 
had.  The  following*  from  the  paper  in  the  Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Agri- 
cultural Society  of  Eng-land,  from  which  we  have  already  quoted,  will 
serve  to  show  the  certainty  with  which  even  the  rye-grass  may  be 
made  into  silage.* 

The  silo  is  14  feet  long,  13  feet  deep,  and  6  feet  wide,  and  is  above  ground,  being 
constructed  of  14-inch  brick-work  wath  a  floor  of  5-inch  cement  concrete,  in  the  end 
of  a  barn.  Its  cost  was  about  18/.  4s.  3d.  (.$92),  and  it  will  last  probably  as  long  as 
we  can  look  forv.-ard  to.  It  was  filled  in  Julv,  and  we  purjjose  beginning  again  in 
June,  1884. 

The  pitted  material  was  sewaged  Italian  rye-grass,  about  4i  acres,  and  when  cut 
to  put  in  the  silo  was  more  than  ripe.  It  was  chopped  into  f  of  an  inch  lengths 
by  steam,  Maynard's  chaff-cutter  being  used.     Salt  was  added  only  to  i^reserve  it. 

The  silo  was  filled  in  two  days  of  5  hours  each,  and  every  layer  of  about  six 
inches  was  well  rammed,  22  lbs.  of  salt  being  added  to  each.  The  fodder  was 
covered  with  boards  closely  placed  and  weighted  with  bags  of  sand ;  no  mechani- 
cal contrivance  was  vised. 

The  silo  contains  from  10  to  12  tons  fit  for  use.  The  covering  with  old  waste 
boards  and  sand  cost  about  21.,  and  the  expense  of  filling  was  5/.  3s.  6d. 

By  this  system  the  land  can  be  cleared  much  quicker,  cheaper,  and  with  less 
waste  than  by  trying  to  make  sewage-grass  into  hay.  Indeed,  for  two  or  three 
years,  we  have  found  it  impossible  to  get  such  Italian  rye-grass  dry  enough  to  pre- 
vent it  destroying  itself  by  heat,  on  account  of  the  juices  and  fat  contained  in  the 
grass.  With  regard  to  keeping  qualities,  as  this  is  the  first  silo  we  have  filled,  we 
can  only  say  that  we  opened  it  on  December  18,  1883,  and  have  continued  using 
some  of  it  every  day  since  then  up  to  this  date,  11th  January,  1884,  and  it  is  not  in- 
juriously affected  by  the  atmosphere  being  let  into  it.  Horses,  cattle,  antl  sheep 
eat  the  silage  from  the  silo  with  great  avidity,  and  I  shoulcl  think  from  the  little 
experience  I  have  had  in  feeding  with  silage  it  is  best  and  most  effective  and  valua- 
ble when  mixed  with  straw,  or  corn-chaff,  or  any  other  ordinary  food  that  requires 
something  to  increase  its  feeding  value  and  make  it  palatable. 

In  regard  to  the  quality  of  the  rye-grass  silage  the  author  of  the 
report  states  that  on  account  of  the  interest  attaching  to  this  attempt 
to  preserve  sewage-grass  by  means  of  ensilage,  he  visited  the  silo  in 
question  on  December  18, 1883.  Evidently  the  grass  had  been  allowed 
to  get  dead-ripe  before  filling,  and  the  consequence  was  that  the  silage 
was  singularly  dry.  Fermentation  had,  however,  taken  place,  but  there 
was  a  considerable  amount  of  mould  near  the  outside  wall.  A  sample 
taken  from  the  interior  on  January  2,  1884,  was  found  to  contain  only 
55  per  cent,  of  water.  This  sample,  both  in  a  box  and  bottle,  was  still 
perfectly  good  in  the  middle  of  March,  retaining  to  the  full  its  aroma. 
Mr.  Jenkins  ventures  the  oi^inion  that  the  result  of  this  experiment  is 
very  encouraging,  and  suggests  a  better  outlook  for  sewage  farms. 

Experiments  on  making  silage  from  rye-grass  and  on  the  feeding 
of  cattle  Avitli  the  same  have  been  conducted  at  the  Crewe  (England) 
sewage  farm,  with  the  result  that  the  increase  in  weight  of  cattle  fed 
on  silage  for  a  given  time  was  consiclerably  in  excess  of  the  increase  of 
weight  in  those  fed  on  hay  alone  for  the  same  length  of  time. 

*  From  description  of  silo,  etc.,  of  Mr.  Garrett  Taylor,  Rept.  on  Practice  of  Ensilage  at  Home 
and  Abroad,  loc.  cil.  pp.  187-188. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION. 

Origin  of  Intermittent  Filtration. 

The  first  mentiou  of  intermittent  downward  filtration,  as  a  process 
of  sewage  purification,  to  be  found  anywhere,  is  in  the  First  Report  of 
the  Pvivers  Pollution  Commission,  made  in  1870,  where  is  recorded  a 
series  of  experiments  on  the  filtering*  capacity  of  difterent  soils  as  car- 
ried out  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Commission.* 

In  discussing"  intermittent  filtration  the  Commissioners  say  that  the 
purification  of  sewage  by  filtration  through  sand,  gravel,  chalk,  or 
certain  kinds  of  soil,  if  properly  carried  out,  is  the  most  effective 
means  for  the  purification  of  sewage  of  any  to  which  reference  has 
been  made  (in  their  report) ;  it  is  further  stated  that  irrigation  owes 
no  inconsiderable  amount  of  its  success  to  the  contemporaneous  effect 
of  the  filtration  of  the  sewage  through  the  soil  of  the  irrigated  fields. 
These  statements  seem  trite  enough  now,  although  in  1870  they  were 
somewhat  in  advance  of  the  current  views  on  the  subject. 

The  Commissioners  begin  their  discussion  by  an  account  of  some 
experiments  on  the  continuous  upioard  filtration  of  sewage  through 
sand,  and  conclude  that  that  form  of  filtration  "  is  inefticient  in  the 
purification  of  sewage  from  soluble  oft'ensive  matters."  These  exper- 
iments also  showed  that  nitrification  took  place  only  so  long  as  the 
pores  of  the  sand  still  contained  the  air  with  which  they  were  filled  at 
the  beginning  of  the  experiment. 

Experiments  were  also  made  upon  various  kinds  of  material  with 
the  sewage  flowing  intormittontly  down  through  the  same  ;  hence 
intermittent  downward  filtration  in  contradistinction  to  continuous 
upward  filtration.  In  the  first  place  the  eft'ect  of  downward  filtration 
through  15  feet  (1)  of  sand,  and  (2)  of  sand  and  chalk  was  determined, 
after  whieb  the  efiect  of  filtration  through  about  5  to  G  feet  of  difterent 
soils  was  studied.  In  these  latter  experiments  the  first  soil  tried  Avas 
a  very  porous  gravel  taken  from  the  field  at  Beddington,  near  Cro^^don, 
which  had  been  under  sewage  irrigation  for  five  years.  This  soil  gave 
a  satisfactory  purification  when  filtering  at  the  rate  of  7.0  Imperial,  or 
about  0.1  U.  S.  gallons  of  sewage  per  cubic  yard  of  filtering  material 
*  1st  Rept.  Riv.  Pol.  Com.,  pp.  60-70.     Also  seep.  128  of  same  report. 


262  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

per  diem  ;  but  when  the  rate  was  doubled  nitrification  ceased,  the  pores 
of  the  soil  becoming-  blocked  np  so  that  they  would  no  longer  transmit 
the  whole  volume  of  sewage  supplied  and  also  afford  time  for  aeration. 
Analyses  showing  the  degree  of  purification  reached  with  different 
quantities  of  sewage  applied  are  given  in  the  report. 

Various  other  soils  were  experimented  upon  at  length,  but  the  re- 
sults now  have  historical  value,  chiefly. 

Definition  of  Intermittent  Filtration. 

Rather  singularly  the  Rivers  Pollution  Commission,  while  originat- 
ing intermittent  downward  filtration,  did  not  propose  a  complete 
definition  of  it  as  a  process  of  sewage  purification.  This  deficiency  is,, 
however,  fully  supplied  by  the  Royal  Commissioners  on  Metropolitan 
Sewage  Discharge,  who  define  the  difference  between  broad  irrigation 
and  intermittent  filtration  as  follows  :  * 

Broad  irrigation  means  the  distribution  of  sewage  over  a  large  surface  of  ordinary 
agricultural  ground,  having  in  view  a  maximum  growth  of  vegetation  (consistently 
with  due  puritication)  for  the  amount  of  sewage  sup^ilied.  Filtration  means  the 
concentration  of  sewage  at  short  intervals,  on  an  area  of  specially  chosen  porous 
ground,  as  small  as  \vill  absorb  and  cleanse  it  ;  not  excluding  vegetation,  but  mak- 
ing the  produce  of  secondary  importance.  The  intermittency  of  application  is  a 
sine  qua  non  even  in  suitably  constituted  soils,  wherever  complete  success  is  aimed  at. 

The  Theory  of  Intermittent  Filtration. 

The  foregoing  definition,  while  sufliciently  comprehensive  for  a 
working  statement  of  what  intermittent  filtration  is,  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered applicable  in  the  broader  sense  of  how  the  purification  of 
sewage  is  effected  through  its  means.  This  we  have  already  seen  is^ 
through  the  agency  of  nitrification ;  but  in  order  to  obtain  a  clear  idea 
of  how  nitrification  proceeds  in  the  filter  we  may  consider  the  theory 
of  intermittent  filtration  from  different  points  of  view  a  little  in  detail, 
using  as  a  basis  for  this  purpose  the  discussion  in  the  Massachusetts 
Special  Report,  Part  II.,  pp.  859-862,  and  further  information  from  the 
report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  for  1891,  p.  425  et 
seq.  The  working  of  a  filter  may  be  considered  as  explained  in  three 
ways,  namely,  that  its  action  is  either  mechanical,  chemical,  or  biolog- 
ical. The  old  view  was  that  filters  are  merely  strainers  ;  this  is  so 
familiar  that  the  word  filter  has  come  to  mean  ordinarily  a  more  or 
less  perfect  strainer.  This,  however,  cannot  apply  to  intermittent 
filtration.  An  area  of  sandy  soil  may,  it  is  true,  be  a  very  effective 
strainer,  but  if  worked  intermittently  it  is  much  more  than  this.  A 
strainer  soon  chokes  and  must  be  cleaned,  but  an  intermittent  filter 

*  Sec.  Kept.  (1885)  p.  46. 


THE   THEORY    OF    IXTEKMITTENT    FILTRATIOX.  263 

has,  ill  a  large  degree,  self-cleauiug  properties,  a  phenomenon  actually 
shown  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station,  where,  after  over  four 
years  of  use,  the  material  of  some  of  the  filters  was  still  clean  enough 
to  do  good  service,  although  the  1891  rejoort  states  that  organic  mat- 
ter does  accumulate  in  the  filtering  tanks,  so  that  probably  some  arti- 
ficial aid  to  cleansing  must  eventually  be  employed.  The  results  of 
analysis  and  a  comparison  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  Law- 
rence affluent  with  that  of  the  effluent  disproves  the  mechanical  theory 
of  the  tilter's  action.  There  is,  indeed,  in  the  life-history  of  an  inter- 
mittent filter  a  period  at  the  very  beginning  when  the  purification  is 
but  little  if  anything  more  than  mechanical,  but  under  the  best  con- 
ditions there  speedily  begins  a  change  of  the  profoundest  significance. 
The  dissolved  organic  matters  no  longer  pass  out  as  they  came  in. 
The  suspended  matters  mostly  cease  to  accumulate ;  both  appear  iu 
the  effluent  under  other  forms.  Mechanical  processes  alone  could  not 
effect  the  changes  which  occur  under  conditions  excluding  the  purely 
mechanical  hypothesis. 

A  striking  exam^jle  is  to  be  found  in  the  operation  of  Tank  16  A,  as 
described  at  pages  563-567  of  the  Special  Keport,  Part  II.  This  tank 
is  composed  of  small  stone,  the  spaces  between  which  are,  as  compared 
with  much  of  the  organic  matter  of  sewage,  of  infinitely  large  size; 
yet  the  changes  wrought  by  this  filter  are  far  more  extensive,  the  puri- 
fication far  more  complete,  than  in  filters  of  peat  or  garden  soil,  which 
are  mechanically  nearly  perfect  strainers.  It  would  be  hard  to  find  a 
better  example  of  the  possibilities  of  sewage  filtration  than  this  tank 
supplies,  yet  it  testifies  in  the  clearest  manner  to  the  al)solute  insig- 
nificance of  any  merely  mechanical  factor  in  the  purification  of  sewage 
by  intermittent  filtration. 

The  theory  that  the  action  of  the  filter  is  fundam(ntally  chemical  is 
much  more  reasonable.  Th(!  powers  of  intermittent  filters  to  efiect 
chemical  changes  are  abundantly  testified  to  by  the  detailed  investiga- 
tion recorded  in  the  Massachusetts  Special  Reports.  Moreover,  the 
transformations  efiected  are  .so  thorough  that  purification  by  fire 
readily  occurs  as  an  analogous  transformation  which  is  purely  chemical 
in  its  operation.  The  view,  however,  that  an  additional  factor  in  inter- 
mittent filtration  must  exist,  was  recognized  at  the  very  beginning  of 
experiments  upon  intermittent  filtration.  Thus  Frankland,  although 
insisting,  in  his  original  discussion  in  the  first  report  of  the  Rivers 
I'ollution  Commission,  upon  the  chemical  character  of  the  iiurificatioii 
ol)tain(Ml,  referred  to  the  process  as  an  act  of  respiration,  adding,  almost 
unconsciously,  the  vital  to  flu;  purely  chemical  idea.     Frankland  says  : 

From  all  these  experiments,  tlion.  it  appears  tliat  the  action  of  the  filter  must  not 
bo  considered  as  merely  mechanical.  The  process  carried  on  in  it  is  also  chemical. 
Filtration,  properly  condnct(>d,  results  in  the  oxidation  and  transformation  of  oti'en- 


264  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

sive  organic  substances  in  sohition,  as  well  as  in  the  mere  mechanical  separation  of 
the  suspended  solid  matters  whicli,  when  in  motion,  sewage  conveys  with  it.  If  the 
process  could  be  carried  one  step  furtlier,  and  those  harmless  inorganic  salts,  which 
ai'e  carried  off  by  the  etfluent  Avater  of  a  perfect  sewage  filter,  in  too  dilute  a  solu- 
tion to  be  profitably  extracted,  could  be  converted  into  something  positively  useful, 
the  remedy  would  be  complete.  We  should  have  succeeded  in  not  only  abating  an 
injurious  niiisauce,  but  in  realizing  a  product  which  would  help  to  refund  expenses. 
This  further  step  is  possible  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  and  it  is  to  the  plan  of 
using  sewage  in  irrigation,  as  being  in  reality  a  filtration  of  the  best  kind,  jjlnn  a 
conversion  of  its  filthy  contents  into  valuable  jn'oducts,  that  we  have  now  to  direct 
attention. 

But  a  filter,  as  has  been  already  shown,  is  not  a  mere  mechanical  contrivance. 
It  is  a  machine  for  oxidizing,  and  thus  altogether  transforming,  as  well  as  for  meiely 
separating  the  filth  of  dirty  water.  And  in  tliis  respect  especially  irrigation  neces- 
sarily includes  filtration.  Sewage  traversing  the  soil  undergoes  a  jsrocess  to  some 
extent  analogous  to  that  expeiienced  by  blood  passing  through  the  lungs  in  the  act 
of  breathing.  A  field  of  porous  sod  irrig(ded  intevmitteidly  virtuallit  ijerforms  an  act 
of  respivfdion,  copying  on  an  enormous  scale  the  lung  actio7i  of  a  hreatldng  animal ;  for 
it  is  alternately  receiving  and  f-npiring  air,  and  thus  dealing  as  an  oxidizing  agent  icith 
the fillliy  fluid  ichich  is  trickling  through  it.  And  a  whole  acre  of  soil,  3  or  4  feet  deep, 
presenting  XL' ithin  it  such  an  enormous  lung  surface,  must  he  far  sujierior  as  an  oxidizer, 
for  dealing  with  the  drainage  of  100  peojile,  to  any  filter  that  coiill  he  practically  ivorked 
for  tins  jjurpose* 

To  this  item  in  the  character  of  both  irrigation  and  filtration  as  chemical  proc- 
esses there  must  be  added  another  cleansing  agency,  also  of  a  chemical  kind,  in 
which  the  former  has  very  greatly  the  advantage.  "We  refer  to  the  actual  apjjetite 
for  certain  dissolved  impurities  in  filthy  water  which  soil,  whether  in  a  tank  or 
covering  a  field,  owes  both  to  general  surface  attraction  and  to  the  chemical  affini- 
ties which  some  of  its  ingredients  possess.  This  appetite  is  doubtless  very  limited 
in  its  amount,  but  it  is  directly  proportional  to  the  quantity  of  material  exercising 
it.  The  superior  capability  of  this  kind  which  the  soil  of  a  field  jiossesses,  in  com- 
parison with  that  in  a  limited  filtration  tank,  depends  partly  on  the  immensely 
greater  quantity  of  cleansing  material  which  an  acre  drained  jjerhaps  4  feet  deep 
uecessaiily  brings  to  bear  upon  the  filthy  fluid;  but  also  and  especially  on  the  fact 
that  in  the  former  case  this  is,  exce})t  in  winter  time,  always  kept  alive  and  fresh  by 
the  action  of  plant  growth  in  constantly  removing  the  deposited  impurities,  and  re- 
building them  into  wholesome  organic  structures. 

We  see,  then,  that  Dr.  Frankland,  altliongh  strenuously  insisting- 
upon  the  chemical  nature  of  the  purification  obtained  in  intermittent 
filtration,  nevei-theless,  in  the  i)ortion  which  we  have  italicized,  defined 
conditions  which  we  now  know  can  onl}"  be  satisfied  by  assuming*  that 
micro-org"anisms  are  an  indispensable  element  in  the  constitution  of  a 
successful  intermittent  filter,  hence  the  final  view  is  that  the  operation 
of  such  a  filter  is  essentially  biolog-ical  rather  than  either  mechanical 
or  cliemical. 

Biological  phenomena,  however,  depend  ujDon  cliemical  phenomena, 
and  in  order  that  Dr.  Frankland's  act  of  respiration  can  take  place,  the 
presence  of  a  small  but  sufficient  quantity  of  free  oxj'gen  is  indispen- 
sable. This  is  well  established  by  the  experiment  upon  Filter  Tank  Ko. 
14,  as  detailed  at  pages  144,  160,  730,  and  734  of  the  Massachusetts 
Special  Report,  Part  II.  Again,  the  biological  theory  demands  the 
presence  and  activity  of  living  micro-organisms.     In  the  chapter  on 

".\s  enforcing  this  point  refer  to  Tables  37-41  B  in  Chapter  VIII.,  pp.  104-l(i8. 


THE    XEW    THESIS    OF    INTERMITTENT    FILTKaTION.  265 

Nitrification  aud  the  Nitrifying-  Organism,  we  have  detailed  some  of 
the  ditfieulties  which  have  been  met  by  biologists  in  their  endeavors 
to  isolate  and  identify  the  particular  kinds  which  appear  indispensable 
to  the  process  of  nitrification  ;  and  although  the  problem  has  been 
hedged  about  by  extraordinary  difticulties  it  is  believed  that  the  essen- 
tial organism  of  nitrification  has  been  successfully  isolated.  The  chief 
points  established  are :  (1)  That  the  best  results  are  obtained  in  filters 
which  are  mature,  and  have  thus  become  adapted  to  their  work ;  (2) 
that  a  distinct  regimen  is  essential  to  success ;  (3)  that  free  oxygen  is 
indispensable ;  (1)  that  the  sewage  is  best  purified  when  held  in  thin 
films  upon  or  between  sand  grains  and  gravel  stones  ;  and  (5)  that  the 
period  of  greatest  destruction  of  the  ordinary  sewage  bacteria  corre- 
sponds closely  with  the  time  of  most  active  nitrification. 

The  experiments  on  intermittent  filtration  which  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Health  has  carried  out  in  the  last  four  years,  from 
which  the  foregoing  views  as  to  the  present  understanding  of  the 
theory  of  intermittent  filtration  are  drawn,  are  the  most  extensive  that 
have  ever  been  made.* 

In  the  Nineteenth  Annual  Eeport,  at  page  43,  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  describes  the  arrangements  at  the  experimental  station 
at  Lawrence,  and  gives  in  detail  the  method  of  preparing  the  material 
in  the  several  large  tanks  used  in  the  experiments. 

The  New  Thesis  of  Intermittent  Filtration. 

In  the  Twentieth  Annual  Report,  page  32,  the  Board  gives  some  of 
the  results  of  the  first  year's  work  and  states  the  new  thesis  of  inter- 
mittent filtration,  namely  :  (1)  That  sewage  can  be  more  efficiently  fil- 
tered through  open  sand  than  through  sand  covered  with  soil ;  and  (2) 
that  the  up[)er  layers  of  intermittent  filtration  areas  should  be  com- 
posed of  open  sand,  through  which  the  sewage  will  raxiidly  disapi^ear, 
leaving  room  for  air  to  enter  and  come  in  contact  with  the  thin  laminse 
of  liquid  covering  the  particles  of  sand. 

In  the  Special  Report,  Part  II.  (1890),  on  the  Purification  of  Sewage 
and  Water,  etc.,  the  residts  of  two  years'  work  in  the  filtration  of  sewage 
thn^ngli  various  grades  of  sand  are  discussed  in  detail  gener;dly.  by 
Hiram  F.  Mills,  C.E.,  while  the  biological  results  are  discussed  by 

*Pro£t'i-sor  Henry  Robinson,  whose  right  to  speak  with  authority  will  be  concedpcl.  in  a  jtaper 
on  Sewage  Disposal  with  reference  to  River  Pollution  and  Water  Supply,  read  in  1891  at  the  Lon- 
don Congress  of  Hygiene  and  Demography,  said  : 

The  action  th:it  has  been  taken  by  tlie  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachnsetts.  to  protect  the 
purity  of  iiilanil  wati-rs,  deserves  to  l)e  si)ccially  commejided  as  an  example  of  broad  and  wise  pulicy 
in  instit'itlnij  the  systematic  investigation  by  ergineers  chemists,  anil  bioloirists  of  all  that  bears 
npon  the  pnritieation  of  scwaire  and  on  the  filtration  of  water.     .     .  Thi'  exhaustive  reports 

under  tliese  diffVrent  heads  may  lie  fairly  stated  to  be  far  in  advance  of  anything  that  has  been 
fairly  attempted  in  this  country  (England). 


266 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


Professor  Wm.  T.  Sedg-wick  and  his  assistants.  Nearly  every  possible 
phase  of  sewag-e  puritication  by  filtration  is  touched  upon,  and  who- 
ever would  compass  the  subject  as  it  stands  to-da}^  must  study  the 
original  report,  and  also  its  continuation^'in  the  Annual  Report  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  for  1891.  Without  going-  exten- 
sively into  the  detail  here,  we  will  present  a  brief  digest  of  some  of  the 


FiC4.  22. — View  of  Large  Tanks  at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station. 

results,  tog-ether  with  a  summary,  the  same  as  already  done  for  the 
work  on  chemical  purification.  The  larg-e  experimental  tanks  used  at 
Lawrence  are  shown  by  Fig.  22. 


Results  with  Tank  No.  1. 

In  the  chapter  On  Nitrification  and  the  Nitrifying  Organism  the 
main  points  in  the  theory  of  nitrification  of  organic  substances  have 
been  set  forth.  From  various  studies  made  abroad  it  had  been  con- 
cluded that  nitrification  was  almost  entirely  a  summer  process,  which 
nearly  ceased  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather.  The  Lawrence  experi- 
ments, however,  show  that  by  due  attention  to  details  a  fairly  efficient 
nitrification  may  be  obtained  in  winter  as  illustrated  by  Table  No.  58, 
giving  the  results  of  nitrification  in  Tank  No.  1,  the  filtering-  material 
in  which  is  "  five  feet  in  depth,  of  very  coarse,  clean  mortar  sand  taken 
from  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  feet." 


RESULTS    WITH    TANK    NO.    1. 


267 


In  studying'  the  results  embodied  in  Table  No.  58,  it  is  important  to 
remember  that  the   percentage  of  nitrification  attained  during  any 

Table  No.  58. — Percentage  of  Nitrogen  Applied  in  the  Sewage  that  Appears 
EN  THE  Effluent  as  Nitrates. 


Date. 

Nitrogen 

applied  in 

sewage. 

Nitrates  in 

effluent 

corrected  for 

quantity. 

Per  cent, 
of  applied 

nitrogen. 

Average 

daily 
quantity, 

gallons. 

Temperature,  F". 

Sewage. 

Effluent. 

1888. 

May 

3.02:^8 

1.974 

65 

156* 

47 

52 

June 

1.75<i8 

0.879 

50 

217 

6:^ 

64 

July  

-2.0U7 

1.0411 

51 

283 

69 

71 

August 

3.!)fiI8 

1.31 '.I 

33 

303 

72 

73 

September 

4.82.-.7 

1.021 

21 

325 

69 

68 

October ^ 

2.4<.t70 

1.0116 

44 

313 

49 

55 

2.:iSi7 
l.-J(;52 

1.1  2.T 

0.794 

47 
54 

304 

288 

45 
45 

49 

December    

41 

18S9. 

JaniMiv 

1.1772 

0.737 

50 

283 

45 

40 

1.4864 
2.08.55 

0.797 
1.148 

54 
55 

290 
294 

45 
37 

38 

JVIai  ch 

38 

April 

2.4:H!t.5 

1.96S 

81 

299 

45 

46 

May 

2.3517 

2  125 

90 

262 

60 

59 

2.9.^)14 
3.1  ICO 
2..5-190 

1.842 
1.785 
2.024 

62 
57 
79 

243 
293 

287 

66 
72 

71 

66 

July 

70 

August 

69 

September 

3.2'.t89 

1.470 

45 

286 

68 

67 

October 

2.9411 

1.595 

54 

293 

53 

56 

*  Tank  No.  1  has  an  area  of  one  two-hundredths  of  an  acre. 

given  period  does  not  represent  the  total  amount  of  nitrogen  removed. 
The  experiments  indicate  that  sand  filters  have  considerable  capacity 
for  storing-  the  nitrogenous  matter  at  one  x^eriod  and  later  on  convert- 

Table  No.  59.— Number  of  Bacteria  Found  in  the  Sewage  Applied  to  the 
Coarse  Sand  Filtku  Tank  No.  1  and  in  the  Effluent  therefkom  on 
Given  D.vies,  togetheii  with  the  Amount  Applied,  Amount  of  Effluent, 
and  the  Temper.vture  of  Sewage  and  Effluent. 


Date. 

Quantity    applied, 
gallons  per  acre 

Quantity  of 
effluent,  gallons 

Bacteria  in  : 

Temperature,  F". 

per  day. 

per  acre  per  day. 

Sewage,  per  Effluent,  per 
c.c.         1         c.c. 

Sewage.          Effluent. 

18vS 

0ctf)licr    2 

6ii,(iO() 

79,400 

167,327          2,122 

53 

61 

11 

tiO.dOO 

ijii.son 

313,420               88 

49 

57 

••       25  

60,(iOO 

62,0.0 

840.1100             110 

45 

51 

November  28 

60.0(iO 

64,2iiO 

1.7t!2,'.i50          3.799 

44 

34 

December  21 

60,(MH) 

63.800 

409,51  K)               27 

46 

40 

1,SS9 

Janniiry  2 

120,000 

117,600 

3.55.n(>0        11,020 

45 

40 

I'clMUiMV  19 

60.1)00 

57.200 

l:!7.5,50                30 

44 

38 

Miinh  12     

60.00(1 
60.00<l 

59,000 
54,60) 

251.300                66 
3.963.<'('0                74 

33 
46 

37 

April  16 

46 

M'lV  14 

60,000 

60,0(10 

1.679.200                37 

61 

59 

120.(100 

97,800 

65:J,800  ,          146 

69 

67 

iiig  it  into  nitrates.  There  is  also  a  c(msiderable  loss  of  nitrogen,  or, 
at  any  rate,  a  consideral)l('  ])()rti<)ii  which  does  not  appear  in  the  effluent, 
but  which  has  been  clearly  removed  as  determined  by  complete  analy- 


268 


SEWAGI-:    DISPOSAL    TX    TIT  K    UXITKD    STATES. 


Table  No.  60. — Mineral  Analysis  op  Samples  of  Sewage  Applied  to  Tank  No. 

1  AND  OF  ITS  Effluent. 

(Parts  per  100,000  of  the  original  liquid.) 


Sewage, 
Dec.  11, 

18S8. 

Effluent, 
Dec.  15, 

1888. 

Sewage, 
Dec.  11, 

188S. 

Effluent, 
Dec.  11, 

1888. 

48. 4 
18.6 

as. 8 

5.18 
1.96 
3.36 
0,*4 

24.6 
1.6 

23.0 
5  24 
1.46 
2.9S 
0.&6 

Aluminium  oxide 

0.17 
0.01 
0.56 

4. '98 
1.57 
1.86 

0.18 

0.01 

Manganic  oxide ....   

Nitrogen  as  nitrate 

O.TO 

4  56 

2.11 

Magnesium  oxide 

Silica 

1.42 

The.'se  substances  may  be  combined  as  follows: 


3.04 

""5!69" 
1.61 
3.74 

Magnesium  cai  bonate 

1.76 
6.00 
0.17 
0.01 
0.56 
l.!r6 

0.48 

3.70 
5.76 

5.32 

0.18 

0.01 

2.v>8 
1.52 

1.42 

i.49 

sis  of  the  crude  sewage.  This  phase  of  the  subject  is  farther  illus- 
trated by  Tables  Nos.  61  and  62  following-. 

The  results  of  purif\dng  sewage  Avith  coarse  sand  filters,  so  far  as 
nitrification  is  concerned,  is  exhibited  b}^  Table  No.  58,  and  inasmuch 
as  such  filters  possess  some  advantages  over  those  of  finer  sand,  we 
may  consider  their  construction  a  little  in  detail. 

In  the  first  place,  it  has  already  been  indicated  that  in  all  soil  puri- 
fication nitrification  plays  a  leading  part  in  resolving  the  objection- 
able organic  constituents  of  sewage  into  inert  and  harmless  inorganic 
compounds.  A  study  of  sewage  purification  by  means  of  intermittent 
filtration  is  therefore  in  reality  mostly  a  study  of  the  process  of  uitrifi- 

Table  No.  61. — Percentage  of  the  Ammonias  in  the  Crude  Sewage  Applied  to 
Tank  No.  1,  which  Appeared  in  the  Effluent,  in  Comparison  with  the  Per- 
centage OF  the  Total  Nitrogen  in  the  Effluent  for  the  Months  Indicated, 
etc. 


Month. 


May 

June 

July 

August 

September. . 
October  . . . . 

Average 


Peicentage  of  the  ammonias  of  the  sewage, 
appearing  in  the  iffluenl. 


1888.        1889, 


4.8 
0.1 
0.2 
0.8 
1.5 
6.5 


2.3 


2.7 
15 
0.2 
0.2 
3.1 
4.6 


2.0 


Albuminoid. 


1888.        1889, 


0.8 
3  8 
4.6 
2.0 
1.6 
6.1 

3.1 


8.2 
5.8 
2.6 
2.9 
3.5 
3.5 


1888.        1889, 


2.7 
0.9 
1.0 
1.1 
1.5 
6.4 


2.3 


3.7 
2.3 
0.8 
0.9 
3.2 
4,3 


Percentage  of  to- 
tal nitrogen  of 
the  sewage  ap- 
pearing in  the 
effluent. 


1888. 

ias9. 

65 

90 

52 

63 

52 

57 

.33 

80 

2(1 

46 

42 

54 

44 

65 

kp:sults  with  tank  no.  1. 


269 


Table  No.  62. — Summary  op  Total  NrrKOG?:x  Applied  to  Tank  No.  1,  the  Amount 
Appearing  in  the  Effluent,  the  Amount  Stohed  in  the  Tank,  and  the  Un- 
accounted for  Balance,  in  Pounds. 


Dec, 

1888. 

Feb., 
1889. 

June, 
1889. 

Nov., 
1889. 

April  16, 
1890. 

June  18, 
1890. 

Nov.  24,  Mar.  25, 
1890.        1891. 

June  29, 

1891. 

Nov.  9, 
1891. 

Total     nitrogen    ap- 
plied to  date 

Amount    in    effluent 

16.62 

6.63 

4.27 
5.67 

26. 

34. 

18.83 

7.90 

5.49 
5.44 

29. 

29. 

24.96 

12.66 

4.05 
8.25 

16. 

33. 

35.63 

19.19 

5.81 
10.63 
16. 
30. 

42.93 

23.59 

6.40 
12.94 
15. 
30, 

46.41 

26.72 

5.40 
14.29 
12. 
bl. 

63.05        73.66 
34.38        41.42 

84.85 

47.78 

13.00 
24.07 
15. 
28. 

104.47 
57  93 

Amount     stored     in 

sand  to  date 

Amount  lost  to  date. 

Per  cent,  stored 

Per  cent,  lost 

10.10 
18.57 
16. 
29. 

12.80 
19.44 
17. 
26. 

16.00 
30.54 
15. 
29. 

cation,  and  the  thing-  to  be  found  out  is  chiefly  the  conditions  most  fa- 
vorable to  the  action  of  the  nitrifying-  organism.  These  are  :  (1)  The 
presence  of  oxyg-en ;  (2)  of  moisture  ;  (3)  of  an  alkaline  basic  salt ;  and 
(4)  of  a  temperature  somewhat  above  freezing.  In  reference  to  temper- 
ature it  may  be  said  that  nitrification  is  more  active  at  from  60°  to 
70°  F.  than  it  is  at  materially  lower  temperatures,  but  once  thoroughly 
started  it  will  continue  active  for  some  time  with  temperatures  only 
5°  to  10°above  freezing. 

In  the  later  experiments  at  Lawrence  it  has  been  found  that  oxj^gen 
and  time  are  the  more  essential  elements  in  intermittent  filtration,  or, 
as  expressed  by  Mr.  Hazen  :  * 

The  i^iirification  of  sewage  by  intermittent  filtration  depends  upon  oxygen  and 
time  ;  all  other  conditions  are  secondai-}'.  Temperature  has  only  a  minor  influence  ; 
the  organisms  necessary  for  purification  are  sure  to  establish  themselves  in  a  filter 
before  it  has  been  long  in  use.  Imperfect  purification  for  any  considerable  period 
can  invariably  be  traced  either  to  a  lack  of  oxygen  in  the  pores  of  the  filter,  or  to  the 
sewage  passing  so  quickly  through  that  there  is  not  sutficient  time  for  the  oxidation 
processes  to  take  place.  Any  treatment  which  keei)s  all  jnirticles  of  sewage  distrib- 
uted over  the  surface  of  sand  particles,  in  contact  with  an  excess  of  air  for  a  suffi- 
cient time,  is  sure  to  give  a  well-oxidized  effluent,  and  tlie  power  of  any  material  to 
purify  sewage  depends  almost  entirely  upon  its  ability  to  hold  the  sewage  in  con- 
tact with  air.     It  must  hold  both  sewage  and  air  in  sufficient  amounts. 

In  Filter  Tank  No.  1,  of  the  Lawrence  experiments,  the  following 
are  the  elements  :  Total  amount  of  sand,  0,000  gallons  ;  amount  of 
water  contained  when  saturated,  3,240  gallons ;  when  draiiunl  there 
remained  1,040  gallons  of  water,  and  in  the  place  of  the  water  drained 
away  there  had  presumably  entered  into  the  voids  the  difference  be- 
tween the  3,240  gallons  of  water  originally  required  to  fill  them,  and 
the  amount  of  1,040  gallons  which  did  not  drain  away,  or  2,200  gallons 
of  air. 

This  sand  is  so  open  that  when  all  the  water  has  drained  away  that 
will  run  from  it,  air  can  pass  freely  up  through  the  five  feet  of  sand 

*  --Kill  An.  Kept.  Mass.  St.  Bd.  of  Health,  Filtration  of  Sewage,  p.  428. 


270  sewagp:  disposal  in  the  united  states. 

from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  and  in  addition  the  air  in  the  sand  is 
forced  out  through  the  underdrains  by  covering  the  surface  with 
water.  Fine  sands,  on  the  contrary,  may  be  entirely  saturated  in  the 
lower  portion,  while  the  upper  layers  are  open  and  contain  air.  When 
therefore  a  filter  composed  of  fine  sand  is  covered  with  water  on  the 
surface,  the  free  circulation  of  air  through  the  voids  is,  under  these 
conditions,  cut  off  and  the  circumstances  affecting  nitrification  and  the 
life  of  organisms  contained  in  the  sewage  passing  through,  materially 
changed.  The  effect  of  these  changes  may  be  recognized  in  two  ways, 
(1)  the  coarse-sand  filters  may  be  made  to  purify  a  much  larger  quan- 
tity of  sewage  in  a  given  time  than  those  of  fine  sand ;  (2)  the  puri- 
fication effected  by  the  fine-sand  filters  on  the  smaller  quantities 
purified  by  them  under  the  conditions  of  ordinary  o^Deration  will  be 
somewhat  superior  to  that  effected  by  the  coarse-sand  filters,  even 
when  ojDerating  on  quantities  not  much  greater  than  the  average  for 
the  fine  sands.  This  phase  of  the  subject  will  be  further  touched  upon 
as  we  proceed. 

Tank  No.  2. 

The  foregoing  discussion  of  intermittent  filtration,  so  far  as  it  re- 
lates to  coarse-sand  filters,  is  drawn  from  the  data  and  tabulations  in 
reference  to  Tank  No.  1.  In  Tank  No.  2  a  clean  fine  sand  of  even 
grain  was  used,  and  the  results  with  this  tank  indicate  a  somewhat 
higher  degree  of  purification  attained,  though  for  smaller  quantities 
of  sewage  applied  per  unit  of  area. 

In  the  effluent  the  number  of  bacteria  has  been,  after  the  begin- 
ning of  nitrification,  materially  less  than  in  the  effluent  of  Tank  No,  1. 
For  a  portion  of  the  time  they  were  less  than  100  per  cubic  centimetre, 
and  for  a  year  averaged  only  21.  In  five  months  of  the  year  they 
averaged  but  7, 

The  number  of  bacteria  present  in  the  sewage  may  be  seen  by  re- 
ference to  Table  No.  59,  including  results  of  Tank  No.  1, 

Table  No.  61  exhibits  in  compact  form  the  results  obtained  wdth 
this  tank  after  nitrification  had  fully  begun. 

Experiment  with  Trenches. 

The  soil  of  the  field  adjoining  the  experimental  tanks  at  Lawrence 
is  of  fine  river  silt,  somewhat  finer  than  the  sand  used  in  Tank  No. 
2.  In  order  to  test  the  filtering  qualities  of  such  material  in  situ 
an  area  of  about  one-third  of  an  acre  was  prepared  by  partially  imder- 
draining  with  drains  60  feet  apart  to  catch  samples  of  the  effluent. 
These  underdrains  have  been  found  of  little  use.  Usually  the  liquid 
passes  by  them  directly  down  to  the  water  table,  which  is  below  them 


EXI'EIMMKNT    WITH    T11E>'CHES. 


271 


a  varying"  distance,  depending-  upon  the  stag-e  of.  water  in  the  Merri- 
mac  river,  which  Hows  near  b}". 

At  the  location  selected  the  surface  slope  is  about  1  foot  in  10  in 
one  direction  and  about  1  in  100  in  the  other. 

A  series  of  shallow  trenches  which  follow  the  surface  of  the  field 
and  are  shown  in  plan  and  section  by  Fig.  23,  were  excavated  in  tho 
orig-inal  material  in  slopes,  1  foot  in  30,  1  foot  in  50,  and  1  in  100. 
They  were  mostly  made  one  foot  wide,  top  and  bottom,  and  of  varying 
depths  from  six  inches  to  three  feet,  and  filled  in  with  coarse  mortar 
sand  same  as  used  in  Tank  No.  1.  These  trenches  are  made  five  feet  apart 
and  g"enerally  have  the  surface  of  the  coarse  filled-in  sand  four  inches 
below  the  adjacent  original  surface,  except  at  their  lower  end,  where 
in  50  feet  it  increases  to  ten  inches  below.  The  length  of  each  is  about 
200  feet,  and  except  at  the  lower  end  the  width  is  one  foot,  as  stated. 


10      0      10  •  ^o    30    40     so 
Scalecrf  Feet 

Fig.  23. — Pl.\n  and  Section  of  Filter  Trenches  at  Lawrence. 


The  distance  which  sewag-e  ^^dll  flow  along-  the  surface  depends 
upon  :  (1)  The  amount  applied,  and  (2)  upon  the  amount  of  sedi- 
ment upon  the  surface:  and  this  ag-ain  varies  with  the  quality  of 
the  sewage,  the  completeness  of  nitrification,  and  the  time  elapsed 
since  the  surface  was  cleaned.  Sewage  was  applied  to  these  trenches 
beginning  in  May,  1888,  the  quantity  varying  from  500  gallons  a  day 
for  six  days  in  the  week,  to  1,500  gallons  daily,  this  latter  quantity 
being  applied  to  some  of  the  trenches,  500  gallons  at  a  time,  at  9:30 
A.M.,  2  P.M.,  and  4:30  p.m. 

After  ai)plying  sewage  in  this  way  for  from  one  to  three  months, 
the  surface  becomes  so  coated  that  a  slight  cleaning  is  desirable.  This 
is  effected  by  scraping  off  ono-quarter  of  an  inch  in  dcjith  from  the 
surface  of  the  coarse  sand  filled  into  the  trench. 

In  order  to  protect  the  trenches  from  frost,  in  the  winter  of  1888-9 
they  were  covered  with  boards,  and  the  process  of  purificati(m  having 
been  found  to  proceed  as  readily  under  these  conditions  during  the 
next  spring  as  when  exposed  to  air,  the  boards  were  allowed  to 
remain. 


272  sp:\vage  disposal  in  tup:  united  states. 

The  quantity  of  land  through  which  the  sewage  applied  to  these 
trenches  filters  varies  with  the  condition  of  the  surface,  and  this  again 
depends  upon  the  frequency  with  which  they  are  cleaned.  During 
the  fall  of  1888  they  were  cleaned  once  a  month,  during  the  winter  of 
1889  once  in  two  months,  and  in  summer  of  1889  once  in  four  or  five 
months,  the  board  coverings  having  been  added  late  in  the  fall  of 
1888.  After  a  cleaning,  the  time  before  500  gallons  of  applied  sewage 
"Sfill  reach  the  lower  end  varies  from  one  to  three  mouths. 

In  material  of  the  kind  here  used  it  appears  probable  that  50,000  to 
60,000  gallons  of  sewage  per  day  per  acre  may  be  efficiently  purified 
with  a  renewal  of  the  sand  in  the  trenches  not  exceeding  two  inches 
annually.     The  expense  of  doing  this  will  be  considered  further  on. 

Experiments  with  Fine  Soil. 

The  experiments  at  Lawrence  have  also  included  an  investigation  of 
the  filtering  capacity  of  fine  soil,  and  of  areas  of  sand  covered  with 
soil.  Filter  Tank  No.  5,  in  which  the  experiments  on  garden  soil  were 
conducted,  had  the  bottom  about  the  underdrains  covered  with  coarse 
gravel,  this  again  with  finer  gravel  and  coarse  sand,  making  a  depth 
of  about  seven  inches,  above  which  was  a  depth  of  five  feet  of  fine  gar- 
den soil. 

From  Januar}',  1888,  to  October,  1889,  inclusive,  seAvage  was  applied 
to  this  tank  at  varying  average  rates  per  month,  from  19,200  gallons 
per  acre  i^er  day  in  January,  1888,  to  30,100  gallons  pev  acre  per  day 
in  April,  1888,  after  which  the  monthly  average  was  gradually  lessened 
to  3,800  gallons  per  acre  per  day  in  February,  1889,  then  rising  to  an 
average  of  8,400  gallons  in  August,  1889. 

During  April,  1888,  when  sewage  was  ajiplied  at  the  rate  of  30,000 
gallons  per  acre  pev  day,  this  amount  disappeared  from  the  surface 
within  six  hours  after  its  application  ;  but  in  the  latter  part  of  May,  it 
did  not  always  disappear  in  24  hours.  In  June  the  quantity  was  re- 
duced to  20,000  gallons  per  acre  per  day,  and  still  accumulated  on  the 
surface.  For  a  week,  in  July,  no  sewage  was  applied,  and  some  of 
the  accumulation  remained  upon  the  surface  five  da3^s. 

The  result  of  the  experiments  with  Filter  Tank  No.  5,  shows  that  gar- 
den soil  is  entirely  unadapted  to  the  purification  of  sewage  by  filtra- 
tion, even  in  small  quantities.  During  the  six  months,  from  May  to 
October,  1889,  sewage  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  only  7,500  gallons  per 
acre  per  day.  During  this  time  there  was  no  nitrification,  and  the 
albuminoid  ammonia  of  the  effluent  was  82  per  cent,  of  that  of  the 
sewage. 


EXPERIMENTS    WITH    SAND    COVERED    WITH    SOIL.  273 


EXPERBIENTS   WITH   SaXD   COVERED  WITH   SoiL. 

In  Filter  Tank  No,  7,  the  lower  four  feet  was  composed  of  the  usual 
seven  inches  of  g-ravel  and  sand,  around  and  above  the  underdrains, 
with  a  mixture  above  of  fine  g-ravel  and  coarse  and  fine  sand.  Above 
this  four  feet  of  gravel  and  sand  there  is  in  addition  six  inches  of 
brown  soil. 

In  May,  1888,  sewage  was  ai)plied  at  the  rate  of  30,000  g-allons  per 
acre  per  day,  except  on  six  days  when  none  was  applied.  In  the  early 
part  of  June  this  quantity  did  not  all  disappear  in  twentj'-four  hours ; 
after  June  1-4  the  quantity  was  reduced  to  an  average  of  13,800  gallons 
per  acre  per  day  to  the  end  of  the  mouth.  During  this  time  9,000  gal- 
lons per  day  came  through,  the  remainder  evajjorating  and  accumu- 
lating on  the  surface.  From  July  1  to  11  an  average  of  9,000  gallons 
a  da)^  was  applied  ;  at  the  same  time  the  effluent  averaged  4,400  gal- 
lons. After  July  11,  the  application  was  discontinued  until  July  25. 
During  this  time  the  sewage  remained  upon  the  surface  for  12  days, 
finally  disai)pearing  July  24tli. 

On  July  25,  h  inch  in  depth  of  the  surface  was  removed,  and  sewage 
applied  at  the  rate  of  20,000  gallons  per  acre  per  day.  With  a  fresh 
surface  this  quantity  disappeared  in  53  minutes.  The  same  amount 
was  applied  daily  for  six  weeks.  In  ten  days  it  required  an  hour  and 
a  half  to  entirely  disappear  from  the  surface.  After  August  16  the 
sewage  disappeared  much  more  slowly,  and  some  days  not  at  all.  After 
September  8,  the  quantity  was  reduced  to  an  average  of  about  13,000 
gallons  per  acre  per  day,  or  exactly  90,000  gallons  per  week,  applied 
three  times  a  week,  30,000  gallons  at  a  time.  In  October  sewage  grad- 
nally  accumulated  on  the  surface,  and  the  a]iplication  was  in  conse- 
quence reduced  in  November  to  a  total  of  60,000  gallons  per  acre  per 
Aveek,  applied  20,000  gallons  at  a  time,  on  three  days  in  the  week. 
During  this  time  the  effluent  amounted  to  10,800  gallons  per  acre  per 
day. 

The  experiments  on  Tanks  Nos.  5  and  7  indicate  a  marked  decrease 
in  the  nitrification  as  soon  as  the  sewage  accumulates  to  any  consid- 
erable extent  on  the  surface.  AVhen  allowed  to  accumulate  upon  the 
surface^  long  enougli  to  completely  exclude  air  from  the  interstices  of 
the  filter,  the  nitrification  either  nearly,  or  completely  ceased.  Dis- 
continuing the  application  of  sewage,  until  the  sui-face  cleared  itself 
was  followed  in  every  case  by  an  increase  in  nitrification. 

The  experiments  on  these  two  tanks  have  therefore  illustrated  one 
of  the  chief  dilfereuces  between  continuous  and  intermittent  filtra- 
tion. 

18 


274  SEWAGE   DI8POSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  following-  is  the  summary  of  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
soil  on  the  filter  area,  as  given  by  Mr.  Mills  : 

The  experiments  have  been  limited  to  fine  soils,  quite  retentive  of  water. 

With  a  depth  of  5  feet  of  soil  no  purification  by  nitrification  occiirred  wlien  the 
quantity  filtered  was  only  7,500  gallons  per  acre  per  day  ;  and  the  organic  nitroge- 
nous matter  in  the  effluent  was  nearly  as  great  as  in  the  applied  sewage.  It  is 
known,  however,  that  for  several  months  the  average  number  of  bacteria  in  the 
effluent  was  only  one  in  25,000  of  the  number  apislied  to  the  filter ;  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  none  lived  to  pass  through  the  filter. 

With  the  ordinary  depth  of  soil  resting  on  yellow  loam,  as  it  is  often  in  thi» 
State,  and  this  underlaid  by  four  feet  of  good  filtering  sand,  we  find  that  only 
about  9,000  gallons  of  sewage  may  be  filtered  upon  an  acre  daily,  with  the  result 
of  removing  99.5  per  cent,  of  the  organic  matter,  and  probably  removing  all  of  the 
bacteria  ;  while  if  the  soil  and  loam  be  removed,  the  underlying  sand  may  be  able 
to  filter  three  times  as  much,  or  30,000  gallons  per  acre  per  day,  giving  an  effluent 
as  pure,  chemically,  as  when  covered  with  soil,  but  not  removing  so  completely 
the  bacteria — allowing,  ordinarily,  a  small  fraction  of  one  per  cent,  to  joass  through 
the  filter. 

For  filtering  sewage  upon  the  margin  of  a  drinking-water  stream,  a  large  area, 
covered  with  fine  soil,  or  a  smaller  area  of  very  fine  sand,  would  be  preferable  to  a 
much  smaller  area  of  coarse  sand  or  a  mixed  sand  and  gravel,  in  that  the  former 
could  be  so  managed  that  no  bacteria  could  pass  through.  For  filtering  sewage 
on  any  land  that  does  not  drain  into  a  drinking-water  stream,  the  covering  of  fine 
soil  is  a  disadvantage.  The  quantity  applied  to  it  must  be  kept  very  small,  or 
nitrification  and  purification  will  be  jjrevented.  The  smaller  areas  of  sand  can  be 
made  to  give  as  good  an  effluent,  chemically,  with  all  the  reduction  in  the  number 
of  bacteria  that  is  necessary. 

Experiments  with  Peat,  Loam,  etc. 

In  addition  to  the  experiments  upon  the  filtering  capacity  of  fine 
retentive  soils,  an  extended  series  were  also  made  upon  peat  and 
loam,  and  peat  mixed  with  sand,  clay,  etc.,  in  various  jDroportions. 
The  tanks  devoted  to  these  experiments  with  peat  were  Nos.  3,  15,  16, 
17,  and  18. 

Tank  No.  3  was  one  of  the  large  tanks  with  an  area  of  one  two-hun- 
dredth of  an  acre.  The  underdrains  were  laid  in  the  usual  depth  of  7 
inches  of  gravel  and  coarse  sand,  above  which  was  five  feet  of  peat, 
consisting  of  nearly  all  vegetable  matter,  except  that  it  contained  a 
little  mud.  The  top  of  the  original  bed,  from  which  this  peat  was  de- 
rived, had  been  cultivated.  The  cultivated  top  layer  was  removed  and 
the  tank  filled  with  selected  material  to  the  depth  of  four  feet  from 
the  undisturbed  lower  layers ;  after  which  one  foot  in  depth  of  tlie 
cultivated  upper  layer  was  added  to  the  peat. 

Without  going  into  the  detail  of  the  experiments  with  this  peaty 
material,  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  the  results  indicate  that  such  an  area  is 
"  entirely  worthless  for  the  filtration  of  sewage." 

Tanks  Nos.  15,  16,  17  and  18  were  small  tanks,  placed  within  the 
building,  and  each  having  an  area  of  one  twenty-thousandth  of  an  acre. 
Coarse  gravel  and  coarse  sand  to  the  depth  of  about  six  inches  were 


p]XPEKIMENTS    WITH    COAIl.SE    GRAVEL. 


275 


placed  in  the  bottom  of  each  tank,  and  served  as  underdrains  to  the 
filtering-  material. 

In  Tank  No.  15,  the  filtering  material  consisted  of  2|  feet  of  peat 
overlying"  peaty  sand  and  sand. 

In  Tank  No.  16,  the  lower  3^  feet  of  filtering  material  was  peaty 
sand,  and  clear  sand,  with  a  depth  of  1^  feet  of  peat  above. 

Tank  No.  17  contained  Sg  feet  of  peat,  underlaid  with  peaty  sand 
and  sand. 

Tank  No.  18  contained  five  feet  in  depth  of  peat,  mixed  with  some 
ver}'  fine  sand  and  some  cla3'. 

In  regard  to  the  results  of  experiments  with  Tanks  Nos.  15,  16,  17, 
IS,  filled  with  jieaty  materials,  Mr.  Mills  says :  "  These  materials  were 
all  found  to  be  quite  worthless  for  the  filtration  of  sewag^e." 

Experiments  on  mixed  sand  and  gravel  further  indicate  the  utility 
of  an  open  material. 

EXPEKIMENTS  WITH  COAESE  GrAVEL. 

Probably  as  interesting  and  useful  experiments  as  any  are  those  on 
filtration  through  clean  gravel.  In  this  direction,  two  series  have  been 
made  :  (1)  Those  on  very  coarse,  clean  gravel ;  and  (2)  those  upon  fine 
clean  gravel.  We  will  briefly  refer  to  the  second  series,  where  the 
filtering  material  was  composed  exclusively  of  five  feet  in  depth  of 
gravel  stones  of  the  size  of  beans.  The  sand  was  screened  out  and  the 
stones  washed  clean  before  putting  into  the  tank.     The  voids  were 

T.\BLE  No.  63.     Daily  Quantity  OF  Effluent  in  Gallons  per  Acue;  the   Aveu- 
AGE  Amounts  of  Ammonia,  Nitrates,  and  Bacteria  in  the  Effluent  ;  and 

THE  TIME    of  PASSING   THROUGH    ONE    FOOT   FOR    THE   MoNTH   INDICATED.      TANK 

No.  2,  Clean  Fine  Sand. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


Daily    quantity  of 

effluent,  gallons 

per  acre. 

Ammonia. 

1 

a 

0.863 
0.784 

0.762 
0.736 
0.661 
1.713 
2.2.56 
1.6:W 
1 .000 
0.504 
0.8(M 
1.376 

Per  cent,  of  nitro- 
gen applied  com- 
ing   off     as    ni- 
trates.   (Cortect- 
ed  for  quantity.) 

Number  of  bacteria 

per 
cubic  centimetre. 

Date. 

£ 

'5 

c 

c 

s 
< 

Time    of     pa 
through  on 
of  saturatc( 
er,  days. 

1888. 

13,800 
11,800 

12.600 
11.400 
25.8(0 
39,6(Ml 
27.400 
22,600 
27.000 
24,001 1 
.33.400 
87,800 

0.0003 
0.0005 

0.0008 
O.OOOS 
0.0(10!) 
(1.0-201 
0  Odl'.l 
0.(1020 
0.0020 
0.00i>8 
0.0013 
0.0044 

0.0072 
0.0064 

0.0060 
0.00.59 
0.0077 
O.OOilo 
0  Od'.IS 
0.01(14 

(I   (MiM 

0  0074 
0.0078 
0.0090 

39 
29 

48 

r<5 

41 
73 
96 
73 
28 
21 
33 
47 

11 
5 

12 

23 

28 

7 

57 

38 

67 

6 

8 

7 

11.0 

LS.O 

1889. 

10.7 

lY'bruary 

13.0 

Miroh       

6.0 

April  

4.0 

.May 

5.5 

6.6 

July 

5.7 

6.0 

4.6 

4.0 

276 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE   UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  C4. — Avekage  Quality  of  the  Effluent  fkom  a  Fine-gravel  Fil- 
ter IN  Comparison  with  the  Original  Sewage  when  Filtering  at  the 
Rate  of  108,500  Gallons  per  Acre  per  day  (Sewage  Applied  14  Times  a 
Day  for  Six  Days  in  the  Week). 

(I'arts  per  10i»,000.) 


1889. 

Ammonia. 

Chlorine. 

Nitrogen  as 

Bacteria 
per    cubic 

Free. 

Albuminoid. 

Sum  of. 

2.7012 
0.0393 
1.5 

Nitrates. 

Nitrites. 

centi- 
metre. 

Sept. 

24-0ct.24.... 

Sewage... 
Effluent.. 
Per  cent . 

2.055S 
0.0068 
0  3of  1 

0.64.53 
0.0325 
5. 

5.55 
6.42 

0.0 
1 .5700 

0.0 
O.OU03 

3,034,000 

11,592 

0  4of  1 

fully  one-third  of  the  total  space,  as  in  the  sand  filters  already  de- 
scribed. Tables  Nos.  64  and  65  exhibit  the  results  obtained  by  such  a 
material,  the  tanks  being  protected  from  snow  and  exposure  to  cold 
during  winter  weather. 

In  concluding  the  discussion  of  the  results  of  the  Lawrence  exjDeri- 
ments  we  can  hardly  do  better  than  to  quote  the  remarks  of  the 
Massachusetts  Board  in  the  Twenty-second  Annual  Report  in  ref- 
erence to  the  results  of  intermittent  filtration  through  gravel  stones, 
namely : 

These  results  show  more  definitely  than  any  others  the  essential  character  of 
intermittent  filtration.  We  see  that  it  is  not  a  straining  jjrocess.  By  the  apjilica- 
tion  of  small  quantities  of  sewage  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  tank  each  hour, 
each  stone  in  the  tank  was  kept  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  liquid,  very  slowly 
moving  from  stone  to  stone  from  the  top  toward  the  bottom,  and  continually  in 
contact  with  air  in  the  spaces  between  the  stones.  The  liquid,  starting  at  the  top  as 
sewage,  reached  the  bottom  within  twenty-four  hours,  with  the  organic  matter 
nearly  all  burned  out.  The  removal  of  this  organic  matter  is  in  no  sense  a  mechani- 
cal one  of  holding  back  material  between  the  stones,  for  they  are  as  clean  as  they 
were  a  year  ago  ;  but  it  is  a  chemical  change,  aided  by  bacteria,  by  which  the  or- 
ganic substances  are  burned,  forming  jji-oducts  of  mineral  matter,  which  pass  off 
daily  in  the  i^urified  liquid. 

Table  No.  65. — Average  Quality  op  the  Effluent  from  a  Fine-gravel  Fil. 
TER  in  Comparison  With  the  Original  Sewage,  After  Filtration  Had 
Taken  Place  at  Rate  of  70,000  Gali-ons  per  Acre  per  day  for  Seven 
Months,  etc.  (Sewage  Applied  9  Times  a  Day  for  Six  Days  in  the  Week). 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


Ammonia. 

Chlorine. 

Nitrogen  as 

Bacteria 
per  cubic 

centi- 

Free. 

Albuminoid. 

Sum  of. 
2.5950 

Nitrates. 

Nitrites. 

metre. 

May  23— June 22.... 

Sewape . . 

1.M19 

O.fiOSl 

5.16 

0.0 

0  0 

Effluent  . 

0.0031 

0.0375 

0.0406 

6.00 

2.0700 

0.O0O-2 

ib,.365 

Per  cent. 

0.2  ofl 

«. 

1.5 

June  23— July  22.... 

Sewage.. 

2.2500 

0.7255 

2.9755 

7.46 

0.0 

6.6 

1,813,500 

Effluent  . 

0.0050 

0.0354 

0.0404 

9.01 

2.2500 

0.0004 

13,523 

Per  cent. 

0.2  of  1 

5. 

1.3 

0.7  of  1 

ox    THE    USE    OF   THE    EFFLUENTS    FOK   DRINKING    WATER.     277 

The  liquid  flowing  out  at  the  bottom  is  a  clear,  bright  water,  comparing  favor- 
ably, in  every  respect  that  can  be  shown  by  chemical  or  biological  examination, 
with  water  from  some  of  the  wells  on  the  streets  of  our  cities  that  are  used  foi 
refreshing  draughts  by  the  public  during  the  summer. 

Ox  THE  Use  of  the  Effluents  for  Dkixkixg  Water. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  the  effluent  from  sand  filters  for  drinking, 
Mr.  Mills  writes  as  follows  : 

We  now  come  to  the  important  qiiestion  of  the  character,  as  regards  healthful- 
ness,  of  the  elfluents  obtained  by  filtering  sewage  intermittently  through  five  feet  in 
depth  of  sand,  after  the  sand  has  filtered  sewage  for  a  year  or  more  without  being 
cleaned. 

We  have  found  that  the  siim  of  ammonias,  which  have  been  taken  to  indicate  the 
amount  of  nitrogenous  organic  matter,  has  been  reeluced  to  about  one-half  of  one 
per  cent,  of  those  in  tlie  sewage,  and  is  less  than  the  sum  of  ammonias  of  most  of 
tiie  public  drinking-water  supplies  of  the  State. 

The  chlorine  and  nitrates  are  higher  than  in  the  public  drinking  waters.  They 
indicate  in  these  effluents,  as  their  excess  above  the  normal  does  in  the  drink- 
ing waters,  that  the  water  which  contains  them  came  from  sewage  ;  but,  in  the 
absence  of  the  ammonias,  they  indicate  that,  though  the  water  came  from  sewage, 
the  organic  impurities  have  been  destroyed,  and  these  are  merely  mineral  constit- 
uents which  remain  after  that  destruction.  They  are  principally  common  salt  and 
saltpetre,  which,  in  tlie  quantities  found  in  any  of  the  effluents,  are  regarded  as 
entirely  harmless. 

Judging  by  the  chemical  analyses,  there  is  nothing  in  the  effluents  known,  or 
even  suspected  by  chemists,  to  be  harmful. 

Althougli  nearly  all  of  the  bacteria  that  were  in  the  sewage  did  not  live  to  pass 
through  the  filters,  there  have  been  found  in  the  effluents  from  filters  of  coarse  sand 
more  bacteria  than  are  found  in  the  public  drinking  supplies,  and  some  of  these 
evidently  come  from  the  sewage ;  and,  until  we  learn  that  disease-producing  bac- 
teria are  not  among  those  that  come  through,  we  must  assume  that  they  may  be 
among  them;  and,  although  reduced  in  numbers  to  such  an  extent  that  they  may 
do  no  iiarm,  we  yet  know  that  bacteria  in  general  increase  with  enormous  rapidity 
when  under  favorable  conditions,  and  we  do  not  yet  Icnow  enough  to  allow  us  to 
assun)e  that  the  very  small  number  of  one  or  two  in  a  tliousand  of  the  number  in 
the  sewage  that  come  through  may  not  increase  in  the  human  body  or  under  other 
conditions  to  such  numbers  as  to  be  harmful. 

From  this  cause  we  are  not  able  to  assume  that  the  effluent  from  the  coarse-sand 
filters  five  feet  in  deptli  is  suitable  for  diiidcing  water. 

The  effluent  from  the  extremely  fine  sand  filter,  No.  i.  and  that  from  tlie  soil- 
covered  filter,  Xo.  7,  and  a  part  of  tlie  time  from  the  fine  sand.  No.  2,  we  have 
strong  ground  for  concluding  confaiued  no  bacteria  from  tlie  sewage.  The  num- 
bers that  were  found  in  the  effluents  were  smaller  than  are  usually  found  in  ])ublic 
drinUi'ig  supplies  ;  and  we  have  good  reason  for  concluding  that  they  all  grew  in 
thfi  gravel  and  underdrains  beneath  the  filters.  If  these  conclusions  are  correct, 
there  is  no  known  reason  why  these  effluents  may  not  be  used  with  safety  for  drink- 
ing. 

The  efflu<Mit  from  No.  2  lias  been  frequently  used  for  drinking  by  a  number  of 
people,  without  any  noticeable  effect;  but  none  of  them  have  been  used  contin- 
uously by  a  large  number  sufficiently  to  prove  their  safety.  In  the  aVisence  of  such 
positive  evidence,  we  have  made  the  following  com]>arisons. 

The  city  of  Lawrence  is  provided  with  a  ]iublic  water  sui))dy  from  the  river:  but 
tli<>re  are  a  dozen  or  more  wells  scattered  about  the  city,  on  the  sides  of  the  striH^ts, 
that  have  been  used  for  many  years  for  watiuing  horses,  and  are  still  used  for  this 
purpose,  or  for  su])plying  drinking  water  to  families  in  the  neighborhood,  and  par- 
ticularly are  used  by  th<>  ])ubli(^  for  a  cool  draught  of  water  in  summer,  when  it  is 
much  more  refreshing  than  tiu-  citv  r(>servoir  water. 


278 


SEWAGE   DISPOS.\L   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


The  water  from  ten  of  these  wells  has  been  analyzed  and  examined  for  bacteria, 
and  tlie  results  obtained  from  seven  of  them  are  arranged  below  (Table  No.  66),  with 
the  average  result  obtained  by  analysis  of  the  filtered  sewage  from  six  of  our  filters, 
covering  from  two  to  eight  months,  after  most  of  them  had  been  in  use  a  year  or 
more. 


Table  No.  66. —  Comparison  of  the  Effluent  from  Several  of  the  Experi- 
mental Filters  with  Water  from  Wells  in  the  City  op  Lawrence  in  Com- 
mon Use. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


Ammonias. 

6 

a 

o 

Nitrogen  as 

o 

s 

Average  effluent  from 

S 
f^ 

2 
'S 

a 

S 

3 

5 

1 

't. 

-1 

o 
a 

m 

Tank  No.  1,  for  two  months 

0.0313 
.1410 

.0011 

.0078 

.0036 
.0184 

.0014 
.0016 

.0025 

.0070 

.0007 

.0012 

.0014 
.0022 

0.0272 
.0155 

0105 
.0118 

.0104 
.0046 

.0074 
.0076 

.0108 
.0086 

.0005  , 
.0070 

.0063 

.0050 

0  0.585 
.1565 

.0116 
.0196 

.0140 
.0230 

.0088 
.0092 

.0133 
.0156 

.0072 

.0082 

.0077 
0072 

4.83 
8.08 

7.28 
7.51 

4.98 

2.r9 

4.51 
5.29 

3.72 

7.67 

3.98 
7.11 

4.04 
2.44 

1.78 
2.37 

1.25 
2  00 

1.66 
1.50 

1.11 

4.20 

0.75 
1.40 

0.75 
2.10 

1.06 
0.55 

o.ooos 

.0024 

.0004 
.0007 

.0002 
.0018 

.0001 

.0002 
.0014 

'.ooie 

549 

Well  water,  Atlantic  street 

4^370 

Tank  No.  13,  for  six  months 

76 

Well  water,  Hampshire  street 

128 

Tank  No.  6.  for  3  months 

678 

Well  water,  Andover  street 

46 

Tank  No.  6,  for  six  months 

319 

Well  water.  Mechanic  street 

240 

Tank  No.  4,  for  two  months 

20 

Well  water,  Salem  street 

447 

Tank  No.  2.  for  four  months    

17 

27 

Tank  No.  7,  for  eight  months 

7 

Well  water,  Haverhill  street 

344 

Here  we  find,  for  each  of  the  filters  filtering  sewage,  a  well  the  water  of  which  is 
used  for  drinking  by  many  people,  but  is  in  fact  sewage  not  so  well  purified  as  the 
effluent  from  the  filter  witli  which  it  is  associated.  This  is  not  presented  to  show 
that  the  effluent  from  the  filters  is  good  for  drinking,  for  we  have  no  leason  to  so 
regard  those  at  least  in  the  upper  half  of  the  table,  and  we  should  without  hesita- 
tion pronounce  the  well  waters  in  the  upper  half  of  the  table  as  un.safe  to  drink  ; 
but  we  present  this  comparison  to  show  that  waters  in  every  way  as  imjnire,  and  as 
certainly  derived  from  sewage  as  the  effluents  from  the  several  sewage  filters,  are 
being  used  daily,  and  have  been  used  for  years  by  multitudes  of  peojile,  without 
their  knowing  that  they  were  harmed  by  them. 

Every  one  of  these  wells  should  be  regarded  as  unsafe,  some  of  them  dangerous, 
in  their  present  condition,  and  others  unsafe  because  of  what  they  may  change  to 
from  day  to  day. 

If  these  wells  contained  unpolluted  water,  the  chlorine  would  be  about  0.36, 
while  it  is  from  seven  to  twentv-two  times  this  amount  ;  the  nitrates  would  be 
about  0.01  or  0.02,  while  they  are  from  0.55  to  4.20. 

The  latter  show  that  a  large  amount  of  organic  matter,  generally  more  tlian  there 
is  in  sewage  in  a  sewer,  has  been  burned  out  of  these  waters,  and  the  high  chlo- 
rines show  that  this  organic  matter  was  of  the  same  character  as  that  in  sewage. 
rr()m  the  amounts  in  most  of  these  well  waters  we  must  conclude  that  their  ]irevi- 
ous  condition  was  worse — that  is,  more  polluted — than  ordinary  sewage  in  sewers, 
and  that  on  its  way  to  some  of  the  wells  it  has  by  intermittent  filtration  through 
the  ground  been  purified  to  such  an  extent  that  they  may  not  in  their  ])resent  con- 
dition be  harmful ;  and,  where  the  numbers  of  bacteria  are  continually  small  and 
the  ammonias  low,  they  jirobably  are  not  harmful  ;   but,   where  the  numbers  of 


PERMANENCY    OF    FII/IEIJS    AND    RENEWAL    OF    SAND.  279 

bacteria  are  large  and  the  ammoinas  are  large,  although  the  waters  have  been  pre- 
viously much  worse  than  at  present,  and  have  to  a  considerable  degree  been  jinri- 
fied,  their  present  condition  indicates  that  the  material  through  which  they  have 
filtered  has  not  been  able  to  exclude  bacteria  nor  to  burn  uji  all  of  the  food  they 
live  on  ;  hence,  if  disease  germs  get  into  their  source,  some  of  them  will  probably 
get  into  these  wells.  Such  of  the  wells  as  are  included  in  this  latter  class  should 
be  tilled  with  earth,  and  never  used  again.  Others,  if  examined  from  time  to  time 
and  always  found  with  low  ammonias  and  small  number  of  bacteria,  would  proViably 
be  harmless  ;  and  we  should  have  the  same  ground  for  concluding  that  the  effluent 
from  sewage  at  those  tine  sand  or  soil-covered  titters,  through  which  no  bacteria 
come  from  the  sewage,  would  also  be  harmless  for  drinking. 


Permanency  of  Filters  and  Renewal  of  Sand. 

In  the  Twenty -third  Annual  Beport  of  the  Massachusetts  State 
Board  of  Health,  pp.  449-55,  the  permanency  of  sand  filters  is  dis- 
cussed, and  the  fact  brought  out  that  while  some  of  the  experimental 
tanks  at  Lawrence  were  doing-  good  work  after  four  years  of  continu- 
ous service,  yet  others  had  stored  so  much  organic  matter  as  to 
"  seriously  cripple  "  them.  The  report  then  discusses,  as  two  methods 
of  obviating  this  difficulty,  either  turning  under  or  removing  the 
clogged  layers.  Turning  under  the  upper  portion  of  the  filtering  ma- 
terial has  given  good  results  in  the  way  of  reducing  the  stored  or- 
ganic matter,  but  it  is  suggested  that  while  receiving  fresh  doses  of 
sewage  the  bacteria  will  not  do  their  best  work  upon  the  insoluble 
matter,  as  the  stored  substances  have  been  found  to  be,  largely.  Mr. 
Hazen's  discussion  of  this  point,  and  the  amount  of  sand  necessary  to 
be  renewed,  is  as  follows  : 

The  fact  of  continually  increasing  storage  in  the  large  out-door  filters  is  sufficient 
evidence  that  they  do  not  afford  conditions  favorable  to  the  oxidation  of  this  mate- 
rial. On  them  we  have  applied  as  much  sewage  as  was  possible  with  good  results, 
and  much  more  than  is  usually  api)lied  in  practice.  In  a  majority  of  cases — al- 
ways with  the  fine  materials,  and  often  with  the  coarser  ones — this  has  meant  as 
much  sewage  as  could  be  oxidized  by  the  air  in  the  filter.  All  the  air  available  lias 
been  required  to  oxidize  the  more  decomposable  matters;  the  more  stable  insoluble 
matter,  wo  may  believe,  can  only  receive  the  attention  of  the  bacteria  when  there 
is  an  excess  of  air.  Filters  do  their  maximum  work  when  the  volume  of  sewage 
applied  is  so  large  that  there  is  no  considerable  excess  of  air,  when  the  sui)ply  ex- 
actly meets  the  present  demand,  oxidizing  only  the  less  stable  matters  and  prevent- 
ing their  passage  into  the  efflnent.  There  may  also  be  a  question  as  to  wlu^ther  the 
bactoiia  will  do  their  best  work  upon  this  insoluble  matter  while  tliey  are  receiving 
a  daily  dose  of  fresh  sewage,  with  its  rich  sujijily  of  food  for  them. 

If  tlie  fnish  scwaire  were  entirely  cut  off,  wouhl  not  tin;  bacteria  turn  thcii'  atten- 
tion to  th(!  sludge?  [f  tlie  uijpcr  layer  were  removed  entirely  and  jiiled  up  by 
itself,  would  it  not  ])urii'y  itself  much  more  ra))idly  than  anywhere  in  a  filter  where 
it  is  continually  wet  with  new  sewage?  If  tliis  clogged  material  is  removed,  the 
filters  will  be  able  to  continue  doing  the  large  amount  of  good  work  wliich  they 
have  done  in  the  jiast  ;  they  may  do  even  more  in  some  cases.  The  removed  mate- 
rial may  so  purify  itself  in  time  as  to  again  allow  its  advantageous  use  for  filtration, 
but,  if  not,  fresh  sand  must  eventually  he  sn])|)li(>d.  fn  actual  ])ractic(>  with  am])le 
areas  of  filtering  material  a  simple  way  of  ap]>lyiiig  these  ideas  would  bi^  to  abandon 
for  a  time  an  old  area,  after  it  had  become  clogged,  without  removal  of  the  surface. 


280  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

How  long  a  time  would  be  required  for  such  an  area  to  regain  its  power  of  sewage 
purification,  and  what  treatments  would  hasten  the  result,  are  subjects  for  further 
research. 

NATURE   OF   THE   SLUDGE. 

It  may  be  qiieried  whether  piling  up  saud  containing  large  amounts  of  organic 
matter  stored  from  the  sewage  will  not  create  a  nuisance.  To  this  we  can  ansM'er 
no.  The  stored  matters  are  the  most  stable  portions  of  the  sewage;  they  have  re- 
sisted strong  oxidizing  action,  and  are  incapable  of  rapid  or  objectionable  decom- 
position. The  matters  which  would  have  caused  trouble  had  they  been  stored  are 
just  the  ones  which  have  been  oxidized.  The  material  should  be  so  placed  that  a 
change  of  air  in  its  pores  will  be  i^ossible,  and  no  ofience  need  be  anticipated. 

AMOUNT   OF   SAND   NECESSAKY   TO   BE   RENEWED. 

Filter  No.  6  in  four  years'  use  has  filtered  310,000  gallons  of  sewage,  the  equiva- 
lent of  62,000,000  gallons  per  acre.  The  upper  2A  inches  of  material  now  contain 
about  70  parts  per  100,000  by  weight  of  albuminoid  ammonia,  and  the  next  o  inches 
about  20  parts.  To  fully  restore  the  filter  to  good  working  order  we  should  re- 
move the  upper  2tV  inches,  or  1.6H  cubic  yards  for  the  filter,  or  5.4  yards  per  million 
gallons  of  sewage  treated.  In  July,  1891,  when  Filter  No.  1  commenced  to  be 
seriously  clogged,  the  layer  with  excessive  organic  matters  was  not  more  than  3 
inches  deep,  although  more  than  400,000  gallons  of  sewage  (800,000,000  gallons  per 
acre)  had  passed.  In  this  case  the  removal  of  two  yards,  or  at  the  rate  of  5  yards 
per  million  gallons  of  sewage  treated  would  have  sufhced.  In  June,  1891,  the  sur- 
face of  Filter  No.  2  was  clogged  not  more  than  two  inches  deep  after  filtering 
230,000  gallons  (4(1,000,000  gallons  j^er  acre),  corresponding  to  5.8  yards  per  million 
gallons.  The  sand  below  this  lapper  layer  contains  some  stored  matter,  which 
would  be  carried  forward  to  the  next  accoxmt,  and  might  eventually  raise  the 
amount  of  sand  to  be  removed  to  eight  or  even  ten  yards  per  million  gallons.  On 
the  other  hand,  so  far  as  this  sand  regains  its  power  of  purifying  sewage  this 
amount  will  be  reduced.  If  the  sewage  contained  more  or  less  suspended  matter, 
correspondingly  more  or  less  new  sand  would  be  required,  and  if  the  sus]iended 
matter  was  first  removed  irom  the  sewage  by  settling,  we  may  believe  that  the 
aiuount  of  sand  to  be  removed  would  be  veiy  small.  Experiments  are  now  in 
progress  to  dete)-miue  this  point. 

The  Effect  of  Fkost  and  Snow  Upon  Intermittent  Filtration  at 

Lawrence. 

As  lias  already  been  intimated  in  this  chapter,  frost  checks  nitrifica- 
tion, but  its  bad  effects  may  be  g-narded  against  so  eflectuall}'  as  to 
make  it  no  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  intermittent  filtration. 
Aside  from  the  winter  application  of  sewage  to  covered  trenches, 
at  the  Lawrence  Experiment  Station  other  experiments  have  been 
made  to  determine  the  effect  of  frost  upon  filter  beds.  The  results  of 
these  experiments  are  outlined  by  Mr.  Hazen  in  the  Twenty-third 
Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  pp.  441-7, 
from  which  the  following  is  taken  : 

During  the  first  winter,  1887-88,  the  various  filters  were  exposed  to  the  weather 
without  protection,  and  no  nitrification  was  obtained  until  the  temperature  began 
to  rise  in  the  spring.  The  result  might  have  been  different  if  the  filters  had  been 
nitrifying  well  before  cold  weather.     During  the  two  following  winters  the  filters 


EFFECT  OF  FKOST  AND  SNOW  UPON  INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION.    i*81 

were  protected  from  snow,  and  to  a  certain  extent  from  cold,  bv  canvas  covers.  It 
was  fuund  that  when  the  filters  were  so  larotected,  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  good  re- 
sults were  obtained  in  the  winter  as  during  the  warmer  mouths,  and  it  was  estab- 
lished, as  stated  in  the  special  report  uijon  Purification  of  Sewage  and  "Water 
(pages  29  and  255),  that  intermittent  filtration  is  entirely  practicable  in  this  cli- 
mate, if  snow  is  kept  from   the  filtering  area. 

We  had  no  satisfactory  information,  however,  as  to  what  results  could  be  ob- 
tained from  unprt)tected  filters.  Accordingly,  in  the  winter  of  1890-91  the  out- 
door filters  were  left  exposed  to  the  weather.  Filters  1,  2,  i,  and  6  were  receiving 
from  34,000  to  103,000  gallons  of  sewage  per  acre  daily,  and  were  free  from  com- 
plications, so  that  they  furnish  the  best  data  in  regard  to  frost,     .     .     . 

CAKE   OF  THE   FILTERS   IN   WINTER. 

When  sand  is  frozen  solidly  after  draining  there  still  remain  open  pores  through 
which  the  sewage  easily  finds  its  way,  thawing  to  some  extent  the  frost  as  it  pro- 
ceeds. After  the  sewage  has  drained  away,  the  portion  which  remains  in  the  sand 
again  freezes,  but  open  pores  are  still  left  which  allow  the  passage  of  the  next  por- 
tion of  sewage.  If,  however,  the  sewage  settles  away  very  slowly,  it  will  freeze 
before  the  sand  drains,  and  in  this  case  no  pores  are  left,  and  the  next  ap]>lication  of 
sewage  will  remain  upon  the  surface  and  freeze  solidly,  if  the  weather  is  cold  enough. 
If  snow  is  upon  the  surface  of  the  sand  and  sewage  is  applied  uniformly  to  it,  it  is 
at  once  chilled  to  the  freezing  point,  and  has  then  no  power  of  thawing  the  frost 
in  the  upjier  layers  of  sand ;  and  if  the  weather  is  cold  the  whole  will  solidify  on 
the  surface,  effectually  closing  the  filter.  The  two  essential  conditions  to  the  pas- 
sage of  sewage  through  the  filters  in  winter  are  tliat  sewage  shall  never  be  put  into 
snow,  and  that  the  filtering  material  shall  be  open  enough  to  absorb  its  dose  rap- 
idly.* 

Sewage  was  applied  uniformly  at  a  temperature  of  from  ii^  to  40°,  or  the  average 
sewer  temperature  in  winter.  .  .  .  All  snow  was  promptly  removed  from  the 
filters  by  shovels.  Each  week  the  surface  was  disturbed.  If  the  sand  became  siif- 
ficienlly  tliawed  at  any  time  when  it  was  not  sewage  covered,  it  was  then  raked. 
When  there  was  no  such  op])ortunity  for  raking,  the  surface  was  disturbed  with  a 
pick  in  numerous  places.  During  December  no  record  was  kept  of  the  exact  time 
required  for  this  work  on  the  several  filters  ;  it  was  about  the  same  as  for  January. 
Foi'  January,  February,  and  March  it  was  as  follows,  in  hours'  work  for  one  man. 
on  one  two-hundredth  of  an  acre  : 

Filter.  January. 

No.  1 0 

2 7 

4 4 

S 4X 

t  Thi-  CI)  11:1111  has  been  mliied  by  the  authors.  These  results  cannot  be  taken  as  in  any  decrree  indicating  what 
will  be  obtained  in  actual  practice,  where,  if  it  became  necessary  to  remove  snow  and  stir  up  the  sand  from  day 
to  'lav.  as  was  done  in  the  experiments,  it  could  be  accomplished  at  far  less  expense  by  the  use  of  mechanical 
appiiaiu-es.  Apparently,  a  somewhat  more  rational  treatment  of  this  problem  is  indicated  in  Chapter  XVII. 
Certiiinly  the  use  of  from  l.-'iOO  to  3,000  days'  labor  per  winter  for  hand  removal,  as  indicated  by  Mr.  Hazen's 
statistics,  or  any  amou'it  of  labor  approximating  thereto,  would  be  impracticable.  Though  it  should  not  be 
overlooked,  in  considering  Mr.  Hazen's  results,  that  while  they  indicate  nothing  as  to  cost  <if  removing  snow  ia 
actual  practice,  they  do  still  indicate  the  extent  of  winter  purification  under  the  special  conditions. 


As  soon  as  frost  began  to  form  freely  in  the  variotis  filters  a  marked  change 
was  noticed  in   tli<'  clicmical  comijosition  of  the  effluents  ;  the  free  ammonia  iu- 

•  It  should  be  said  that  with  the  conditions  which  obtain  in  actual  practice  with  regard  to  the 
method  of  applying,'  sewag*',  no  serious  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  .Ma.ssachusetts  in  dispos- 
ing oi  sewage  in  winter  on  porous  ground. 


February. 

March. 

Total.t 

3 

3 
3 

1.5 
13 

IX 

IM 

ay. 

3X 

2>. 

lOX 

282 


sewagp:  disposal  in  the  united  states. 


creased,  and  soon  the  nitrates  decreased.  The  organic  matters,  as  shown  by  the 
albuminoid  ammonia  and  by  the  oxygen  consumed  from  permanganate,  also  in- 
creased, but  not  to  an  extent  corresponding  with  the  fee  ammonia.  During  the 
colder  months  nitrification  was  miich  checked ;  ammonia,  instead  of  nitrates,  was 
largely  the  end  product  of  the  oxidation,  so  far  as  nitrogen  was  concerned.  The 
first  stage  of  purification,  namely,  the  oxidation  to  ammonia  and  carbonic  acid,  was 
not  affected  to  the  same  extent. 

A  table  introduced  at  this  point  (p.  443  of  the  report)  shows  the  aver- 
age albuminoid  ammonia  in  the  applied  sewage  and  the  effluents  from 
the  four  experimental  filters.  These  same  figures,  put  in  the  form  of 
l)ercentages  of  organic  matter  remaining  in  the  effluent  after  filtration, 
are  quoted  from  the  report  as  follows,  the  tanks  being  arranged  in 
order  of  fineness  of  material,  No.  1  being  very  coarse  sand,  No.  6  coarsa 
No.  2  of  fine,  No.  4  very  fine  sand : 


Table    66A.  —  Pekcentages   op   Organic  Matter  in  Effluents   from    Experi 
MENTAL  Filters  in  Winter. 


October,  189(1 
November,  •' 
Dereiiiber,  '* 
January,  ISitl 
February,  " 
March,  " 

April, 
May,  " 


Average 
temperature    Per  cent,  of  organic  matter  remaining  in. 

of  t 

effluentsv 


Deg.  Fahi-. 


5S 

47 

40 

37 

m.5 

38 

4,5 

54 


No.  1. 

No.  e. 

No.  2. 

.3.5 

2.6 

1.3 

4.6 

2.1 

10 

15.5 

29 

1.7 

20.0 

8.9 

4.8 

11.0 

12.0 

5.0 

5.0 

5.4 

4.4 

4.7 

4.4 

3.2 

3.7 

2.9 

2.7 

No.  4. 


1.9 
1.2 
1.7 
3.0 
5.0 
4.3 
4.7 
1.7 


Quoting  again  from  the  report : 


Dviring  the  colder  months  of  the  year  there  was  a  period  with  each  filter  of  about 
three  months,  during  which  purification  was  much  less  complete  than  at  higher 
temperatures.  The  time  of  this  period  varied  in  the  different  cases  :  the  coarse 
materials  were  the  first  to  suffer  ;  the  finer  sands  were  not  so  soon  affected,  but  the 
period  was  as  long,  extending  into  warmei-  weather.  With  No.  1  a  marked  improve- 
ment occurred  while  the  temjieratuie  of  the  effluent  was  still  decrea.sing.  With  Nos. 
2  and  fi  the  highest  organic  matter  was  coincident  with  the  lowest  tem])erature,  while 
Ko.  4  followed  some  weeks  later.  Dnring  December  the  frost  was  particularly  trouble- 
some in  Filter  No.  1.  and  the  distribution  of  sewage  was  imperfect,  most  of  it  going 
down  through  limited  niifrdzen  areas.  Later  the  frost  was  l)roken  with  picks,  and 
better  distribution  was  obtained.  This  exjilains  probably,  in  a  large  measure,  why 
the  worst  results  were  obtained  so  early  in  the  season.  It  is  also  possible  that  the 
filter  became  in  some  way  adapted  to  the  frost  ;  that,  after  a  few  weeks  of  use,  the 
portions  of  the  filter  below  the  frost  did  their  work  more  thoroughly  than  at  first, 
reaardless  of  temperature,  for  the  same  reason  that  any  filter  gives  its  best  result 
after  it  has  been  used  for  a  time. 

The  average  numbers  of  bacteria  per  cubic  centimetre  by  months  were  as  fol- 
lows: 


EFFECT  OF  FROST  AXD  SNOW  UPON  INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION.    283 

Table  No.  66  B. — Bacteria  in  Effluents  from  Experimental  Filters  in 

Winter. 


Month. 


October,    1890 
November,   •' 
December,   " 
January,    1891 
February,     " 
March,  " 

April,  ■' 

May, 


|i 

u  be 
tr-a 


58 

47 

40 

.37 

.36.5 

38 

45 

54 


2,487.000 

1,157.700 

874,400 

4.5H.000 

.301.000 

niw.oou 

375,000 
1,370,1)00 


16.000 

24,000 

58.iJ(l0 

51.000 

9.000 

4.4UU 

2,900 

11,000 


.64 

2.07 
6.  HO 
11. VO 
3.00 

.78 
.77 
.80 


Filter  No.  (i. 


13.000 
9.000 

8.400 
27.000 
aO.OdO 
(1,000 
4.500 
4,700 


Filter  No.  2.    Filter  No  4 


.5-2  17 

.78  36 

.96  284 

5.90  ,  822 

fi.70  i  78 

l.li)  .37 

1.20  50 

..34  44 


.0007 
.0031 
.0280 
.1800 
.02«>0 
.006(> 
.0130 
.0032 


39 
45 

35 

19 

179 

15 

2S 
6 


.0016 
.0040 

0010 
.U042 
.0.")90 
.0026 

0074 
.0004 


Tlie  albuminoid  ammonia  and  bacteria  in  the  effluents,  in  percentages  of  those  of 
the  sewage  for  tlie  worst  month,  worst  three  months,  and  for  a  period  in  warm 
weather  as  nearly  as  possible  comparable,  are  as  follows  : 


Filter  No.  1. 

Filter 

No.  6. 

Filter  No.  2. 

Filter 

No.  4. 

"°  .5 

'U 

C3 

■a   . 

'H 

s§ 

.3 

■S.S 

.5  = 

■i 
1 

Albuminoid 
ammonia. 

si 

1 
o 

OS 

n 

Worst  month 

20.0    11.20 
155      7.30 

5.0  1.20 

3.1  6. 

12.0 
8.8 
2.6 
3.3 

6.70 
4.60 
.77 
6. 

5.0 
4.7 
1.6 
2.9 

.18 
.078 
.0*3 
26 

5.0 
4.7 
1.5 
3.1 

.059 
022 

Warm  wiather 

.008 
3. 

Ratio,  warm  weather  to  worst  three  mouths 

With  the  sub-surface  application  of  sewage  on  Filter  No.  7,  which  has  a  distribut- 
ing pipe  eighteen  inches  below  the  surface,  no  bad  effects  from  the  cold  weather 
have  been  observed.  The  effluent  during  the  months,  January  to  July,  1891,  was 
not  of  as  good  a  quality  as  at  other  times,  but  it  is  believed  that  this  was  due  entirely 
to  over-dosing,  and  not  to  the  temperature.  This  view  is  cnntirmed  by  the  result's 
during  the  succeeding  winter,  when,  with  a  smaller  dose,  uniformly  good  purifica- 
tion was  obtained,  and  the  fluctation  in  the  free  ammonia  bore  no  relation  to  the 
weatlier. 

To  resume  :  We  have  found  that  frost  checks  both  purification  and  nitrification, 
altlioufjh  the  removal  of  the  organic  matter  is  more  complete  than  the  oxidation  of 
ainiuoiiia.  The  ])ritici])al  disturbance  from  cold  weather  did  not  last  more  tlian 
three  months,  altliough  nitrification  was  more  or  less  incomplete  for  a  longer  period. 
During  Miose  tliree  montlis  the  effluents  from  the  different  filters  contained,  in  each 
ca.se,  about  three  times  as  large  a  projiortion  of  tlie  organic  matters  of  the  a])plied 
sewage  as  the  effluents  from  the  same  filters  contained  under  comparable  conditions 
in  warmer  months. 

During  the  winter  months  the  filters  removed  : 


Albuminoid  ammonia.  Bnoteria. 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Filter  No.  1,  very  coarHe  sand 84  93 

"  6,  coarse  Hand 92  95 

••  2,  tine  sand , 95  99.92 

"  4,  very  fine  sand 95  99.98 


284 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


These  results  are  good,  although  less  perfect  than  those  obtained  in  the  warmer 
months.  With  the  tine  materials  the  purification  is  most  complete,  but  even  with 
the  coarsest,  No.  1,  the  result  is  far  better  than  could  be  obtained  by  any  process 
of  chemical  precipitation. 

Frost  and  Snow  at  the  Filter  Beds  at  South  Framingham,  Mas- 
sachusetts. 

It  has  been  found  in  actual  practice  at  South  Framingham,  Mass., 
that  snow  serves  as  a  protection  to  the  filter  beds,  allowing-  the  sewage 


Fia    24.— SNOwcovEREr)  Sewage  Fit,teu  Bed  at  South   Framingham,  Mass. 

to  spread  over  the  beds,  beneath  it,  without  freezing.  The  following- 
account  of  the  application  of  sewage  to  frozen  and  snow-covered  beds 
is  of  special  interest  in  this  connection,  as  is  also  the  accompanying- 
view,  Fig.  24. 

During  the  cold  Aveather  of  January,  1893,  some  observations  of  the 
effect  of  frost  on  filter  beds  were  made  by  the  Sewer  Commissioners 
of  South  Framingham,  Massachusetts,  at  the  sug-gestion  of  Mr.  Allen 
Hazen.  The  results  were  published  in  the  Framingham  Gazette,  from 
which  the  following  has  been  abstracted  : 

A  filter  bed  with  an  area  of  seven -eighths  of  an  acre  received  no 
sewage  from  some  time  in  September  until  Jan.  9.  On  this  date  there 
were  18  inches  of  frost  in  the  bed  and  10  inches  of  snow  upon  it,  the 


SNOW    OX   THE   FILTER   BEDS    AT   SUMMIT,  IST,  J.  285 

thermometer  reaching-  6°  F.  below  zero.  Jan.  9,  300,000  g-allons  of 
sewage  were  applied  to  the  bed,  and  on  Jan.  10, 150,000  gallons.  It  is 
said  that  the  effluent  ajjpeared  in  the  underdrain  in  six  hours  after 
the  application  of  the  sewage.  On  Jan.  11  the  frost  was,  in  places,  oiit 
of  the  bed  for  its  whole  depth,  and  on  Jan.  12  it  was  nearh'  all  gone 
and  the  sewage  had  disappeared  from  the  surface.  The  temperature 
of  the  applied  sewage  was  50°  F. 

On  Jan.  16,  17  and  18  observations  were  made  on  another  bed,  with 
an  area  of  one  acre.  The  frost  in  this  bed  was  from  20  to  30  inches 
deep,  and  there  were  15  inches  of  snow  iipon  it.  On  Jan.  16  the  ther- 
mometer indicated  6°,  on  Jan.  17,  20°  ;  and  on  Jan.  18,  4°  F.  below 
zero.  On  Jan.  16,  500,000  gallons  of  sewage,  at  a  temperature  of  49° 
F.,  Avere  pumped  upon  this  bed,  and  on  Jan.  17,  175,000  gallons.  The 
underdrain  started  in  seven  hours  after  beginning  the  application  of 
sewace.  On  Jan.  18,  the  frost  was  out  of  the  ground  in  places,  and  on 
Jan.  19  nearly  all  out,  while  the  sewage  had  entirely'  disappeared  from 
the  surface. 

At  the  South  Framingham  pumping  station  an  underground  reser- 
voir provides  storage  for  about  430,000  gallons  of  sewage,  which,  with 
the  sewage  delivered  during  pumicing,  would  allow  the  application  of 
500,000  gallons  of  sewage  to  one  bed  in  about  six  hours.  This  amount 
of  sewage  was  applied  to  one  of  the  beds,  with  an  area  of  one  acre,  in 
one  day,  and  175,000  gallons  additional  on  the  following  day.  The 
application  of  so  large  a  volume  of  sewage  at  a  temperature  of  about 
50°  F.  in  so  short  a  time  was  certainly  favorable  to  the  passage  of  the 
sewage,  but  the  presence  of  15  inches  of  snow  was  decidedly  unfavor- 
able.* 

A  view  of  one  of  the  South  Framingham  beds  covered  with  snow  is 
shown  by  Fig.  23.  The  bed  has  an  area  of  about  seven-eighths  of  an 
acre.  It  received  no  sewage  from  the  middle  of  October,  1892,  until 
Feb.  12, 1893.  On  the  latter  date  there  was  from  30  to  36  inches  of  frost 
in  the  ground  and  30  inches  of  snow  on  top  of  it.  From  Feb.  12,  to 
March  1,  when  the  view  was  taken,  about  50,000  gallons  of  sewage  per 
day  was  applied  to  the  bed,  going  beneath  the  snow,  as  can  be  seen  in 
the  view. 

Snow  on  the  Filter  Beds  at  Summit,  New  Jersey. 

In  the  winter  of  1893  an  unusual  amount  of  snow  fell  at  Summit, 
New  Jersey,  which  is  a  shoi-t  distance  from  New  York  City.  The  ground 
having  been  covered  with  snow  for  many  weeks,  the  wi'iter  visited  the 
Summit  filter  beds  on  March  6.     Most  of  the  beds  were  entirely  cov- 

*  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.,  p.  174  (Feb.  3«,  1S08). 


286  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

ered  with  snow  and  ice,  and  all  partially  so.  Sewag-e  was  being  ap- 
plied to  several  beds  and  finding  its  way  beneath  the  snow.  The 
attendants  stated  that  the  snow  had  not  stoj)ped  the  filtration,  although 
it  had  required  unusual  care  to  prevent  some  of  the  beds  from  filling 
and  overflowing,* 

The  special  subject  of  winter  management  of  filter  areas  is  treated 
at  length  in  Chapter  XYII, 

Summary. 

We  may  now  pass  to  the  summary.f 

(1)  Intermittent  filtration  through  coarse  sand  is  not  a  process  of 
straining  at  all,  but  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  biological  process  in  which 
the  nitrifying  organism,  with  the  assistance  of  oxygen  from  the  air  and 
the  minerals  naturally  in  solution  in  sewage,  resolves  the  organic 
matter  of  sewage  into  soluble  mineral  nitrates  and  probably  free  nitro- 
gen gas,  the  whole  process,  when  properly  conducted,  taking  place 
essentially  without  the  production  of  odor. 

(2)  The  conditions  for  successful  treatment  are:  (a)  Intermittency 
of  application,  and  {b)  open  spaces  between  the  particles  of  the  filter 
(the  voids)  to  which  air  easily  gains  access. 

(3)  In  sand  filtration  areas  the  relations  of  the  spaces  occupied  by 
sand,  liquid,  and  air  will  vary  for  different  qualities  of  material,  with 
the  result  of  producing  variations  in  the  quality  of  the  effluents.  The 
experiments,  how-ever,  enable  one  to  decide  approximately  :  («)  What 
degree  of  purification  may  be  obtained  with  a  given  material ;  and  (b) 
the  unit  quantity  of  sewage  that  may  be  purified  within  limits  to  any 
required  standard  with  a  given  material.  We  may  therefore  say  that 
sewage  purification  by  this  process  now  has  not  only  a  scientific  basis, 
but,  in  general  terms,  is  amenable  to  computation  in  reference  to  what 
may  be  accomplished  by  it  under  given  conditions. 

(4)  As  a  detail  of  jjractical  management,  Mr.  Mills  says  that  while 
with  a  filter  of  coarse  open  sand  some  bacteria  may  pass  through  the 
filter,  nevertheless  with  the  underdrains  as  deep  as  practicable  and  as 
far  apart  as  will  serve  to  drain  the  quantity  of  sewage  to  be  applied, 
if  the  sewage  be  applied  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  rather  than  in 
large  quantities,  and  more  frequently  than  with  large  quantities,  the 
number  of  bacteria  passing  through  will  be  less  than  if  the  whole  daily 
application  is  made  at  one  time. 

These   deductions  are  based  on  the  Special  Eeport,  covering  the 

*  Further  details  regarding  this  visit  can  be  found  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.  (Mar.  16,  1893),  p.  248. 

t  The  intention  here,  as  in  the  previous  case  of  the  Massachusetts  experiments  on  chemical 
purification,  is,  whatever  the  form  of  language  used,  to  assume  the  responsiblity  of  the  views 
expressed  in  the  summary.  This  is  only  just  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  condense  several  hun- 
dred pages  into  three  or  four. 


SUMMAItY.  287 

years  1888  and  1889.  In  1890  and  1891  Tank  No.  1,  in  use  since 
1888,  filtered  sewag-e  at  the  rate  of  85,920  gallons  per  acre  daily  for 
every  day  of  the  time,  removing-  94r^  of  the  organic  matter,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  albuminoid  ammonia,  and  dSfc  of  the  bacteria. 

(5)  The  general  result  with  clean,  sharp,  coarse  sand  filters,  as  deter- 
mined by  experimenting  with  four  such  filters,  is  :  {a)  That  60,000  gal- 
lons per  acre  per  day  may  be  filtered,  with  the  result  of  removing  from 
97  to  99  per  cent,  of  the  organic  matter,  and  giving  an  effluent  always 
colorless,  generally  clear,  and  with  verv  little  or  no  sediment ;  {b) 
larger  quantities  up  to  180,000  gallons  a  day  may  be  filtered,  and  97 
per  cent,  of  the  organic  matter  removed  for  several  months  at  a  time ; 
and  (c)  when  filtering  60,000  gallons  a  day,  such  a  filter  will  remove  an 
average  of  99. 9"^  of  the  bacteria  in  the  sewage. 

(6)  As  a  deduction  from  (4)  and  (5)  it  may  be  fairlj'  stated  that  about 
100,000  gallons  per  acre  per  daj'^  may  be  filtered  through  coarse  sand 
filters  similar  to  Tanks  No.  1  and  Xos.  12,  13,  and  14,  and  results  ob- 
tained more  than  satisfying  the  conditions  of  any  standard  of  sewage 
purification  yet  laid  down.  Such  filters  may  occasionally  require 
either  periods  of  comparative  rest  during  which  the  amount  of  sewage 
applied  would  be  much  less  than  the  average,  or,  in  some  cases,  of  abso- 
lute rest ;  it  will  doubtless  be  found  advantageous  to  turn  under  the  top 
layers  of  the  filtering  material,  while  in  time  it  may  be  necessary  to 
renew  them.  This  rest  period  may  be  usually  easily  obtained  in  the 
summer  bj'  having  areas  to  which  sewage  is  applied  for  irrigation  pur- 
poses only,  and  with  due  reference  to  the  best  commercial  return  from 
the  growing  crop.  The  summer  season,  too,  with  its  higher  tempera- 
ture, is  the  time  when  a  given  period  of  rest  may  be  expected  to  give 
the  most  thorough  recuperation.  In  this  view  broad  irrigation  may 
be  considered  an  adjunct  of  purification  by  intermittent  filtration. 

(7)  Experiments  with  B((rHhi.s  ]>/'o<1igiosus  indicate  that  coarse  sand 
filters,  when  filtering  at  the  rate  of  60,000  gallons  per  acre  per  day  and 
ujiward,  may  allow  a  few  of  the  more  hai'dy  varieties  of  bacteria  to 
pass  through;  but  with  fine  sand  filters,  filtering  say  20.000  to  40.000 
gallons  per  acre  per  day,  it  is  uncertain  that  any  bacterium  whatever 
is  hardy  enough  to  survive  the  jiassing  through. 

(8)  Filtei's  of  either  clean  fine  sand  or  of  river  silt  may  be  expected 
to  purify  at  l<*;ist  30,000  galhms  per  acre  per  day  so  thoroughly  as  to 
])r()duce  an  efiluent  organicalh'  far  superior  to  ordinarily  pure  waters, 
and  in  which  the  number  of  bacteria  per  unit  volume  is  nuicli  less  than 
in  such  water.  Whether  the  few  bacteria  actually  found  in  the  t>filnent 
experimented  upon,  came  through  from  the  surface,  or  whether  they 
are  derived  from  the  under-drains,  or  from  bacteria  developed  in  the 
lower  i)()rtions  of  the  filters,  is  uncertain.  It  is  jiossible  that  at  times, 
even  with  the  fine  sand  filters,  a  few  come  through. 


288  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  actual  record  of  Tank  No.  2,  fine  sand,  for  the  third  and  fourth 
years  of  its  service,  1890  and  185)1,  shows  that  it  filtered  an  averag-e  of 
49,360  gallons  daily,  removing-  97.5  per  cent,  of  the  org-anic  matter  and 
at  least  99.99  per  cent,  of  the  bacteria. 

(9)  With  fine  river  silt,  it  appears  that  the  best  way  to  apply  the  sew- 
age is  either  in  trenches  which  have  been  excavated  and  filled  with 
coarse  sand,  or  possibly  to  sucli  areas  the  ujjper  foot  or  foot  and  a  half 
of  which  has  been  covered  with  coarse  sand  into  which  the  daily 
application  may  sink  in  a  short  time. 

(10)  The  advantages  of  apjDl^dng  sewage  to  trenches  excavated  in  the 
original  material  of  an  ordinary  field,  and  filled  in  with  clean,  coarse 
sand,  are  as  follows  :  (a)  If  sewage  is  applied  over  the  whole  surface, 
the  finer  particles  are  likely  to  be  taken  up  by  the  sewage  as  it  fiows- 
over  the  field,  and  deposited  in  the  interstices  in  such  manner  as  to 
soon  choke  the  inter-spaces  ;  if  apjilied  in  winter  to  the  upper  layers, 
of  such  material,  by  reason  of  nearly  continual  saturation  it  is  more 
liable  to  freeze  than  would  be  the  case  if  open  so  that  sewage  readily 
passed  into  and  through  the  spaces  ;  {h)  with  trenches  about  one  foot 
wide,  two  feet  deep,  and  five  feet  apart,  filled  nearly  full  of  coarse 
sand,  we  have  provided  a  medium  Avhicli  will  readily  receive  the 
sewage  and  quickly  take  it  below  the  surface.  The  area  of  fine  mate- 
rial on  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  trenches  is  equal  to  the  area  of 
the  whole  surface  of  fine  material  in  the  field  ;  to  this  equivalent  area 
the  sewage  comes  not  only  freed  from  sediment  by  straining  through 
the  coarse  sand,  but  it  further  comes  to  it  with  such  slow  motion  as. 
not  to  disturb  the  particles  of  fine  material  ;  the  underground  surface 
of  the  original  fine  material  of  the  field,  therefore,  remains  perma- 
nently open  to  receive  the  sewage ;  (c)  the  surface  of  sand  occasion- 
ally requiring  renewal  is  at  the  same  time  limited  to  one-fifth  ;  and  {d} 
this  one-fifth  portion  can  be  materially  assisted,  when  necessary  in 
cold  weather,  by  covering  the  trenches  with  boards. 

(11)  Fields  covered  Avith  an  impervious  or  nearly  impervious  soil  at 
the  surface,  but  having  coarse  sand  or  gravel  subsoils,  can  be  j^rovided 
with  trenches  cut  through  the  poorer  filtering  material  near  the  sur- 
face, and  more  efficient  filtering  areas  made  than  when  prepared  in  the 
usual  manner. 

(12)  These  trenches,  filled  with  coarse  sand,  may  be  the  best  method 
of  arranging  filter  areas  in  the  colder  climate  of  the  Northern  States. 
With  them,  sloping  areas  can  be  utilized  without  the  expense  of  level- 
ling. The  field  at  Lawrence  has  a  maximum  slope  of  about  1  in  10  j 
while  the  trenches  are  arranged  in  reference  to  the  contours  in  such 
manner  as  to  slope  from  1  in  50  to  1  in  100. 

(13)  As  a  deduction  from  (12)  and  what  has  preceded,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  when  in  extremely  cold  climates,  liable  to  heavy  snow- 


SUMMARY. 


289 


falls,  it  is  found  desirable  to  use  full  area  coarse-saud  filters,  tliey  may 
be  efficiently  operated  in  winter  by  arranging-  the  surface  before  the 
beginning-  of  cold  weather  in  trenches,  somewhat  after  the  manner  de- 
scribed in  the  foregoing-,  and  providing  board  covers  for  the  same,  to 
be  removed  and  stored  in  the  spring,  and  at  the  same  time  the  surface 
levelled  for  ordinary  full  surface  application  during  the  warm  months. 
For  moderate  winter  climates,  however,  the  filter  areas  may  be  operated 
without  any  protective  covering-  at  all. 

A  suggestion  for  a  system  of  covered  winter  absorption  drains  on  a 
level  area  is  given  in  plan  and  section  by  Fig.  24. 

(14)  The  mechanical 
separation  of  a  portion  of 
the  sewage  which  takes 
l^lace  in  the  coarse-sand 
trenches  referred  to  in  10 
and  11  is  nierelj"  an  in- 
cident of  intermittent  fil- 
tration which  under  cer- 
tain conditions  favorably 
modifies  the  result, 

/£" 


huwvy^/;?/.':'M''' 


WINTER  DRAIN .  UPPER  END. 


WINTER  DRAIN .  LOWER  END. 

Fig.  25. — Suggestion  for  Covered  ^VIXTER  Absouptiox  Drains. 


(15)  In  estimating-  the  relative  value  of  chemical  versus '  filtration 
processes  of  purification,  the  practical  question  arises  as  to  which 
process  may  l)e  (^xpectod  to  furnish  an  eftluent  least  adapted  to  sup- 
port tlie  life  of  l)ucteria.  Experiments  upon  the  effluents  from  the 
coarse-sand  filters  indicate  that  the  organic  matter  remaining-  therein 
is  in  no  case  Avell  adapted  to  sn])i)ort  bacteria. 

(16)  The  further  practical  question  arises  in  relation  to  the  use  of  the 
]inrified  effluents  from  filtration  areas  for  drinking.  The  answer  is  : 
<'^)  That  judging  by  chemical  analysis  alone,  there  is  nothing  in  the 
efiluents  known,  or  even  suspected  by  chemists,  to  be  harmful ;  {h) 
there  arc,  however,  a  few  bacteria  which  survive  passage  through  the 
coarse-sand  filters,  and  until  we  are  able  to  say  that  none  of  these  are 
disease-producing  varieties,  the  drinking  of  the  undiluted  effluents 
from  the  coarse-sand  filters  cannot  be  considered  permissible ;  (c)  the 

19 


21)0 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


amount  and  conditions  of  dilution  which  may  be  necessary  to  render 
such  effluents  comparatively  safe,  depend  upon  so  many  elements,  that 
a  rational  opinion  relative  to  the  probable  degree  of  safety  in  any  given 
case  can  only  be  given  by  an  expert  after  an  examination  of  all  the  at- 
tendant circumstances  ;  {(I)  although  not  absolutely  proven,  there  are 
nevertheless  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  the  effluents  from  tine- 
sand  filters  are  entirely  free  from  bacteria  of  every  sort  and  kind,  and 
if,  on  further  study,  it  turns  out  that  this  is  true,  so  far  as  present 


9"^%-^^.^.    ..  «««» JVC- T  ii« 


"^■^■^ 


>-"^- 


#^. 


"V 


Fig.  26. — Cultivated  Fii,tration  Akra   with    Absouptton  Ditch ks,  Luton, 

England, 

information  goes,  there  is  no  reason  to  be  urged  against  drinking  the 
effluents  from  such  filters. 

No  reference  has  been  made  in  this  chapter  to  the  partial  cultivation 
of  intermittent  filtration  areas  by  the  use  of  the  ridge  and  furrow  sys- 
tem, which  has  been  employed  in  England  with  more  or  less  success. 
The  new  views  which  we  derive  from  the  Lawrence  experiments  seem 
to  indicate  that  inasmuch  as  cultivation  would  not  only  interfere  with 
the  primary  object  of  sewage  purification,  but  furthermore,  cannot  as  a 
rule  be  made  profitable  on  such  areas,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should 
be  attempted.  The  statement  made  by  Mr.  Clarke,  in  1885,*  that  "if  it 
is  proper  to  dedicate  land  to  use  as  a  park  for  the  pleasure  of  the 
public,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  may  not  be  dedicated  to  sewage  puri- 

*  Report  of  Eliot  C.  Clarke  to  Mass.  Drain.  Com.,  p.  127. 


SUMMARY. 


291 


fication  in  order  to  preserve  health,"  is  considerably  enforced  by  the 
new  views.     Fig-.  25,  however,  illustrates  a  cultivated  filtration  field 


Fig.  27. — Method  of  Adapting  Intermittent  Filtration  Area  to  Cultivation, 
BY  Means  of  Absorption  Ditches. 

at  Luton,  England,  as  photographed  by  Mr.  Clarke,  in  1885,  and  Fig. 
26  shows  a  similar  filtration  area  in  section,  it  being  common  in  Eng- 
land to  adapt  filtration  areas  to  cultivation  by  means  of  absorption 


^TileOrain  'J"  '-Tf^^Tile  Drain  *if/-  '^H^Tile Drain  . 

Fig.  28. — Section  of  High  Grade  Intermittent  Filtration  Beds. 

ditches  like  those  shown  in  these  figures.  Fig.  27  is  designed  to  show 
the  method  of  constructing  a  high  grade  of  intermittent  filtration  beds 
with  coarse  sand  as  a  filtering  material  and  with  tile  underdrains. 


CHAPTEE  XV. 

SUB-SUEFACE  IRRIGATION. 

SuB-suEFACE  irrigation  is  a  useful  modification  of  broad  surface  irri- 
gation applicable  to  relatively  small  quantities  of  sewage,  as  from 
isolated  houses,  hospitals,  prisons,  asylums  summer  hotels,  manufact- 
uring establishments,  or  any  other  place  without  access  to  the  sewer- 
age system  of  a  large  town.  Originally  introduced  by  the  Rev.  Henry 
Moule,  the  invention  of  the  automatic  fiush-tank  by  Eogers  Field 
gave  it  at  once  a  utility  that  rapidly  brought  it  into  public  notice.  In 
spite,  however,  of  its  being  an  English  invention  it  has  probably 
been  more  extensively  used  in  this  country  than  there,  due  largely 
without  doubt  to  its  early  introduction  by  Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr., 
M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  and  its  persistent  advocacy  by  him,  Mr.  Philbrick,  and 
other  American  sanitary  specialists.  At  present  the  tendency  is  to 
use  it  less  here  than  formerly,  before  the  ease  and  certainty  with 
which  broad  surface  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration  can  be  used 
in  our  climate  were  thoroughly  understood.  It  is,  nevertheless,  a  use- 
ful system  under  certain  circumstances,  and  as  such  deserves  brief  no- 
tice in  a  work  of  this  character,  though  by  reason  of  its  having  been 
fully  described  by  others,  little  more  will  be  attempted  than  to  point 
out  the  chief  sources  of  information.* 

Mr.  Olcott,  in  his  paper.  The  Small-pipe  Underground  Intermittent 
System  of  Sewage  Disposal,  has  given  in  a  tabulated  statement  the 
detail  of  37  small  sub-surface  irrigation  systems  constructed  at  various 
places,  the  most  of  them  for  single  houses  ;  he  states  that  he  has  con- 
structed about  70  similar  works  in  all.f 

*  These  are  (1)  Waring's  Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage,  chap,  xxvii.,  sub-sec.,  The  Disposal  of 
Household  Wastes,  p.  287  and  following  ;  (2)  Gerhard,  The  Disposal  of  Household  Wast  ;  (S) 
Philbrick,  The  Disposal  of  Sewage  in  Suburban  Residences,  pamphlet  reprint ;  also  ir.  The 
Sanitary  Engineer,  vol.  vii.  (1883),  pp.  .530  and  5?A  ;  (4)  paper  by  Geo.  E.  Olcott,  The  Sm  11-pipe 
Underground  Intermittent  System  of  Sewage  Disposal,  in  11th  An.  Rept.  N.  Jer.  St.  Bd.  Health 
pp.  79-88  ;  and  (.5)  a  paper  by  Col.  Waring,  Sewage  Disposal  for  Isolated  Houses,  in  Am.  Arch., 
March  13,  1892. 

+  Tabulation  include?  information  in  reference  to  each  of  the  37  examples  cited  on  the  follow- 
ing points  : 

(1)  For  whom  and  where  constructed. 

(2)  Number  of  persons  contributing. 
(,3)  Approximate  first  cost. 

(4)  Length  of  time  in  use  at  date  of  making  the  tabulation. 
(6)  Answer  to  the  question.  Is  system  free  from  nuisance  ? 


SUB-SURFACE   IRRIGATIOlSr.  293 

As  the  result  of  this  experience,  Mr.  Olcott  indorses  the  following- 
views,  as  to  the  cost,  etc.,  of  sub-surface  irrigation  plants  on  a  small 
scale,  expressed  bj^  Dr.  J.  W.  Pinkham,  of  Montclair,  N.  J.,  in  a  paper 
before  the  New  Jersey  Sanitary  Association  in  1884,  from  which  Mr. 
Olcott's  statistics  are  chiefly  quoted,  namely  : 

•    (1)  The  first  cost  for  a  family  and  house  of  average  size  is  about  $200. 

(2)  The  cost  of  annual  maintenance  is  about  $10  for  such  a  house. 

(3)  The  ground  selected  should  be  free  from  shade  and  may  be  either  garden  or 
lawn. 

(4)  By  means  of  this  system  all  liquid  sewage,  from  the  smallest  dwelling-house 
or  the  largest  institution,  may  be  effectually  disposed  of  without  nuisance  and  with- 
out peril  to  health. 

(5)  This  system  should  take  the  place  of  cesspools  in  all  suburban  and  country 
places  which  have  sufficient  ground  for  the  distributing  pipes. 

A  reference  to  the  several  sources  of  information  here  indicated 
will,  it  is  believed,  furnish  whatever  is  needed  by  any  one  thinking  of 
using  this  system. 

(7)  Answer  to  the  question,  Is  all  house  waste  satisfactorily  disposed  of? 

(8)  Answer  to  the  question,  Have  stoppages  occurred  V 

(9)  Answer  to  the  question,  Is  the  soakage  area  underdrained  ? 

(10)  Answer  to  the  question.  Is  the  soakage  area  superficially  dry? 

(11)  Miscellaneous  statements  from  the  parties  for  whom  constructed,  including  individual  opin- 
ion as  to  success  of  operation,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  DISPOSAL   OF   MANUFACTURING   WASTES. 

Classification. 

The  English  Rivers  Pollution  Commission  gave  the  disposal  of 
manufacturing  wastes  extended  consideration  in  their  First,  Third, 
Fourth,  and  Fifth  Reports.  The  information  there  given  is  the  basis  of 
all  the  exact  knowledge  of  the  subject  whicli  has  thus  far  been  ob- 
tained. Taking  their  several  Reports  as  a  basis,  manufacturing  pollu- 
tions may  be  classified  under  the  following  heads  : 

(1)  Pollution  by  calico  dye-works,  j)rint-works,  and  bleach-works. 

(2)  Pollution  by  flax  steeping  and  by  linen  and  jute  bleaching  and 
dyeing. 

(3)  Pollution  by  starch-works. 

(4)  Pollution  by  paper  mills. 

(5)  Pollution  by  alcohol  distilleries. 

(G)  Pollution  by  sugar-refining  and  glucose  works. 

(7)  Pollution  by  petroleum  refining. 

(8)  Pollution  by  woollen  works,  hat  works,  etc. 

(9)  Pollution  by  chemical  works. 

(10)  Pollution  by  tanneries. 

(11)  Pollution  by  silk-works. 

(12)  Pollution  by  collieries  and  coal  washing. 

(13)  Pollution  by  iron  and  other  mining  operations. 

(14)  Pollution  by  iron-works,  rolling  mills,  and  other  heavy  metal- 
works. 

(15)  Pollution  by  the  cutlery  trade. 

(16)  Pollution  by  iron  and  steel  wire,  tin-plate,  and  galvanizing 
works. 

(17)  Pollution  by  brass  foundries. 

(18)  Pollution  by  German  silver  and  electro-plate  works. 

Manufacturing  Wastes — How  Purified. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  consider  in  this  place  the  large  amount  of  de- 
tailed information  given  by  the  Commission  in  these  reports.  In  the 
chapter  on  the  Pollution  of  Streams  we  have  already  given  some  of 
the  main  facts  of  stream  pollution  in  this  country,  and  we  may  simply 


DIFFICULTIES    IX    THE    WAY    OF    PURIFICATION.  295 

refer  to  these  reports  of  the  English  Commission  as  furnishing'  a 
larger  body  of  detailed  information  than  can  be  obtained  in  any  other 
place,*  The  Commission  sug-gests  for  the  purification  of  manufacturing" 
refuse  substantially  the  same  treatments  as  are  available  for  the  pu- 
riticatiou  of  town  sewage,  namely  :  Chemical  precipitation,  broad  irri- 
gation, and  intermittent  filtration,  and  the  general  conclusion  may 
be  drawn,  that  the  choice  of  method,  in  any  given  case,  will  depend 
largeU'  upon  special  conditions,  the  same  as  in  the  purification  of 
town  sewage.  A  considerable  number  of  large  manufacturing"  estab- 
lishments in  England  and  Scotland  have  constructed  jjurification 
plants,  and  in  some  cases  the  utilization  of  the  refuse  matters  has 
more  than  repaid  the  cost  of  constructing,  maintaining,  and  operating 
the  same.f 

Eelative  Danger  to  Health. 

As  a  general  proposition  it  may  be  stated  that  a  large  portion  of 
the  refuse  of  manufacturing"  processes  is  less  dangerous  to  health  than 
domestic  sewage,  when  turned  into  streams,  for  the  reason  that  it  does 
not  contain,  ^^cv  -ye?,  the  germs  of  infectious  diseases.  It  is  nevertheless 
true,  that  the  refuse  of  difterent  manufacturing  operations  varies 
greatly  in  respect  to  polluting  qualities,  as  well  as  the  facility  with 
which  it  can  be  purified.  For  instance,  the  refuse  from  woollen  scoui- 
ings  is  frequently  large  in  amount  and  difficult  to  treat ;  the  washings 
from  foul  rags  in  paper-making  may  also  be  viewed  with  suspicivm, 
but  the  vegetable  dyes,  acids,  and  alkalies  are  not  especially  danger- 
ous wdien  considerably  diluted.  Some  chemical  reagents,  which  occur 
as  refuse  from  manufactories,  may  even  act  as  precipitants  when 
turned  into  streams,  and  in  that  way  conduce  to  a  partial  purification 
of  the  stream  below  the  ]>oint  of  their  inflow.  This  fact,  lioweA'er,  can- 
not be  construed  into  an  argument  in  favor  of  indiscriminate  pollution 
of  streams  by  manufacturing  refuse. 

Difficulties  in  the  way  of  Pithfication. 

Again,  the  satisfactory  purification  of  manufacturing  wastes  is,  at 
many  mills,  rendered  exceedingly  difficult  on  account  of  the  large 
quantity  of  water  with  which  they  are  mixed.  In  many  cases  the  use 
of  water  is  unnecessarily  large,  and  the  first  step  toward  the  general 
purification  of  manufacturing  refuse  will  undoubtedly  be  for  the  manu- 
facturers to  learn  to  use  less  water  and  to  separate  their  drainage  in 
such  manner  that  water  only  slightly  fouled  by  use  may  go  back  into 

♦See  7th  Rept.  Mass.  St.  Bii.  Health  for  }-i'sini»-  of  this  infoniifition. 

+  For  samyile  plans  of  e.xt'ii'-ivf'  plunts  (lesi^jncd  specially  for  puriticatiou  of  manufacturing 
■wastes,  sec  4th  Kept,  of  Riv.  Pol.  Com  ,  p.  I'll,  it  sfq. 


290  SEWAGK    DISPOSAL    IX   THE    UNITED    STATES, 

the  stream,  while  the  move  seriously  polluted  drainage  is  discharged 
into  sewers,  or  purified  by  special  appliances  at  the  works,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

American  Examples. 

Thus  far  in  this  country  manufacturers  have  not,  except  in  a  few  in- 
stances, beeu  compelled  to  purify  their  own  polluted  wastes,  and  inas- 
much as  few  have  undertaken  the  purification,  of  their  own  volition, 
very  little  exi3erience  under  American  conditions  has  thus  far  been 
gained.  A  few  unsatisfactory  cases,  derived  from  Mr.  Clarke's  report 
to  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission,  may  be  cited : 

(1)  The  Waiisknck  Mills,  Providence,  T„.  I.,  are  among  the  largest  of  those  in  the 
United  States  making  woollen  and  worsted  goods.  Until  1881  the  dirty  water  result- 
ing from  the  different  operations,  amounting  to  about  400,000  gallons  per  day, 
flowed  directly  into  ^Yest  river.  The  yearly  amount  of  refuse  contained  in  this 
water  included  about  04,000  pounds  of  dyestuffs,  100,000  pounds  of  alkali,  4,000 
pounds  of  acid,  53,000  i)ounds  of  fuller's  earth,  and  400.000  pounds  of  grease.  A 
dyeing  and  bleaching  comi)any  below  brought  a  suit  against  the  Wanskuck  Com- 
pany on  account  of  the  serious  injury  to  its  operations  by  tJie  pollution  of  ^Yest 
river.  After  protracted  litigation  the  Supreme  Court  granted  a  permanent  injunc- 
tion forbidding  such  i)ollution.  In  comiiliance  with  this  injunction  attemjits  have 
been  made  to  purify  the  waste  water  before  permitting  it  to  enter  the  I'iver.  At 
first,  filtration  through  land  was  tried.  The  foul  liquid  was  pumped  on  to  a  tract 
of  gravelly  land  near  the  mills,  aljout  forty  feet  above  the  river.  An  acre  and  a 
half  was  prepared  by  making  furrows  four  feet  aj^art  on  the  surface.  The  liquid 
was  made  to  flow  during  the  morning  through  the  furrows  on  one-half  of  the  land, 
and  during  the  afternoon  through  those  on  the  other  half.  For  about  three  weeks 
this  process  was  successful,  as  the  water  filtered  through  the  land  and  came  out  clean. 
After  this  time  the  surface  of  the  furrows  became  clogged,  the  water  would  not  soak 
away  fast  enough,  and  the  process  was  abandoned.  It  is  stated,  however,  that  a 
few  days  later  the  water  had  disapi^eared,  and  the  film  of  sediment  which  had 
choked  the  ground  dried,  cracked,  and  curled  uj),  showing  clean  sand  underneath 
it.  It  is  probable  that  after  this  interval,  if  the  water  had  been  a2)i)lied  again,  it 
would  have  filtered  away  as  V^efore,  and  the  process  might  have  been  continued  in- 
termittently by  allowing  occasional  periods  during  which  the  film  of  sediment  could 
dry  and  crack.  AYhen  a  considerable  amount  of  sediment  had  accumulated,  and 
had  been  allowed  to  dry,  it  easily  could  have  been  broken  up  with  tools  and  thrown 
upon  the  ridges  between  the  furrows.  As  the  liquid  filtered  for  three  weeks  before 
the  surface  of  the  ground  became  clogged,  whereas  it  took  less  than  a  week  for  the 
film  of  sediment  to  dry  and  crack,  continuous  purification  could  have  been  effected 
by  the  use  of  double  the  quantity  of  land,  divided  into  two  plots,  used  alternately. 
Two  gentlemen,  one  of  them  the  superintendent,  who  observed  the  experiment,  are 
now  of  the  opinion  that  this  method  would  have  proved  sufficient.  At  the  time 
that  the  first  experiment  was  thought  to  be  a  failure  purification  by  precijutation 
was  adojited,  and  has  been  continued  since.  A  set  of  six  connected  basins  was 
excavated  on  the  laud  previously  used  for  filtration.  Two  of  these  basins,  aliout 
30  feet  by  GO  feet  each,  were  connected  with  four  others  about  75  feet  by  220  feet 
each,  all  being  5  or  6  feet  deep.  About  a  barrel  of  lime  to  100,000  gallons  is  added 
to  the  waste  water  at  the  mill  before  pumping.  This  addition  is  made  rudely,  the 
lime  not  being  previously  ground  or  even  slaked.  The  water  flows  through  one 
of  the  smaller  basins,  in  which  most  of  the  deposition  takes  place.  Leaving  the 
small  basin  it  flows  through  the  four  larger  ones  successively,  where  further  deposi- 
tion takes  place.  To  the  eye,  the  effluent  from  the  last  basin  looks  about  as  dirty 
as  the  water  which  leaves  the  pumps.  A  decided  smell  from  the  basins  is  noticed 
in  muggy  weather,  and  as  a  whole  the  result  is  not  satisfactory.     As  such  processes 


AMERICAN    EXAMPLES.  297 

have  proved  eflfective  elsewhere,  tbe  failure  must  be  due  to  defects  in  the  practical 
management  of  the  process.  For  a  while  after  it  was  attempted,  sulphate  of 
alumina  was  used  as  a  precipitant.  The  cost  of  this  chemical,  which  amounted  to 
about  ST  per  day  for  each  100,000  gallons,  or  .$6,000  per  year  for  the  whole  anu^unt 
treated,  was  considered  so  great  as  to  preclude  its  use.  The  sludge  which  is 
cleaned  from  the  basins  is  found  to  be  commercially  valueless.  It  is  said  to  have 
proved  beneficial  when  a^jplied  to  grass  in  the  neighborhood,  but  in  practice  it  is 
found  that,  although  it  is  given  away,  nobody  conies  for  it  a  second  time.  It  is 
thought  that  of  the  whole  liquid  waste  50,000  gallons  wotild  comprise  all  of  the 
water  used  in  washing  wool  and  the  greater  part  of  the  2Jolluting  refuse. 

(2)  A  method  of  wool  scottring  is  practised  in  the  Lorraine  Mills,  Saylesville,  R. 
I.,  by  which  the  grease  is  preserved,  and  most  of  the  other  dirt  is  eliminated  from 
the  wash  water  liefore  permitting  it  to  escape.  The  wool  is  washed  in  a  machine 
having  three  bowls.  .  .  .  Six  hundred  pounds  of  wool  are  washed  at  a  time, 
and  pass  successively  from  bowl  1  to  bowls  2  and  3.  When  a  new  charge  of  dirty 
wool  is  put  into  bowl  1,  the  water  previously  used  in  bowl  2  is  transferred  to  bowl 
1,  that  from  3  is  put  into  2,  and  clean  water  is  tised  only  in  bowl  3.  Thus,  bowl  1, 
in  which  the  wool  is  first  washed,  always  contains  water  which  has  been  used 
twice  before,  and  bowl  2  that  which  has  been  used  once.  The  amoiant  of  clean 
water  added  in  bowl  3  at  each  washing  is  about  400  gallons.  To  this  about  27 
pounds  of  soap  are  added,  and  a  small  quantity  of  free  lye.  Six  hundred  pounds 
of  wool  therefore  are  washed  with  about  400  gallons  of  water,  which  is  very  much 
less  than  is  commonly  used  for  the  purpose,  and  probably  is  as  little  as  will  accom- 
plish the  work.  The  restilting  product  is  about  300  potinds  of  clean  wool.  The 
water  from  bowl  1  is  drawn  off  into  a  "  cooler,"  which  is  a  pit  about  30  feet  across 
on  top,  dug  in  the  ground.  In  this  the  water  cools,  and  a  small  part  of  it  evapo- 
rates or  leaches  into  the  ground.  Most  of  it  flows  into  a  tank  in  the  ".save-all" 
house,  from  which  it  is  pumped  into  three  smaller  tanks  for  treatment.  These 
latter  are  about  7  feet  square  by  5  deep.  In  them  the  alkaline  liqtiid  receives  a 
small  quantity  of  sulpliuric  acid.  This  causes  the  greasy  i)articles  to  separate  from 
the  water  and  rise  as  foam.  The  water  below  is  thou  drawn  off,  and  escapes  into 
the  river.  It  is  clear,  and  about  the  color  of  amber.  It  has  an  odor  like  that  of 
wool,  and  is  somewhat  acid.  The  greasy  scum  is  drawn  off  upon  four  artificial  fil- 
ters of  gravel,  having  a  superficial  area  of  about  200  square  feet  each,  and  two  feet 
de[)th  of  filtering  material.  The  scum  solitlifies  somewhat  ujwn  the  filters,  and  is 
shovelled  into  bags,  which  are  put  between  sheet-iron  plates,  in  a  press  contained 
in  a  tight  box  which  can  be  filled  with  steam.  The  grease  flows  from  the  bags 
as  oil,  and  what  remains  in  the  bags  is  reduced  to  '-soot-cake."  The  oil  is  some- 
what further  refined,  and  then  barrelled  for  the  market.  When  cool,  it  has  the 
consistency  of  lard  or  common  soap-grease,  and  is  of  a  reddish  color,  with  an  odor 
of  wool.  It  is  used  either  for  stuffing  leather,  or  as  a  lubricant,  or  in  the  man- 
ufacttire  of  soap,  etc.  The  "  soot-cake,"  wliicli  is  principally  dirt,  contains  as 
it  comes  from  the  press  about  50  per  cent,  of  moisture.  It  has  been  analyzed  by 
two  chemists,  one  of  whom  reports  it  valueless,  and  the  other  as  having  some  ma- 
nurial  value.  From  18,000  pounds  of  wool  there  are  obtained  a  ton  of  grease  and 
1,200  pounds  of  "soot-cake  "  The  cost  of  the  jilant  for  extracting  these,  not  in- 
cluding buildings,  was  .S2,500.  The  process  has  only  recently  been  pi;t  in  opera- 
tion, but  is  thought  to  be  remunerative. 

(3)  Two  mills  in  Millbnry,  .Ma.ss. ,  each  scouring  about  1,000  pounds  jier  day  of 
wool  in  the  grease,  retain  the  first  scour,  which  is  su])posed  to  contain  about  five- 
sixths  of  the  dirt,  thus  lessening  in  that  proportion  tlie  pollution  which  they  other- 
wise Would  cause  to  the  river.  The  first  scour  is  retained  in  vats,  which  are 
cleaned  periodically,  and  their  contents  used  as  a  fertilizer.  In  these  two  cases 
the  process  is  thought  to  be  a  paying  one. 

(4)  Tiie  woollen  mills  of  Robert  Bh^akie  &  Co.,  at  Hyde  Park,  I^Iass.,  em]iloy 
about  275  opoiatives.  All  refuse  from  closets,  wool  scouring,  and  dyeing  goes  into 
a  settling  basin,  from  which  the  effluent  goes  into  the  stream.  About  3,000  ll)s.  of 
wool  are  scoured  daily  with  altout  40  lbs.  of  soda  ash,  and  are  dyed  chiefly  with 
ground  dyewoods.  The  wool  slirinks  in  cleansing  from  50  to  60  i)er  cent.,  so  that 
the  refuse  amounts  to  over  1,500  ll)s.  dailv.     The  settling  basin  through  which  the 


298 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    TIIP]    UNITED    STATES. 


waste  water  flows,  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  cut,  Fig.  29,  consists  of  a  ce- 
mented structure  80  feet  long  by  10  feet  wide  and  3:  5  feet  deep.  A  large  amount 
of  solid  refuse  is  intercepted  by  this,  the  heavier  portions  being  retained  in  the 
bottom  of  the  basin,  and  the  greasy  scum  floating  on  top.  The  elflnent,  however, 
is  still  very  dirty.     The  proprietor  cleans  out  the  basin  at  intervals,  and  uses  its 


Fig.  29.— Settling  Basins  .vr  Woollen  Mills,  Hyde  Park,  Mass. 


contents  to  fertilize  his  land.     He  estimates  its  value  for  this  purpose  at  several 
hundred  dollars  per  year. 

(5)  Next  to  the  pollution  caused  by  wool  washing,  the  refuse  from  tanneries 
seems  to  cause  the  most  trouble.  Tliere  are  very  few  cases  in  which  attempts  have 
been  made  to  purify  this  refuse.  The  drainage  from  a  tannery  can  be  clarifled 
chemically  by  the  use  of  salts  of  iron,  sometimes  in  conjunction  with  lime,  as  pre- 
cipitants.  At  one  place  which  I  visited  in  England,  a  little  .sulphate  of  iron  was 
first  added  to  the  drainage,  uniting  with  the  tan  in  forming  taunate  of  iron,  which 
was  afterwards  precipitated  by  the  addition  of  lime-water  from  the  lime-vats.  The 
liquid,  which  was  nearly  colorless,  was  then  filtered  through  gravel.     Where  the 


-  Cokeond Hay    _ 


PLAN 


'l^.  nro^p-^^"^  ■fwed'viff'h^v- 


■■'■'■    '  SECTION 

Fig.  30.— Mechanical  Filter  at  Tannery,  Winchester,  Mass. 


water  contains  a  great  deal  of  tan  bark,  it  probably  would  be  necessary  to  intercept 
this  in  some  way  i)efore  purifying  the  water  by  intermittent  filtration,  because  other- 
wise the  bark  would  clog  the  surface  of  the  ground  At  Maxwell's  tannery,  in 
"Winchester,  a  mechanical  filter.  Fig.  30,  to  strain  out  the  bark  and  coarse  lime,  has 
lately  (1885)  been  put  on  trial.  This  consists  of  a  wooden  box,  about  4  feet  wide,  2 
feet  deep,  and  60  feet  long.  This  is  divided  into  compartments  which  are  filled 
with  hay,  through  which  the  water  filters.  The  effluent  generally  is  clear,  but  of 
a  deep  mahogany  color. 


A   STUDY    OF   PAPER-MILL    WASTES.  299 


A  Study  of  Papee-Mill  Wastes. 

In  1885,  Professor  Wm.  Ripley  Nichols  examined,  at  the  request  of 
Mr.  Clarke,  a  number  of  samples  (eigfht  in  all)  of  the  waste  material 
from  the  paper-mill  of  Messrs.  C.  F.  Crehore  ct  Son,  situated  at  New- 
ton Lower  Falls,  Massachusetts.  At  this  mill  domestic  rag-s  and  tarred 
hemp  junk  are  made  into  card  and  press  j^aper  for  mills.  The  stock  is 
first  cut  and  dusted,  which  removes  part  of  the  waste  in  a  dry  state :  it 
is  then  boiled  with  lime  to  saponify  the  dirt,  and  bleach  out  the  color. 
The  waste  water  from  this  process  is  called  bleach  liquor.  The  stock 
is  then  washed  in  a  paper  engine,  where  it  is  passed  under  a  heavy  roller 
with  steel  blades,  acting-  against  a  bed-plate  also  set  with  steel  blades, 
the  whole  so  arranged  as  not  to  cut  the  stock  but  merely  to  separate 
the  tibres.  A  constant  stream  of  water  passes  through  the  paper  en- 
gine for  an  hour  or  more.  The  effluent,  which  is  called  wash-water,  at 
first  looks  very  dirty  as  it  leaves  the  engine,  but  toward  the  end  of  the 
operation  it  appears  to  fiow  away  clean.  Sand-boxes  in  the  bottoms  of 
the  washing  engines  receive  the  heavier  particles,  such  as  sand,  dirt, 
buttons  etc.,  removed  from  the  stock. 

The  samples  submitted  to  Professor  Nichols,  comprised :  (1),  solid 
refuse  from  the  "  sand-boxes  ;  "  (2),  samples  of  "  bleach-liquors  ;  "  (3), 
samples  of  "  wash-waters."  The  following  is  from  Professor  Nichols' 
report : 

The  details  of  the  examination  of  the  various  samples  and  such  recommendations 
as  I  am  able  to  make  are  as  follows  : 

1.  materiaij  fro;m  sand-boxes. 

The  dirt  from  the  "  rags  "  sand-box,  after  draining  off  the  liquid,  weighed  252 
grammes  while  wet,  and  98  grammes  when  drv.  In  bulk,  it  was  mainly  fibre ;  by 
weight,  the  larger  part  was  sand,  buttons,  metallic  hooks,  pins,  paper-fasteners,  wire, 
etc.     Expressed  in  per  cents,  we  have  : 

Per  cent. 

Water 61 

Buttons  and  othiu-  heavy  dirt 24 

Fibre  and  light  dirt 15 

100 
Calculating  on  the  dry  material  we  have  : 

Per  cent. 

Buttons  and  hoavv  dirt 61 

Fibre  and  light  dirt 39 

100 

The  fibre  and  light  dirt  burned  readily,  leaving  about  half  its  weight  of  ash,  or 
more  exactly  we  have  : 

Per  cent. 

Volatile  and  combustible  matter 47.72 

Ash 52.28 

100.00 


800  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Per  cent. 

The  "  fibre  aud  light  dirt "  contained  matter  sohable  in 

ether 1-29 

Matter  soluble  in  ether  after  treatment  with  hydrochloric 

acid 5.80 

Pliosphoric  acid 0.37 

Nitrogen 0.59 

Potash,  not  determined. 

In  my  opinion  there  is  not  grease  enough  to  pay  to  extract,  or  fertilizing  matter 
enough  to  give  a  commercial  value  to  the  material  as  manure.  There  is,  however, 
no  reason  whv  it  should  be  discharged  into  the  stream.  If  removed  from  the  sand- 
boxes and  dried,  either  by  waste  heat,  if  any  is  available,  or  by  exposure  to  the  air, 
it  can  then  be  burued  under  the  boilers.  This  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  best  disposi- 
tion to  make  of  it.  It  would,  no  doiibt,  be  better  to  arrange  for  the  settling  of  the 
heavier  portion,  containing  bits  of  metal,  etc.,  and  dry  and  burn  only  the  lighter 
portion.  The  heavier  portion  could  be  simply  mixed  with  the  ashes  of  the  estab- 
lishment without  harm  and  be  disposed  of  with  them. 

2.   MATERIAL   FROM  THE    "  ROPE  "    S.\ND-BOXES. 

The  sample  received  weighed  wet  67  grammes,  diy  13  grammes.  When  dry  it 
burned  readily,  leaving  less  than  half  its  weight  of  ash.     We  have,  then, 

Per  cent. 

Water 81 

Dry  fibre  and  dirt 19 

100 
The  dry  fibre,  etc.,  consisted  of : 

•'  Per  cent. 

Volatile  and  combustible  matter 63.6 

A.sh 36.4 

100.0 

Ether  extracted  18.67  per  cent,  of  a  tariy  matter  which  burned  with  a  smoky 
flame.     The  fibre  contained  : 

Per  cent. 

Phosphoric  acid 0.42 

Nitrogen 0.10 

The  best  disposition  that  can  be  made  of  this  material  is  the  same  as  that  sug- 
gested in  the  previous  case. 

3.    BLEACH-LIQUOB   FROM   THE   RAG   BOILERS. 

This  was  a  frothv,  dark-colored,  turbid,  strongly  alkaline  liquid  containing  a 
large  proportional  amount  of  organic  matter.  The  results  of  a  partial  exauuuation 
appear  in  the  table.  If  this  liquid  had  to  be  disposed  of  by  itself,  the  best  method 
would  probablv  be  to  evaporate  it  under  the  grate-bars  or  in  some  other  way  by 
waste  heat  if  possible.  It  would  give  about  9  or  10  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  a 
thick  syrup,  which  could  then  be  burned,  and  by  its  Inirning  return  part  of  the 
heat  required  to  evaporate  it.  As,  however,  the  first  portions  of  the  wash-water  are 
unfit  to  discharge  into  the  stream,  it  would  probably  be  better  to  mix  all  the 
liquors  together  for  treatment. 

4.    BLEACH-LIQTJOR   FROM   ROPE. 

This  resembles  the  previous  sample  in  general  respects  and  might  be  treated 
similarly. 

5,    6,    7,    8.    WASH -WATER   FROM   RAGS   AND   FROM   ROPE. 

Samples  5  (rags)  and  6  (rope)  were  taken  10  minutes  after  washing  began,  and 
samples  7  (rags)  and  8  (ropej,  after  2  hours.     The  latter,  although  turbid  and  unin- 


A    STUDY    OF    PAPEK-MILL    WASTES. 


301 


viting  to  the  eye,  might  be  discharged  iuto  the  stream  after  a  simple  process  of 
filtering  through  sand  or  sand  and  gravel.  The  first  portions  of  the  ■n-ash-water 
are,  however,  too  foul  to  be  thus  discharged.  I  have  made  a  number  of  experi- 
ments with  various  chemical  precipitants ;  with  the  stronger  liquors  very  little 
satisfaction  was  obtained.  With  the  weaker  liquors,  or  with  a  mixture  of  the  strong 
and  weak  together,  better  results  were  obtained,  but  the  method  would  be  expen- 
sive and  the  effltient  ought  not  to  go  into  a  stream  used  for  water-supply.     In  my 

Table  No.  67. — Examination  of  Various  Samples  of  Refuse  fkom  Crehores 

Paper  Mill. 

(Partb  per  1UU,0U0.) 


Rags. 

Drainings  from  dirt 

Bleach-liquor 

Wash-water  after  10  minutes. 
Wash- water  after  2  hours... 

Rope. 

Drainings  from  dirt 

IJleach-liquor 

Wash-water  after  10  minutes 
Wash-water  after  2  hours  . . . 


Unfiltered. 

After  filtering 
through   paper. 

o  a 

cJ  O 

Total 
solids. 

Volatile. 

Total 
solids. 

Volatile. 

< 

73.2 

7326.0 

5032.0 

7222.6 

749.6 

360.0 

537.5 

393.0 

i      120.9 

IS. 5 

ii.5 

11.0 

4.5 

'         0.5 
13.0 

8193.0 

8120.0 

5144.0 

i      178.0 

51.0 

492.5 

S69.0 

57.0 

38.0 

28.6 

18.0 

9.6 

1         0.8 

opinion,  the  best  way  of  disposing  of  these  liquors  is  by  "  intermittent  downwatd 
filtration,"  through  a  sufficient  amount  of  land.  Judging  from  the  i^ii^^lished 
experience  in  other  places  this  would  be  quite  practicable,  but  I  do  not  feel  wholly 
sure  of  the  success  \Vith  the  bleach-liquor  from  the  ropes,  as  the  organic  matter 
therein  contained  is  not  as  readih'  oxidized  as  is  that  from  the  rags.  Experience 
might  show  that  a  larger  area  of  land  was  necessary  if  this  liquid  were  mixed  with 
the  rest  than  is  usually  required,  but  I  think  it  would  be  better  to  evaporate  this 
liquid  as  indicated  above.  The  amount  of  heat  required  would  not  be  great.  I 
do  not  possess  accurate  information  as  to  the  amounts  of  the  various  liquids  of 
which  samples  were  sent  to  me  ;  but  I  as.sumed,  on  the  strength  of  rough  estimates 
■which  you  gave  me,  that  the  daily  discharge  is  approximately  made  up  of  : 

700  gallons  of  bleach-liquor (Rags.) 

700       "         "       "  •'     (Kope.) 

50,000        "         "wash-water 5 

50,000        "         "      "         "      6 

150.000        "         "      "         "      7 

150,000        "         "      "         "      8 

After  the  samples  had  been  in  my  laboratory  for  more  than  two  weeks,  and  bad, 
consequently  undergone  some  chemical  change,  I  made  a  mixture  in  this  propor- 
tion and  had  it  analyzed  with  tlie  results  which  follow,  and  which  represent, 
approximately,*  tlie  character  of  the  i^resent  discharge  : 

Total  solids  in  solution 120.  parts  in  100,000 

Organic  and  volatile  matter 80.  "       "         " 

Inorganic  mattei- 40.  "       "         " 

Solids  in  suspension 74.  "       "         " 

Organic  and  volatile 30.  "       " 

Inorganic 44.  "        "         " 

•Analytical  Notk-^THpsc  n'snlts  of  analyses  vary  somewhat  from  those  calculattMl  from 
Table  07,  mainly  hecanse  the  licjuors  had  undnru^one  some  chanj^e  since  the  first  (ietorminationa 
were  made,  hut  partly  hccatiso,  in  lifiiiids  of  this  eliaracter  (i.e.,  containing  caustic  lime),  some  of 
the  <lit(rminatiou».  such  a.-,  that  of  the  total  solids,  do  not  have  a  high  degree  of  accuracy. 


302 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Alkalinity  as  lime 25.4  parts  in  100,000 

Ammouia 0.833  "        "         " 

Albuminoid  ammonia 3.050  "       "          " 

Total  organic  nitrogen 5.353  "       "         " 

In  the  absence  of  more  definite  knowledge  of  the  comijosition  which  the  united 
waste  liquids  would  have,  and  in  the  absence  of  knowledgo  as  to  the  land  which 
may  be  available,  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  accurately  the  amount  of  land  required 
for  treating  the  liquid.  Of  land  favorable  for  the  purpose,  perhaps  some  three  or 
four  acres  would  be  required.  The  liquid  is  rather  alkaline  to  be  used  for  irriga- 
tion, but  if  exposed  to  the  air  would  lose  some  of  its  alkalinity,  or  if  there  were  acid 
refuse  from  some  other  establishment  which  could  be  mixed  with  it,  it  would  be 
an  advantage.  To  neutralize  400,000  gallons  of  a  mixture  such  as  described  above 
would  require  1,500  lbs.  of  oil  of  vitriol.  A  portion  of  the  organic  matter  would 
then  settle  out  as  sludge  (which  could  be  filtered  off,  dried,  and  burned),  but  the 
lime  would  go  into  the  effluent  as  sulphate  of  lime,  which  would  be  of  disadvan- 
tage to  the  stream  as  a  source  of  water-supply. 

Table  No.  68.— Examination  of  Various  Samples  op  Refuse  from  Crehore's 

Paper  Mill. 

(Pounds  to  1,000  gallons.) 


Rags. 

Drainings  from  dirt 

Bleach-liquor 

Wash- water  after  10  minutes  , 
Wash-water  after  2  hours 

Rope. 

DraininRs  from  dirt 

Bleach-liquor 

Wash-water  after  Id  minutes 
Wash- water  after  2  hours 


Unfiltered. 

After  filtering 
through    paper. 

Total 

solids. 

Volatile. 

Total 
solids. 

Volatile. 

eii.s 

44.8 
0.05 

683;5 
41.1 
3.2 

419'.  8 
"6'.96 

"h'.s 

602'.  3 
32  8 
0.92 

m'.h 

30.8 
1.5 

*"6'.47 

429.6 
"6;75 

6.1 
62.5 
10.1 

0.04 

1.1 
14.8 
4.8 
0.7 

.2g 


30.0 


4.3 


CHAPTER  XYH.. 

ON  THE  TE]MPEKATURE  OF  THE  AIR  AND  OF  NATURAL  SOILS,  AND 
ITS  RELATION  TO  SEWAGE  PURIFICATION  BY  BROAD  IRRIGA- 
TION AND  INTERMITTENT   FILTRATION. 

Empieical  Tendency  of  English  Practice  in  Sewage  Disposal. 

In  examining-  the  voluminous  literature  of  sewage  purification  by 
broad  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration  in  England,  one  is  forcibly 
struck  with  the  purely  empirical  tendency  of  current  practice  there, 
and,  in  so  far  as  this  tendency  has  kept  the  development  of  this 
branch  of  sewage  purification  in  the  line  of  well-ascertained  observa- 
tion and  experience,  it  is  by  no  means  to  be  deplored  ;  because  there 
is  in  the  beginning  of  all  new  sciences  or  arts  a  period  when  conserva- 
tive empiricism  is  in  reality  the  highest  form  of  knowledge  put  in 
order,  that  is  to  say,  such  empiricism  is  in  reality  the  position  of  the 
true  scientist.  In  the  course  of  time,  however,  as  the  body  of  well-as- 
certained fact  becomes  greater,  theory  and  deduction  may  properly 
come  in  as  leg-itimate  tools  in  the  hands  oi  those  who  are  interested 
in  the  scientific  investig-ation  of  problems  in  ph\'sics,  and  it  is  in  this 
latter  view  that  the  following  chapter  is  submitted  for  comment  and 
criticism. 

Information  still  Lacking. 

The  experiments  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health  have 
extended  our  knowledge  of  the  kind  of  material  best  suited  for  sewage 
purification  ])v  filtration  through  soils  considerably  beyond  what  was 
previously  known.  Indeed,  so  extensive  is  the  advance  that  we  are 
able  to  predict  results,  as  noted  in  a  previous  chapter,  to  this  extent 
that,  with  a  given  material,  we  can  say  beforehand  a]i]n'oximately  what 
degree  of  purity  will  be  attained  f(n-  a  given  quantity  of  soAvage  ap- 
plied per  unit  of  area.  We  still  lack  definite  information  as  to  the 
extreme  conditions  of  climate  under  which  i^urification  by  broad  irri- 
gation and  interniitttMit  filtration  nniy  be  etfected,  though  the  results 
recorded  in  the  Twenty-third  Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Health,  and  given  in  Chapter  XIY.,  help  out  some- 
what;  and  it  is  with  a  view  of  still  further  sn])i)lying  the  d(>ficiency 
that  the  information  embodied  in  the  following  has  bi'en  got  to- 
gether. 


304 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


The  Massachusetts  experiments  have  demonstrated,  moreover,  that 
under  projoer  conditions  the  nitritication  of  sewage  will  proceed  dur- 
ing- cold  weather,  although  not  as  rapidly  as  in  warm  weather.*  The 
detail  of  Avliat  can  be  actually  accomplished  in  this  particular  is  given, 
as  we  have  seen,  in  the  Special  Massachusetts  Report,  and  in  the  An- 
nual Report  for  1891,  already  referred  to. 


Temperatures  of  Air  and  Sewage  at  Lawrence. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  question  of  temperatures  at  Lawrence, 
where  the  exi^eriments  have  been  carried  on,  Tables  Nos.  69  and  70, 
derived  from  the  Special  Report,  are  given.  The  winter  of  1887-88, 
when  the  mean  temperature  for  January  was  15.46°,  is  stated  to  have 
been  the  coldest  in  20  years.  It  was  found  necessary,  because  of  the 
low  temperature  at  which  the  sewage  arrived  at  the  experiment  sta- 
tion, to  warm  it  by  passing  a  hot  water-pipe  through  the  measuring 
tank.     In  reference  to  this  it  may  be  noted  as  a  very  important  point 

Table  No.  69. — Mean  Maximum,  Mean  Minimum,  and  Mean  Temperature  of 
Air  at  Lawrence,  from  November  to  March,  Inclusive,  During  the  Win- 
ters OP  1887-88  and  1888-89. 

(Fahrenheit".) 


18S7-88. 

1888-89. 

Month. 

Mean  max. 

Mean  mill. 

28.30 
20.87 
6  32 
12.24 
20.39 

Mean. 

Mean  max. 

48.40 

.S8.0!» 
39.77 
82.75 
45.38 

Mean  min. 

Mean. 

47.16 
35.54 
24.61 
35.03 
39.13 

37.73 
28.20 
15.46 
23.63 
29.76 

31.30 
21.45 
23.00 
11. S2 
26.55 

39.85 

2!».77 

31.38 

22.28 

35.96 

in  the  discussion  that  the  winter  temperature  of  the  sewage  was  con- 
siderably reduced  by  reason  of  the  pipe  conveying  it  from  the  sewer 
to  the  experiment  station  passing  along  the  bed  of  the  Merrimac  river 
for  nearly  half  a  mile.  The  difference  caused  thereby  is  shown  in 
Table  No.  70. 

In  reference  to  Table  No.  70  it  may  be  stated  that  for  the  purpose  of 
comparing  temperature  of  effluent  with  the  temperature  of  sewage  the 
effluent  from  Tank  No.  1  has  been  selected.  This  tank  is  composed  of 
a  filtering  material  of  9,000  gallons  of  clean,  coarse  mortar  sand  of  even 
grain,  in  which  the  voids  were  found  to  equal  36  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 
When  saturated  Avith  water  and  allowed  to  drain  there  remained  12 
per  cent,  of  the  total  volume,  which  was  filled  with  water,  and  24  per 
cent,  containing  air,  the  sand  occupying  64  per  cent,  of  the  total  space. 

As  shown  in  Table  No.  70  the  mean  temperature  of  the  sewage,  as 

*  For  statement  of  winter  purification  in  detail,  refer  to  Chapter  XIV.,  Article  on  The  Effect 
of  Frost  and  Snow  upon  Intermittent  Filtration  at  Lawrence,  p.  280,  and  following. 


TEMPERATURES    OF    AIR    AND    SEWAGE    AT    LAWRENCE. 


305 


Table  No.  70. —  Maximum,  Minimum,  and  Mean  Tempeuatures  in  Main  Sewer 
AT  Lawkence,  the  same  for  Sewage  as  delivered  to  Filter  Tanks  and 
FOR  Effluent  from  Tank  No.  1,  from  January,  1888,  to  April,  1889,  in- 
clusive. * 

(Fahrenheit  °.) 


Temperature  in  main 
sewer. 

Temperature  of  sewage  as 
delivered  to  filter  tank. ' 

Temperature  of  effluent 
from  Tank  No.  1. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

1S88. 
January 

44 
44 
51 
.57 
63 
66 
68 
67 
59 
r>i 
48 

47 
-18 
47 
57 

36 
36 
45 
51 
57 
61 
65 
62 
54 
50 
45 

44 
43 
40 
45 

46.5 
41.6 
40.5 
47.2 
53  2 
59  4 
63.7 
67.1 
64.3 
56.3 
51.0 
46.5 

45.9 
44.5 
45.2 
49.5 

.37 

65t 

80t 

46 

57 

73 

73 

74 

71 

53 

50 

46 

45 
46 
44 
53 

34 
35 

51t 

36 

45 

58 

65 

69 

55 

45 

38 

41 

44 
44 
33 
39 

35.3 

47. Ot 

6ii.r,t 

43.6 

51.8 

65  9 

69  8 

71.1 

64.1 

47.8 

45.0 

44.7 

44.7 
44.9 
36,6 
46  1 

.36 
37 
42 

35 
35 
35 

35.7 
35.7 

36.6 

46             40 

42.2 

May 

57 
73 
74 
75 
74 
61 
54 
44 

41 
39 
41 
53 

47 
58 
68 
71 
61 

52.0 
64.1 

July 

Auiriist. 

71.0 
73.3 
68  4 

51           55.1 

JM.jvemlier 

43           49.1 
39           44.1 

1889. 

January 

Febrii:iry 

.38           39.6 
37      1     37  6 
36           39.6 

40       '     45.7 

*  The  maxima  and  minima  of  this  table  are  not  true  maxima  and  minima  as  derived  from  maximum  and 
minimnm  thermometers  ;  they  are  merely  the  highest  and  lowest  daily  readina-s,  as  taken  from  the  tabulations  in 
the  Special  Report.  t  Sewage  warmed  artiti^;ially. 

applied  to  the  filters  in  Jaiuiciiy,  1888,  was  over  11°  below  that  of  the 
sewage  iu  the  main  sewer.  In  the  winter  of  1888-89  sewage  w^as  ap- 
plied at  a  temperature  of  about  45°,  Avhich  Avas  but  little  below  the 
temperature  of  the  main  sewer,  except  in  March,  wdieu  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  applied  sewage  ranged  from  44°  to  33°,  with  a  mean  of  36.6°. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  Februaiy  of  this  year  was  22,3°, 
as  shown  in  Table  No.  69. 

"Without  going  into  an  elaborate  analysis  of  the  winter  results  of 
the  Lawrence  experiments  it  will  be  sufficient  for  present  purposes  to 
state : 

(1)  That  in  winters  of  the  mean  temperatures  of  those  of  1887-88  and 
1888-89,  at  Lawrence,  sewage  can  be  so  far  purified  by  int(U'mittent  fil- 
tration through  .sand,  that  probably  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen 
applied  in  the  sewag(^  Avill  l)e  reduced  to  nitrates  in  the  effluent. 

(2)  That  to  accomplish  this,  the  sewage  needs  to  be  applied  at  about 
the  temperature  42°  to  45°,  which  may  be  taken  as  the  mean  winter 
temperature  in  main  sewers,  although  in  manufacturing  quarters, 
where  hot  waste  liquids  and  condensed  steam  are  admitted  into  the 
sewers,  the  temperature  of  the  sewage  may  be  even  much  higher.^ 

tSee  Mr.  Gray's  Providence  Rejxirt  for  temperature  in  sewers  of  Paris,  where  during  an  ex- 
tremely cold  December  in  IST'.I  tlie  mean  temperature  of  the  sewage  was  4:')°,  with  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  at  the  same  time  of  1><.!!°,  and  of  water  of  the  Seine  of  32°, 

In  another  case  where  a  main  Paris  sewer  receives  the  sewage  of  a  manufacturing  quarter,  the 
winter  temperature  of  the  sewage  was  maintained  at  .53.*i°  to  62.C°. 
20 


306 


sewagp:  disposal  ix  the  united  states. 


(.3)  The  complete  nitrification  of  50  per  cent,  of  the  organic  matter 
represents  more  than  50  per  cent,  purification. 


CoMrAEisoN  OF  AiR  Tempeeatures  at  a  Number  of  Places. 

Thus  far  we  have  comparatively  little  experience  in  this  country  in 
the  winter  purification  of  sewage  by  either  broad  irrigation  or  inter- 
mittent filtration  on  a  large  scale.  We  may,  however,  compare  the  mean 
temperatures  at  a  number  of  places  where  meteorological  records  have 
been  kept,  with  the  records  of  places  abroad  where  winter  purification 
has  preceded  without  interruption  from  frost.  Table  No.  71,  following, 
gives  a  number  of  such  records. 

The  column  State  of  Michigan  in  Table  No.  71  may  be  taken  as 
representing  the  approximate  mean  climate  of  that  State.  It  is  intro- 
duced for  the  purpose  of  showing  what  may  be  expected  in  a  typical 
region  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States.  The  mean  tempera- 
tures here  given  are  from  a  table  at  page  17  of  the  16th  Annual  Re- 
port of  the  Michigan  State  Board  of  Health,  the  stations  reiDresented 
being  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  from  Marquette  and  Escanaba  at  the 
North  to  Detroit,  Ann  Arbor,  and  Hillsdale  at  the  South.  The  mean 
winter  temperatures  at  Marquette  are,  however,  much  lower  than  the 
means  as  here  given,  and  before  designing  sewage  disposal  by  broad 
irrigation  or  intermittent  filtration  at  a  point  as  far  north  as  Marquette,, 
one  would  need  more  definite  information  in  relation  to  local  winter 
temperatures  than  is  afforded  by  Table  No.  71. 

Table  No.  7L — Mean  Monthly   Winter  Temperatures  at  the    Places    indi- 
cated IN  Europe  and  the  United  States. 

(Fahrenheit  °.) 


State  of 

State  of 

London. 

Dantzic. 

Providence. 

Michigan. 

Alabama. 

w 

■         i     £ 

£ 

, 

y 

1     g 

Months. 

1  = 

n  tern 
ature. 

)f  yea 
ken. 

es 

n  tern 
itiire 

of  yea 
ken. 

a  & 

.  "i 

=  i-              -3 

o  ■" 
la 

S- 

^ 

S» 

s  =. 

i. 

s  - 

§. 

S  =•         z 

Nov 

4?>.3 

50 

36.3 

81 

40.0 

48 

36.0 

10 

52.9 

.30 

Dec 

3'.).:^ 

30.0 

29.7 

26.6 

to 

46.6 

to 

Jan 

:it>.5 

26.8 

2H.S 

20.6 

1 

42.9 

1 

Feb 

38.4 

29.1 

27.3 

23  6 

49.2 

March 

•41.0 

32.4 

33.!) 

2!t.8 

.54.1 

46.(1 

41.2 

44.5 

44.3 

63.5 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  preceding  remark,  and  also  to  show  the 
range  of  the  mean  in  a  single  State,  Table  No.  72  has  been  prepared. 

The  range  in  latitude  of  places  in  Table  No.  72  is  from  46°34' 
North  at  Marquette,  to  42°17'  North  at  Ann  Arbor,  a  total  range  of 
4°17'.      The  lowest   mean   temperature  for   any   month   is   found   at 


COMPAKISOX    OF    AIR   TEMPERATURES. 


307 


Table  No.  72. — Maximum,  Minimum,  and  Mean  Tempehatuues  for  the  Winter 
Months  of  1886-87  at  several  Places  in  the  State  of  Michigan. 

(Fahrenheit  °.) 


Names  of  places. 


Dec,  18«6. 


Jan.,  18b7. 


Feb.,  1SS7. 


March,  18S7. 


Min.    Mean. 


Max.    Min.    Mean.,  Max.  .  Min.    Mean.    Max.     Min.  ,Mean. 


Marquette 42 

Escaiiaba 39 

Mackinaw  city 46 

Traverse  city 46 

Graml  Haven '  49 

Lansing 46 

Ann   Arbor [  45 

Detroit  52 


-13 
-15 
0 
-1 
-3 
-S 
-2 


15.7 
15.0 
22.6 
21.6 
22.5 
19.6 
19.3 


42 

39 
48 
48 
52 


-21 
-24 
-14 
-15 

-2 
-20 

-12 


24.0  ,     54 


8.0 
7.6 
13.3 
16.2 
20.1 
18.2 
19.5 


36 
36 
41 
46 
46 
53 
53 


-13 
-17 
-12 
-15 

-7 
-3 
-3 


-3      23.6  1     54 


12.0 

46 

13.0 

44 

16.1 

39 

17.8 

48 

24.1 

60 

24.4 

50 

25.3 

51 

28.2 

52 

-14 
-12 
-10 

-7 
7 
5 
5 
7 


18.7 
19.2 
20.1 
21  5 
2';.  3 
27.8 
29.1 
31.0 


Escanaba  in  latitude  45°48'  Nortli,  for  the  month  of  Januaiy;  the 
highest  mean  for  the  same  month  being  23.6°  at  Detroit  in  latitude 
4:2°20'.  The  elevations  above  tide-water  range  from  930  feet  at  Ann 
Ai-bor  to  585  at  Detroit;  Lansing  is  900  feet,  Marquette  641;  while 
Escanaba,  Mackinaw  city,  Traverse  cit\',  and  Grand  Haven  are  all  a 
tritle  less  than  600  feet.  The  highest  point  at  which  a  series  of  meteor- 
ological observations  are  recorded  in  Michigan  is  Reed  city,  in  lati- 
tude 43°4:4'  and  1,016  feet  above  tide,  where  in  January,  1886.  the  mean 
temperature  was  17.4°,  with  the  maximum  of  44°  and  minimum  of  — 18° 
for  the  same  month. 

A  number  of  the  other  States  have  organized  meteorological  depart- 
ments in  which  the  State  meteorology  is  treated  somewhat  more  in  de- 
tail than  by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  and  information  of  the 
kind  indicated  in  the  foregoing  as  likely  to  be  of  use  in  deciding  ques- 
tions of  sewage  disposal  may  be  in  most  cases  easily  obtained.  By 
way  of  illustrating  the  climatology  of  one  of  the  more  southerh^  States, 
the  means  of  the  winter  temperatures  at  a  large  number  of  places  in 
the  State  of  Alabama  are  also  tabulated  in  Table  No.  71.  The  details 
of  the  observations  at  a  few  of  the  stations  in  that  State  are  given  in 
Table  No.  73. 

Table  No.  73.— Minimum  and  Mean  Temperatures  of  the  Winter  Months  for 
A  Series  of  Years  at  several  Places  in  the  State  of  Alabama. 

(Fahrenheit  °.) 


— ' 

>  a 

"3 

'U 

Mean  teniperatures. 

_o 
S2 

3  C 

O  —  *i 

Name  of  place. 

6 
(3 

3 
C 

1 

o 

CS 

g.2_    . 
>t:  >  "5  a 

o-  i  o  i 

"A 

HnntRville 

84°  45' 

3.3°  32' 
Vi"  07' 
:«•>  4(1' 
32°  23' 
31°  50' 
80°  41' 

690 
600 
2.50 
S-26 
219 
450 
35 

41.8 
49.0 
50.4 
47.8 
49.5 
52.3 
47.6 

42.1 
.39.1 
45.1 
44.6 
48.2 
46.9 
50.7 

42.6 
41.7 
48.6 
.'50.7 
52.8 
51.3 
50  2 

51.3 
50.1 
!56.6 
53.6 
57.1 

60.7 

-0 
4 
4 

6 
14 
11 

14 

3 

TUKCIlllKlS  • 

6 
lU 

ISi 

Troy 

6 

Mobile 

22 

308  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN^   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  results  of  Table  No.  73  iu  comiDarison  with  the  mean  temperature 
at  Lawrence,  Massachusetts,  as  shown  in  Table  No.  69,  easily  indicate 
that  an  exceediiii^ly  efficient  winter  purification  of  sewage  by  irrigation 
and  filtration  can  be  attained  in  the  State  of  Alabama. 

The  foregoing-  illustrations  of  mean  winter  temperatures  in  Michigan 
and  Alabama  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  value  of  a  w^ell-digested 
State  climatology  in  connection  with  the  selection  of  the  method  of 
sewage  disposal  to  be  used  iu  regions  lacking  the  data  of  actual  ex- 
perience through  a  series  of  years.  The  variations  in  climate  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  United  States  are  so  extensive,  and  the  range  of  lati- 
tude so  great,  that  definite  information  of  the  kind  here  collected  is  of 
the  highest  value,  though  for  its  full  utilization  we  need  a  series  of 
allied  observations  iu  relation  to  the  temperatures  of  the  soil  at 
various  depths,  such  observations  of  the  temperature  of  the  soil  fur- 
nishing certain  modifying  corrections  which  do  not  appear  from  a 
study  of  air  tem^seratures  alone. 

Soil  Temperature  Observations  Abroad. 

Observations  of  the  temperature  of  the  soil  at  various  depths  have 
been  kept  at  the  Greenwich  Observatory,  the  Edinburgh  University 
and  at  other  places  abroad  for  many  years,  but  it  is  only  recently  that 
the  subject  has  received  any  special  attention  in  this  country. 

To  a  number  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  established 
during  the  last  few  years  may  be  assigned  the  credit  of  beginning  a 
series  of  studies  of  soil  temperatures  of  value  not  only  to  the  agricult- 
ural interests  of  the  country,  but  which  also  throw  considerable'  light 
on  questions  of  sewage  purification  as  well. 

Many  of  the  European  observations  have  been  made  and  studied 
largely  with  reference  to  their  bearing  on  geological  dynamics,  and 
while  of  interest  from  the  geological  point  of  view,  are  less  useful  for 
present  purposes  than  those  made  at  the  several  American  Agricult- 
ural Experiment  Stations. 

As  an  exception  to  this,  Table  No.  74,  of  the  results  at  the  Berlin 
sewage  farms  in  1884  and  1885,  is  given. 

The  mean  winter  air  temperatures  at  Berlin  are  :  December,  33.5° 
r. ;  January,  30°  ;  and  February,  31.1°.  Soil  temperatures  have  been 
taken  at  14  different  points  at  the  depths  indicated  in  Table  No.  74. 
The  results  here  given  are  the  means  of  all  the  observations.  The 
deepest  frost  penetration  thus  far  observed  is  about  2.5  feet ;  in 
ordinary  winters  the  depth  of  frost  does  not  exceed  1.7  feet.* 

*  Notes  on  European  Practice  in  Sewage  Disposal.  By  Chas.  H.  Swan.  Jour,  of  Assn.  of 
Eng.  Socs.,  vol.  vu.,  No.  7  p.  253  (July,  1888). 


RELATION   OF   SPECIFIC    HEAT   TO   SEWAGE   DISPOSAL. 


309 


Table  No.  74.— Average  Soil  Temperatures  at  the  Berlin  Sewage  Farms  in 

1884  and  1885. 

(Fahrenheit  °.) 


Year. 

1884. 

1S85. 

Depth,  meters. 

0.5 
(1.64  ft.) 

1 
(3.28  ft.) 

3 
(9.84  ft.) 

0.5 
(1.64  ft.) 

1        1 

(.3.28  ft.)    1 

3 
(9.84  ft.) 

Day  of  month. 

♦    40.1 
40.1 
42.9 
43.3 
41.1 
43.2 
44.9 
46.8 
46.8 
56.2 
56.7 
58.3 
611.0 
f,6.0 
61.8 
64  9 
61.4 
61.8 
60.0 

m.i 

48.7 
46.7 
.39.5 
44.8 

43.3 
42.4 
43.4 
44.7 
43  5 
43.0 
45.3 
47.0 
46.2 
51.7 
54.6 
55.9 
57.5 
62.3 
61.1 
62.5 
61.2 
60.6 
59.7 
56.1 
,51.8 
50.0 
44.0 
45.4 

49.5 
48.1 
47.5 
47.7 
47.6 
46. S 
47.7 
47  7 
47  9 
49.0 
51.5 
52.2 
53.0 
54.4 
55.9 
56.4 
57.4 
57.3 
57.3 
56.9 
55.5 
54.3 
52.4 
50.8 

40.6 
39.1 
35.9 

38.0 
41.1 
40.6 

4;i4 

45.3 
.54.7 
50.3 
57.8 
61.2 
64.7 
66.5 
62.7 
62.9 
58.0 
57.9 
55.6 
.53.0 
48  1 
45.1 
43.1 

ss.s 

43.4 
41  9 
39.5 
40.6 
42.3 
42.3 
43.7 
45.9 
52.0 
50.5 
54.6 
58.0 
60.8 
62.9 
61.5 
61.8 
58.3 
57.9 
57.0 
54.4 
.50.9 
48.2 
44.8 
42.8 

49.9 

49.0 

February  1 

47.7 
47.1 

j[arcli  1                   

46.7 

46.7 

April  1 

46.7 

April  15 

May  1 

47.2 
48.1 

May  15     .            

49.5 

50.4 

51.8 

July  1   

July  15         

53.5 
55.0 

56.2 

August  15.    

56  6 
56.6 

September  15 

56.4 
56.5 

55.8 

54.5 

Novonibfr  15    

December  1 

December  15 

5:!.  4 
.51.9 
50.7 

Eelatiox  of  SrEciFic  Heat  to  Sewage*  Disposal. 

The  specific  heat  of  a  body  is  defined  as  the  number  of  heat-nnits 
necessary  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  the  body  1°  F.  with 
water  at  32°  taken  as  the  unit.  In  either  of  its  three  forms  water  pos- 
sesses the  g-reatest  specific  heat  of  any  substance  known,  althousli  as 
ice  its  specific  heat  is  only  one-half  that  of  the  liquid  form.  Notwith- 
standing- the  utility  of  such  information  in  agriculture,  comparatively 
little  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  determining  the  specific  heat  of 
soils,  the  following-  table.  No.  75,  of  relative  rates  of  cooling,  from 
Schiibler,  embodying-  about  the  most  useful  results  tlius  far  obtained.* 

*  On  the  Physical  Properties  of  the  Soil  and  on  the  Means  of  Investigating  them.  By  Pro- 
fessor Schiibler,  of  the  University  of  Tubingen.  Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  See.  of  Eng.,  vol.  i.  (1.-S40), 
|)p.  17  7--.' 18. 

The  results  detailed  in  this  paper  of  Professor  Schiibler.  while  obtained  more  than  .^0  years  ago, 
are  still  the  best  in  many  respects  to  be  found  anywhere.  Recently  the  South  Carolina  and  Mary- 
land .\g.  Ex.  Stations  have  experimented  on  soil  physics,  and  the  following  resume  from  the 
Second  An.  Rept.  of  the  S.  Car.  Sta.  (pp.  7C),  77)  indicates  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  work  of 
this  character  which  it  is  proposed  to  carry  on  at  these  stations. 
Soil  Particles  :  1.  Interpretation  of  the  result  of  mechanical  analysis. 
a.  Number  of  particles  in  unit  weight  or  volume  of  soil. 

h.  Diameter  of  average  sized  particle  of  soil  and  the  mean  arrangement  of  the  particles. 
r.   Surface  area  of  particles  (tliis  shows  the  need   of  still  further  perfecting  tlie  method  of 
mcclianical  aiialysis). 
2.  On  a  movement  of  soil  particles  due  t»  ch mging  water  content  and  changing  temperature,  as 


310  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

In  obtaining  tliese  results  a  g-iven  quantity  of  dry  soil  was  heated  to 
145°,  aud  the  time  required  to  cool  to  70°  observed,  the  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere  being-  61°.  The  observed  times  of  cooling  are  stated 
in  the  first  column  ;  in  the  second  is  given  the  relative  power  of 
retaining-  heat,  with  lime  sand  assumed  as  100. 

In  regard  to  the  relative  rates  of  cooling-  of  the  several  earths  as  in- 
dicated in  Table  No.  75,  it  may  be  remarked  that  while  the  relative 
rate  of  cooling  depends  upon  the  power  of  retaining  heat,  it  is  still 
not  quite  identical  with  specific  heat.     As  stated  by  Professor  Schiib- 

related  to  the  growth  of  roots,  and  the  physical  action  of  manure,  with  the  effect  of  barometric 
changes  and  vapor  pressure  on  the  same. 

Soil  Moisture  :  3.  ^lethod  for  the  determination  of  the  moisture  in  the  soil  by  electrical 
resistance. 

4.  On  the  movement  of  soil  moisture. 

a.  On  the  cause  and  laws  of  the  movement. 

b.  On  the  effect  of  temperature. 

c.  On  the  effect  of  manure. 

d.  On  the  effect  of  rain. 

f.  On  the  effect  of  cropping  and  cultivation. 

5.  Calculation  of  the  relative  movement  of  soil  moisture  in  different  soils  from  the  mechanical 
analysis. 

6.  Calculation  of  the  relative  rate  of  evaporation  and  underdrainage  from  different  soils  from 
the  meclianieal  analysi.s. 

7.  On  the  capillary  value  of  different  soils  from  the  mechanical  analysis. 

8.  Effect  of  fineness  and  compactness  on  the  water-holding  power. 

9.  On  the  action  of  underdrains  in  the  soil,  and  of  how  they  act. 

10.  On  the  flocculation  and  subsidence  of  clay  particles. 

11.  On  the  swelling  of  clay  when  wet. 
13.   On  the  compacting  of  soils  by  rain. 

13.   On  the  physical  action  of  manures  and  fertilizers. 

Soil  Temperature  :  14.  New  form  of  soil  thermometer,  which  registers  the  maximum  and  mini- 
mum temperature  of  a  definite  layer  oi  soil. 

15.  The  relation  of  the  soil  to  heat  as  observed  in  the  field  in  tj'pical  soils  or  under  different 
conditions  of  cultivation  and  fertilization. 

IC).  Calculations  of  the  relation  of  different  soils  to  heat  from  the  mechanical  analj'ses,  with 
the  effect  of  the  water  content,  cultivation,  and  cropping. 

17.  The  actual  temperature  of  different  soils,  with  range,  etc. 

18.  Study  of  the  loss  of  heat  from  the  different  soils. 

a.  As  calculated  from  the  mechanical  analysis. 

b.  As  determined  with  the  radiation  thermometer. 

19.  Specific  heat  of  typical  soils. 

Meteorology :  20.  Temperature  of  the  air  and  soils,  and  amount  of  moisture  in  same  most 
favorable  for  plant  growth. 

a.  Distribution  throughout  the  growing  season. 

b.  The  relative  effect  on  the  growth  of  plants  and  crop  production. 

c.  How  modified  by  manure  and  cultivation. 

21.  The  estimation  of  the  actual  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soils  from  time  to  time. 

22.  Influence  of  meteorological  conditions. 

a.  On  grain  production,  as  explaining  low  average  yield  of  grain  at  the  South. 

b.  On  the  distribution  of  crops  throughout  the  State. 

c.  On  the  growth  and  ripening  of  crops. 

23.  Amount  and  intensity  of  sunshine  available  for  the  crop. 

24.  Effect  of  wind  movement  on  plant  growth,  especially  as  to  the  amount  of  ammonia  supplied 
to  crops. 


KKLATION    OF    SPECIFIC    HP^AT   TO    SEWAGE   DISPOSAL. 


311 


ler,  the  rate  of  cooling'  does  not  depend  merely  upon  specific  heat, 
but  on  the  different  capacity  as  well  which  bodies  possess  of  con- 
ducting- heat.  A  body  with  a  low  rate  of  cooling  will  possess  high 
specific  heat  and  slight  conducting  power  :  these  two  properties  com- 
bined constitute  the  power  of  retaining  heat. 

Table  No.  75. 


Lime  sand . . . . 

Quartz  sand  . . 

Clay  loam 

Heavy  clay  . . . 
Pure  {,'ray  clay 
Garden  soil. .. 

Hnnuis 

Water 


Time  to  cool  from  I  Relative  power  of 
145°  to  70°  F.  retaining  heat. 


3  h.  30  min. 

100  0 

3  h.  27  min. 

95.6 

2  h.  30  min. 

71.8 

2  h.  24  min. 

(18.4 

2  h.  li»  min. 

06.7 

2  h.  Ifi  min. 

64.8 

1  h.  43  min. 

49.0 

30  h.    7  min. 

860.4 

Table  No.  75  shows  that  under  the  stated  conditions  dry  humus  will 
cool  about  twice  as  fast  as  sand,  and  nearly  eighteen  times  as  fast  as 
water,  when  exposed  to  the  same  degree  of  heat  ;  it  also  shows,  inde- 
pendent of  the  considerations  which  have  been  forcibly  presented  by 
the  Lawrence  experiments,  the  superior  value  of  sand  as  a  sewage 
purification  medium  in  winter.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  proposition 
we  will  review  briefiy  the  rationale  of  the  process  of  applying  sewage 
to  an  intermittent  filtration  area  from  day  to  day.  According  to  the 
Lawrence  experiments  the  daily  application  of  sewage  disappeared 
from  the  surface  of  coarse  mortar-sand  in  comparatively  short  periods 
of  time,  the  actual  length  depending,  as  might  be  expected,  largely 
upon  the  amount  applied.  When  applied  at  the  rate  of  60,000  gallons 
per  acre  per  day,  about  30  minutes  usually  sufficed  for  that  quantity  to 
sink  entirely  beneath  the  surface.  At  the  rate  of  100,000  gallons  per 
day  per  single  application,  the  surface  of  coarse  sand  was  usually  clear 
in  about  one  hour,*  though  at  times  the  periods  were  somewhat  longer, 
as  may  be  seen  by  inspection  of  the  record  in  detail.  Li  Table  No.  76 
a  few  extracts  are  given  from  the  original  tabulations  by  way  of  illustrat- 
ing the  ]ioint  in  question.  As  tlie  li(iuid  sewage  sinks  into  the  sand,  thin 
lamiiKc  of  water  cover  the  particles  of  sand  to  the  extent  of  about  one- 
ninth  of  the  whole  volume,  the  balance  of  the,  space  being  occupied  by 
sand  two  thirds,  and  air  one-fourth.  The  application  of  one  day  is 
pushed  forward  by  tliat  of  the  next,  the  last  part  of  each  daily  applica- 
tion remaining  just  below  the  surface  of  the  sand  until  the  next  appli- 
cation is  made,  when  it  is  in  turn  pushed  forward  as  l)efore.t     Again,  it 

*  For  detailed  .statement  as  apjdv.ng  to  filters  of  coar.-<e  sand  and  other  mat(M-ial,  see  the 
tabidations  in  the  Spen.  Mass.  Hd.  of  Health  Kept.,  Part  II.  With  very  coarse  material  the  daily 
api)licati()n  frequently  <lisa[)peared  within  one  minute. 

+  Spec.  Rept.,  Part  II.,  pp.  (i,  7. 


312 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  76. — Length  of  Time  Sewage   Remained  on  Surface  when  Applied 
TO  Sand  Filters    Lawrence). 


April  10,  1888 

April  24,  •'  , 
May  4. 

August  L").  " 
Ai.gust  3.3, 

September  .5,  " 

September  6,  " 

September?,  " 

October  Ifi.  '' 

Octoljer  lit,  " 
December  Jl\      " 

December  14,  " 

January  1,  1889 

Jiinuary  15,  '" 

February  1,  " 

February  14,  " 

March  1.  " 

March  15,  " 

April  1.  " 

April  15,  " 

May  1.  " 

May  15,  " 

June  14,  " 

July  2,  " 


No.  1 


.2  o  „• 
«2S 


30.000 
30,000 
KO.OOO 

eo.uuo 

60.000 
60,(100 
60.(100 
60.00(1 
(50.0(10 
60.000 
60,0(J0 
60.1  00 
60,000 
60,000 
60.000 
60.000 
fiO.O()0 
60.000 
60,000 
60.000 
6001 '0 
KO.OOO 
(50,1  (00 
100,000 


S  £  o 


S£ 


0  m. 
l.^ni. 

0  m. 
20  m. 
18  m. 
20  m. 
42  m. 

22  m, 
1  h.  11  m. 
1  h.     2  m. 

2:^  m. 
2Tm. 
27  m. 
20  111. 
25  m. 
24  111. 

23  m. 

31  ni. 

32  m. 

1  h.  51  m. 
3h. 

9  h.  25  m. 

2  h.  18  m. 

55  in. 


Date. 


July  16. 
August  10. 
A))rill, 
April  fi. 
April  10, 
Mav  4. 
July  16, 
August  14, 
August  24, 
Marcli    11, 
March    28, 
Ainil  19. 
July  12, 
August  1. 
December  1, 
.Tanuary  1. 
February  2, 
April  2, 
June  1, 
March  24, 
July  27, 
April  5, 
April  21, 


1889. 


Tank. 


No. 
No. 


No.  6 


1889. 


.ii  u    . 
a  o  c 

_o  c!  o 


100,000 

100,000 

30.000 
30.000 
.30.000 
.30,000 
20.000 
20.000 
20.000 
30.000 
SO.  000 
30.000 
60.000 
60,000 


0)  a 
g  £  § 


h2 


" 

60.000 

" 

60.000 

" 

60.000 

" 

60,000 

" 

fiO.OOO 

12 

30,000 

13 

60.000 

120,000 

53  m. 

48  m. 

45  m. 

2  h.  18  m. 

I  Ih. 

48  m. 
1  h.  57  m. 
24  h. 

,  5  h.  41  m. 

!  20  m. 

47  m. 

'  18  m. 

1  h.  38  m. 

24  h. 

1  h. 

52  m. 
Ih. 

.37  m. 
.36  m. 
20  8. 


24  h. 


45  s. 
1  m.  5  B. 


is  clear  that  a  slight  circulation  of  air  may  be  expected  to  take  place 
through  the  voids  of  the  sand  which  are  not  occupied  Avith  liquid,  and 
the  cooling  effect  of  winter  temperatures  will  therefore  be  somewhat 
g-reater  than  when  continuous  filtration,  with  its  consequent  entire  ex- 
clusion of  air,  is  used.  In  very  cold  weather,  then,  filter  areas  may  be 
considerabh^  protected  from  freezing  l)y  the  use  for  the  time  being" 
of  continuous  filtration  rather  than  intermittent,  the  high  specific  heat 
of  the  water  covering  obviously  extending  g-reatly  the  time  of  reduc 
tion  to  temperature  of  freezing. 

Returning  to  the  specific  heat  of  sand,  we  may  conclude  frdm  the 
preceding  that  its  high  capacity  for  retaining  heat  will  also  assist  in 
prolonging  the  time  to  freezing.  Putting  sand  in  comparison  with 
humus,  other  things  being  equal,  the  time  would  be  doubled  before 
reduction  to  the  temperature  of  freezing,  as  shown  by  Schiibler's  table. 


How  Heated  Bodies  Cool. 

The  rate  at  which  cooling  of  various  soils  and  water  takes  place  is 
thus  shown  to  be  of  considerable  pi'actical  importance  in  sewage 
disposal ;  indeed,  we  may  say  that  a  thortwgh  understanding  of  its 
laws  will  assist  greatly  in  reaching  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  i)rob- 
lem  of  winter  purification  in  cold  climates.  At  present,  aside  from  the 
experiments  of  Dulong  and  Petit  and  of  Peclet,  we  have  little  accurate 


HOW    HEATED    BODIES    COOL.  313 

kuowleclg-e  of  the  laws  of  lieat  which  apply,  and  what  we  do  derive 
from  their  experiments,  so  far  as  its  application  to  the  i^resent  subject 
is  concerned,  is  far  from  satisfactory. 

The  cooling-  of  heated  bodies  may  be  effected  by  either  radiation, 
contact  of  cold  air,  or  by  conduction.  In  the  case  of  a  filter  area  with 
a  sheet  of  water  covering  it,  the  sources  of  loss  which  it  is  necessary 
to  consider  are  radiation  and  contact  of  cold  air.  Conduction,  aside 
from  the  small  area  of  contact  of  water  and  soil  at  the  sides,  only 
takes  place  from  the  water  to  the  filter  area,  with  the  useful  result  that 
the  heat  abstracted  from  the  water  by  conduction  g-oes  to  increase  the 
temperature  of  the  filtering  material. 

Eadiation  from  a  given  area  of  surface  varies  as  the  temperature. 
For  water  its  value  is  1.085  heat-units  per  square  foot  of  area  per 
hour  for  a  difference  of  1°  F.  in  temperature. 

Within  limits  not  exceeding  about  30°  F.  we  may  say  that  cooling 
by  contact  of  air  is,  for  a  given  area  of  surface,  also  proportional  to 
the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  air  and  the  bodj'  cooled,  in 
accordance  Avith  the  law  of  Xewton.  For  greater  difiereuces  of  tem- 
perature the  ratio  of  loss  is  somewhat  higher,  as  demonstrated  by 
Dulong,  but  for  present  purposes  the  assumption  of  proportionality 
of  loss  to  temperature  is  sufticient.  For  a  difference  of  1°  F.  we  may 
take  the  loss  by  cooling  from  contact  with  the  air,  according  to  Peclet, 
at  0.595  heat-units  per  square  foot  per  hour.  The  combined  loss  from 
radiation  and  contact  per  square  foot  per  hour  for  a  difi'erence  of  1°  F. 
accordingly  becomes  (1.085  +  0.595)  =  1.680  heat-units. 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  foregoing  let  us  assume  an  air  temperature 
of  10°  and  sewage  at  a  temperature  of  15°  applied  to  the  depth  of  four 
inches  on  a  filter  area  free  of  snow.  Also  assume  the  time  required  to 
completely  sink  below  the  surface  at  one  hour.  The  loss  of  heat  from 
radiation  and  contact  of  cold  air  per  square  foot  per  hour  will  be  ap- 
proximately (1.68  X  35)  =  58.8  heat-units.  Four  inches  in  depth  gives  a 
volume  Avcight  per  square  foot  of  20.8  pounds.  The  rediietion  in  tem- 
perature of  tlie  applied  seAvage  before  sinking  into  the  filtering  mate- 
rial will  accordingly  be  (58.8  -  20.8)  =  2.8°  F.  To  find  the  time  elaps- 
ing '.)t'fore  redaction  under  the  conditions  to  the  temperature  of  freez- 
ing we  have  a  total  loss  of  heat-units  per  square  foot  of  (20.8  X  13)  = 
270.1,  of  which,  as  an  approximation,  we  may  say  59  heat-units  are 
lost  the  first  hour,  51  the  second  hour,  50  the  third  hour,  and  so  on 
until  the  whole  quantity  of  270.4  units  is  lost  in  about  five  and  one- 
half  hours.  This  result  is  a  rapid  ap]u-oximation  merely.  The  sub- 
ject admits  of  extended  mathematical  treatment,  but  the  data  are  not 
exact  enough  to  justifv  tli'^  additional  expenditure  of  labor  required.* 

*  The  laws  of  cooling  are  verj-  complicated,  and  all  formulap  thus  far  devised  are  merely  approxi- 
mative.    Newton's  law  asserts  that  tlie  rate  at  which  a  body  loses  heat  is  proportional  to  th«  dif- 


314  sp:wage  disposal  in  the  united  states. 

Again,  the  latent  heat  of  freezing-  is  about  142  units,  and  the  with- 
drawal of  this  amount  of  heat  under  the  conditions  assumed,  and 
through  the  operation  of  the  same  law  of  loss,  will  still  further  extend 
the  time  of  complete  congelation.  In  illustration  of  this  we  may  con- 
sider the  case  of  the  stratum  of  water  equivalent  to  a  pound  in  weight 
per  square  foot.  Its  thickness  will  be  (12.00  -  62.4)  =  0.192  inches. 
The  time  required  for  this  thickness  to  congeal  will  be,  under  the  law 
of  cooling  already  used,  about  3.5  hours.  When  ice  has  once  formed, 
however,  a  somewhat  different  set  of  conditions  govern.  Loss  of  heat 
from  the  water  under  the  ice  can  then  take  jilace  only  by  conduction 
through  the  ice  cover,  and,  by  reason  of  the  low  conductivity  of  ice,  at 
a  lower  rate  than  when  the  unprotected  water  was  exposed  to  every 
passing  movement  of  the  air.  The  weight  of  water  at  32°  is  somewhat 
less  than  at  slightly  higher  temperatures,  39,3°  being  the  temperature 
of  greatest  density'.  Hence  cooling  by  convection  will  not  take  jDlace 
at  the  low  temperatures  under  consideration.  These  illustrations, 
without  exhausting  the  subject,  will  suffice  to  indicate  why  the  j)rocess 
of  cooling  is  a  prolonged  one  under  the  conditions  assumed. 

The  specific  heat  of  ice,  however,  is,  as  already  stated,  only  one-half 
that  of  water,  and  hence  we  may  expect  a  relatively  more  rapid  further 
reduction  of  temperature  of  the  ice  itself  after  once  actually  formed 
than  before ;  that  is  to  say,  ice  responds  to  changes  of  temperature 
twice  as  readily  as  water. 

ference  between  fhe  temperature  of  its  surface  and  that  of  its  inclosure.     The  rate  of  cooling  may 
be  defined  as  the  fall  of  temperature  per  unit  of  time  for  any  given  instant  considered. 

In  testing  the  law  of  cooling  experimentally  it  is  found  that  if  the  temperature  of  a  cooling 
body  is  observed  at  equal  intervals  of  time,  the  excesses  above  the  temperature  of  the  air  in  which 
the  cooling  body  is  placed  form  a  decreasing  series,  in  which,  letting  O .  denote  the  initial  excess 

of  temperature,  —  tlie  ratio  of  the  series,  we  have  the  excess  at  the  end  of  one  unit  of  time  equal 

*^  ^^  ,  at  the  end  of  two  units   — ^'    and    after   t   units  -  ^.     If,   then,  6  denote  the  excess 
'"   ni  ni^  m' 

at  time,  t,  there  results  e  ^^ i  =  ©o  ni— '. 

m' 

The  following  practical  expression  for  the  loss  of  heat  by  contact  with  air  will  answer  the  re- 
quirements of  ordinary  computation  ; 

L=O.IF  (t-TV'2- 
in  which 

L  =  loss  of  heat  l)y  contact,  per  square  foot  per  hour  ; 
F  =  factor  for  movement  of  air  ■=  4  for  quiet  air  ;  5,  for  moderately  moving  air ;  and  6  for  rapidly 

moving  air  ; 
t  =  temperature  of  heated  body  ;  and 
T  "=  temperature  of  the  air  in  contact. 

When  (t-T)  does  not  exceed  aooutaO"  to  30",  we  may  take  L  =  0.  1  F  (t-T). 

For  ordinary  conditions  of  los^!  bv  contact  of  air  with  a  filter  area,  F  =  5,  ma}'  be  taken. 

Wi'h  crreat  difFerencs  of  temperature,  as  for  instance  50°  to  ^')0°,  the  neglect  of  the  fractional 
exponent  of  (t  — T)  will  lead  to  relatively  larger  variations  from  the  actual  law  than  with  the 
smaller  differences  considered  in  the  foregoing. 


now    HEATED    BODIES    COOL.  315 

lu  order  to  insure  that  wiuter  purification  may  go  on  without  inter- 
ruption, the  thing"  to  be  attained,  then,  is  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
any  considerable  quantity  of  ice.  As  we  have  seen,  the  latent  heat  of 
freezing  is  142  units  ;  when  ice  is  once  formed  this  amount  of  heat  will 
be  required  for  every  pound  in  the  process  of  melting  to  water  at  the 
temperature  of  32°.  AVith  sewage  at  temperature  of  •15°  going  on  to  a 
frozen  filtration  area,  for  every  pound  of  ice  converted  into  w^ater  at  a 
temperature  of  32°  there  will  be  required  the  reduction  of  13  pounds 
of  the  onliowing  sewage  to  the  same  temperature  ;  in  other  words,  with 
onflowing  sewage  at  temperature  of  45°  the  result  of  melting  one 
pound  of  ice  will  be  the  reduction  of  nearly  13  i^ounds  of  water  to  a 
temperature  of  32°.  The  13  pounds  of  water  at  32°  thus  reduced  in 
temperature  will,  howevei',  still  contain  their  latent  heat,  amounting  to 
(13  X  142)  =  1,846  heat  units,  of  which  the  water  must  be  further  en- 
tirely deprived  before  it  can  all  pass  into  the  state  of  ice. 

By  way  of  illustrating  the  practical  significance  of  the  foregoing,  let 
us  assume  the  case  of  a  filtration  area  covered  with  water  frozen  to  the 
depth  of  three  inches  ;  temperature  of  air,  20°  ;  fresh  sewage  applied 
above  the  ice  at  a  temperature  of  45°.  AYe  require  to  know  the  dejjth 
of  sewage  at  this  temperature  which  must  be  applied  in  order  to  melt 
the  three  inches  of  ice.  Taking  the  weight  of  ice  at  58  pounds  per 
cubic  foot,  we  have  the  weight  of  a  square  foot  of  area  three  inches 
thick  as  14.5  pounds.  The  ice  is  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  air  on 
one  side  of  20°  and  of  water  on  the  other  at  32°.  We  may  assume  its 
mean  temperature  at  half  way  between  the  two,  or  at  26°.*  Under  these 
conditions  every  pound  of  ice  will  require  (142  +  6)  =  148  heat-units 
in  order  to  reduce  it  to  the  liquid  state  at  temperature  of  32°,  or  each 
square  foot  of  area  will  require  (14.5  x  148)  =  2,146  heat-units.  The 
amount  of  water  at  45°  which  will  furnish  this  without  beginning  to 
congeal  is  (2,146  ~-  13)  —  165  pounds  =  2.6  cubic  feet:  or,  what  is  the 
same  thing,  there  would  be  required  a  depth  of  water  over  the  area  of 
2.6  feet.  This  computation,  moreover,  has  not  taken  into  account  the 
loss  of  hfeat  of  the  applied  sewage  because  of  cooling  from  radiation 
and  contact  with  the  air  ;  this  of  itself  would  considerably  increase  the 
amount  necessary  to  be  applied. 

The  Massachusetts  experiments  at  their  very  beginning,  in  the  win- 
ter of  1887-88,  have  afforded  an  excellent  practical  illustration  of  the 
principles  now  under  discussion.  For  instance,  in  January,  1888,  when 
sewage  was  first  applied,  the  mean  temperature  for  the  whole  mouth 
was,  as  sliown  in  Table  No.  69,  15.46°.     The  sewage  was  further,  for 

*  This  assumption  will  not  be  quite  true,  as  the  small  amount  of  evaporation  which  will  take 
place  from  the  exposetl  surface,  even  under  the  extreme  conditions  assumed,  will  reduce  the  mean 
temperature  somewhat  lower.  It  may  be  considered,  nevertheless,  near  enough  for  illustrative 
purposes,  which  is  all  that  is  required  here. 


316  S^EWAGE    DISPOSAL    TX    THE    UXITED    STATES. 

reasons  already  indicated,  applied  at  a  temperature  only  a  few  degrees 
above  32°.  The  result  was  that  some  of  the  filters  became  frozen,  and 
it  was  found  necessary  to  heat  the  sewagfe  by  passing-  a  steam  coil 
throug"h  the  measuring-  tank.  The  amount  of  this  heating  may  be  seen 
by  reference  to  Table  No.  70.  During  February  the  amount  of  heating- 
was  sufl&cient  to  give  a  mean  for  the  month  of  47°,  or  about  5°  above 
the  mean  in  the  sewer.  This  proving  insufficient  to  free  the  tank  from 
ice,  the  sewage  was  so  fur  warmed  artificially  in  March  as  to  give  a 
mean  of  about  61°  for  the  whole  mouth.  On  March  8,  sewage  at 
temperature  of  57°  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  201,000  g-allons  per  acre, 
followed  by  the  same  quantity  on  March  9,  at  temperature  of  55°.  On 
March  10,  32,000  gallons  i^er  acre  Avas  applied  at  temperature  of  09° ; 
March  12  and  13,  40,000  gallons  per  acre  each  day  at  75°;  March  14, 
40,000  gallons  at  80° :  March  15,  50,000  gallons  at  68° ;  and  March  16, 
50,000  gallons  at  70°.  From  that  time  to  the  end  of  the  month  the 
temiDerature  of  applied  sewage  ranged  from  68°  to  52°  ;  but  at  no  time 
during  that  period  did  the  temperature  of  the  effluent  rise  above  40°. 
These  figures  serve  to  point  out  saliently  the  large  amount  of  sensible 
heat  which  must  have  been  extracted  from  the  applied  sewage  before 
the  lost  latent  heat  of  the  frozen  material  was  fully  restored.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  the  mouth  of  March,  1888,  was,  as 
shown  in  Table  No.  69,  29.76°. 

We  may  conclude,  then,  that  in  case  a  filtration  area  becomes  frozen 
solid,  the  application  of  sewage  at  its  ordinary  water  temperature  of 
45  °  or  thereabouts  to  the  exterior  of  the  frozen  surface  is  fundament- 
ally wrong  ;  it  will  only  lead  to  an  increase  of  the  difficulty  which  it 
is  intended  to  obviate.  In  case  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  freezing, 
the  area  should  be  so  managed  that  the  daily  application  of  sewage 
at  normal  winter  temperature  may  be  made  to  pass  under  the  ice, 
thereby  avoiding  the  serious  loss  of  heat  resiilting  from  contact  of 
water  in  the  liquid  state  with  cold  air.  A  certain  amount  of  loss  will 
still  go  on  through  the  ice,  but,  as  already  shown,  less  rapidly  than 
from  an  unprotected  water  surface.  The  resulting  increase  of  tem- 
perature under  the  ice  will  further  prevent  the  penetration  of  frost  into 
the  material  of  the  filter,  a  point  of  considerable  importance  in  its 
bearing  upon  the  quality  of  the  effluent. 

By  reason  of  containing  a  large  amount  of  air  entangled  among  its 
particles,  snow  may  be  considered  a  poor  conductor  of  heat ;  it  is, 
therefore,  a  relatively  good  covering  for  a  filtration  or  irrigation  area 
in  winter :  and  the  foregoing  shows  how  it  may  be  of  practical  use  if 
the  sewage  can  be  made  to  run  under  it,  forming  a  thin  layer  of  ice 
above. 

The  preceding  discussion  enables  us  to  appreciate  the  real  reason 
why  certain  soils  are  warm  and  others  cold.     For  instance,  humus  is 


SOLAR    AND   TERRESTRIAL   RADIATION.  317 

usually  considered  a  cold  soil  by  reason  of  the  long-  time  required  for 
it  to  become  warm  enoug-li  in  spring  to  admit  of  successful  planting. 
Its  capacity  for  heating  to  a  given  temperature  is  shown  by  Schiibler's 
table  to  be  double  that  of  sand,  and  it  therefore  ought,  under  the  same 
conditions,  to  become  warm  twice  as  quick.  Usually,  however,  humus 
is  found  in  valleys,  and  wlien  without  artificial  drainage  is  saturated 
with  water  which,  from  its  slowness  in  absorbing  heat,  extends  the 
time  of  warming  beyond  the  better-drained  soils  of  uplands.  On  the 
other  hand,  at  the  approach  of  cold  weather  dry  humus  will,  for  the 
same  reason,  lose  its  tem^Derature  more  quickly  than  sand,  but  here 
again  the  slowness  of  the  water  with  which  it  is  saturated  to  part 
with  its  specific  heat  will  extend  the  time  of  cooling  of  the  whole,  so 
that  in  effect  it  is  found  that  the  natural  soils  of  the  valleys  are  gener- 
erally  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  those  of  the  adja- 
cent highlands.  This  fact  will  be  forcibly  brought  out  in  discussing 
the  results  of  the  soil  temperature  observations  at  Fort  Collins,  Colo- 
rado, and  at  Auburn,  Alabama. 

The  cooling  effect  of  evaporation  may  also  be  referred  to  as  one  of 
the  elements  of  the  problem  under  discussion.  That  it  is  an  impor- 
tant element  may  be  appreciated  by  considering  that  the  evaporation 
of  an  inch  of  water  over  an  acre  will  require  as  much  heat  as  can  be 
utilized  in  warming  from  the  combustion  of  about  eleven  tons  of  coal. 
In  a  water  logged  soil  the  evaporation  may  be  expected,  therefore,  to 
reduce  the  summer  temperature  somewhat  below  what  it  would  other- 
wise be.  In  filtration  through  coarse  sand  this  loss,  while  probably 
slightly  more  than  from  a  water  siirface  because  of  the  open  quality 
of  the  material  allowing  of  free  circulation  of  air,  can  still  be  endured ; 
if  it  proceeded  at  an  equally  rapid  rate  in  winter  it  would  be  a  very 
serious  objection,  but  fortunately  the  relatively  low  rate  of  evapora- 
tion in  the  winter  acts  to  reduce  the  loss  at  that  time. 

Solar  and  Terrestrial  Kadiation. 

Solar  and  terrestrial  radiation  is  another  branch  of  the  subject  not 
only  possessing  theoretical  interest  but  practical  ijossibilities  in  the 
future  of  vast  significance.  In  the  introduction  to  bis  paper,  Ke- 
searches  on  Solar  Heat,*  etc..  Professor  Lauglcy  remarks  that  "  the 
observation  of  the  amount  of  heat  which  the  sun  sends  to  the  earth 
may  be  termed  the  fundamental  problem  of  meteorology."  If  we 
knew  the  original  quantity  and  kind  of  this  heat,  how  much  of  it 
reaches  the  soil,  how  it  maintains  the  surface  temperature,  and  how 
in  diminished  quantity  and  altered  kind  it  is  finally  returned  to  space, 

*  Researches  on  S..lar  Huat  and  its  Absorption  by  the  Earth's  Atmosphere,  by  Professor  S.  P. 
Langley.     Professional  Papers  of  ttie  Signal  Service,  No.  xv.,  18S4. 


318  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

nearly  every  element  of  the  problem  now  under  discussion,  as  well 
as  those  pertaining  to  aerial  meteorolog-y,  would  become  predica- 
ble. 

According  to  Professor  Langley's  experiments  of  1881  and  1882  it  is 
shown  that  all  the  thermal  phenomena  on  which  organic  life  depends 
hinge  upon  the  atmospheric  property"  of  selective  absorption,  without 
which  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  even  in  the  tropics,  would  fall  far 
below  zero. 

An  attempt  to  define  the  modern  conception  of  what  selective  ab- 
sorption really  is  would  lead  too  far  into  the  theory  of  molecular 
physics,  and  we  may  simply  say  that  the  paj)er  of  Professor  Langley 
furnishes  an  epitome  of  all  that  is  at  present  known  in  regard  to  it ;  a 
study  of  the  paper  will  repay  any  person  interested  in  scientific  mete- 
orology and  allied  subjects.* 

In  reference  to  solar  radiation  it  may  be  stated  that  the  temperature 
of  the  air  as  measured  by  an  ordinary  thermometer  does  not  indicate 
the  real  intensity  of  the  sun's  heat.  Such  a  thermometer  really  meas- 
ures only  the  amount  of  heat  absorbed  by  the  air  ;  even  when  exposed 
to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  its  indications  are  below  the  real  solar 
intensity  by  reason  of  the  cooling  effect  of  moving  currents  of  air.  In 
order  to  avoid  the  effect  of  such  currents  the  vacuum  solar  radiation 
thermometer,  which  consists  of  a  blackened  bulb  radiation  thermom- 
eter inclosed  in  a  glass  tube  and  globe  from  whicli  all  air  has  been  ex- 
hausted, is  used  ;  its  indications  are  from  20°  to  30°  higher  than  those 
from  a  similar  instrument  with  the  bulb  freely  exposed  to  the  moving 
air.  By  its  use  it  is  found  that  the  solar  intensity  varies  greatly  at 
different  places  without  reference  to  the  temperature  of  the  air.  The 
intensity  of  solar  radiation  at  any  given  place  is  indicated  by  compar- 
ing the  solar  radiation  readings  with  the  maximum  air  temperature. 

Again  it  has  been  known  for  a  long  time  that  the  radiation  of  heat 
from  the  surface  of  the  earth  during  the  night  reduces  tbe  temperature 
of  the  surface  below  that  of  the  surrounding  air.  The  amount  of  this 
radiation,  or  rather  the  reduction  of  temperature  resulting  therefrom, 
is  shown  approximately  by  comparing  the  readings  of  a  terrestrial  ra- 
diation thermometer  with  those  of  a  minimum  air  thermometer.  Some 
of  the  results  obtained  at  a  few  points  in  this  country-  have  been  tabu- 
lated in  connection  with  the  soil  temperature  observations  following. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  the  relative  heating  capacit}"  of  the  soil 
without  reference  to  its  color,  although  it  is  obvious  from  the  differ- 
ence in  effect  of  solar  heat  on  a  blackened  thermometer  bulb  that  the 
effect  of  color  is  of  considerable  importance ;  and  while  in  saturated 
soils  the  relatively  high  specific  heat  of  water  is,  as  we  have  seen,  the 

*Desclianers  Natural  Philosophy  (Everett's  Translation)  may  also  be  referred  to  for  clear  ele- 
mentary definition  of  selective  emission  and  absorption. 


SOLAR    AND    TERRESTRIAL    RADIATION. 


319 


controlling-  factor,  nevertheless  the  influence  of  color  as  assisting  se- 
lective absorption  may  still  justly  claim  momentary  attention. 

The  fact  that  dark-colored  soils  are  more  easily  warmed  by  the  sun's 
rays  than  light  ones  has  been  frequently  observed  ;  and  experimental 
proof  that  an  elevation  of  several  degrees  in  the  temperature  of  a  light- 
colored  soil  may  be  caused  by  strewing  its  surface  with  charcoal  pow- 
der or  black  vegetable  mould  has  been  obtained.  Observations  on  this 
point  have  been  made  by  several  European  investigators,  but  in  the 
al)sence  of  explicit  statements  in  regard  to  the  eft'ect  of  the  entrained 
moisture  of  the  soil  the  results  have  relative  value  only.* 

The  best  results  are  again  those  of  Schiibler,  who  observed  the  tem- 
perature of  various  drj^  soils  when  exposed  to  solar  heat  with  their 
surfaces  either  blackened  by  a  thin  coating  of  lampblack  or  whitened 
l)y  powdered  magnesia.  Schiibler  also  determined  the  relative  tem- 
peratures of  various  soils,  both  dry  and  wet,  with  surfaces  in  natural 
condition.  Some  of  the  results  of  these  two  determinations  are  em- 
bodied in  Table  No.  77. 


Table  No.  77. — Heating  Effect  of  the  Sun  on  Wet  and  Dry  Soils  of  Different 

Colors. 

(Fahrenheit  °.) 


Material. 


Mean  of  the  highest  temperature  of  the  upper  surfaces  of : 


Dry  earth. 


•6 

■6 

c 

.c 

a 

^ 

P3 

Magnesia,  pure  white 

Fine  carbonate  of  lime,  white 

Gypsum,  bri{;ht  white  gray 

PloUi-'h-land,  (,Tay 

Siiiuiy  clay,  yellowish 

Quartz-sand,  bright  yellowish-gray. . . 

Luain.  yellowish 

Lime-sand,  whitish-gray. .. .     

Heavy  clay  soil,  yellowish-gray 

I'lire  i;lay.  bliiish-gr;iy 

OanliMi  mould,  blackish -gray 

Slaty  marl,  brownish-red 

Humus,  brownish-black 


108. 
109. 
110. 
107. 
lOS. 
100. 
107, 
1119 
107. 
10(! 
108. 
Ids. 
las. 


121.3 
l-i-i.9 
12-4.  :i 
122  0 
121.fi 
12.3.5 
121.1 
1240 
120.4 
1200 
122..-. 
12.3  4 
1211.9 


12  6 

13.7 
14.0 
14.4 
13.3 
1.3.7 
13.3 
14.1 
13.0 
13.7 
14.2 
1.5.1 
12.4 


Natural  color. 

«• 

>. 

1         ^ 

Q 

95.2 

108.7 

96.1 

109.4 

97.3 

110.5 

97.7 

111.7 

98.3 

111.4 

99.1 

112.6 

99.1 

112.1 

99.3 

112.1 

99.3 

112.3 

99.5 

113.0      , 

99.5 

113.5 

;      101.8 

115.3 

:      103.6 

117.3 

1 

13.5 
13.3 
13.2 
14.0 
13.2 
13.5 
13.0 
12.8 
13.0 
13.5 
14.0 
13.5 
13.7 


Studying  this  table  we  note  :  (1)  That  the  lampblack  surface  was 
warmed  on  an  average  about  13.5°  more  than  the  white ;  (2)  that  the 
character  of  the  surface  determined  the  temperature.  The  results 
show  that  for  all  the  soils  tlie  temperatures  with  either  lampblack  or 
magnesia  were  essentially  the  same. 

In  the  second  series  with  natural  surface,  and  either  wet  or  diy,  we 

*  For  resume  of  results  in   thi«  din'otion  see,  (1)  St()rer\s  Agriculture,  vol.  i.,  pi..  H'i-llt)  ;   (2) 
Johnson's  How  Plants  (irow,  pp.  IfSli-l'.iU 


320  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

note  for  gray  soil  wet,  a  temperature  of  97.7°  ;  and  for  brownisli-black 
humus  wet,  103.6°,  giving  a  range  of  5.9°.  The  same  soils  dry  give, 
for  gray  soil,  111.7°,  and  for  humus,  117.3°,  a  range  of  5.6°. 

Again  the  difference  in  favor  of  the  dry  soils  as  against  the  wet  is 
about  13.5°,  the  same  as  observed  for  the  soils  with  whitened  and 
blackened  surfaces. 

Further  we  observe  :  (1)  That  all  the  soils  when  wet  uniforndy  pre- 
sent a  lower  temperature  than  when  dry  and  whitened  ;  (2)  that  the 
dark-colored  soils  when  wet  were  Avarmer  than  the  wet  light-colored 
ones.  Again  comparing  the  two  sets  of  results  it  is  evident  that  the  deep- 
ening of  the  color  has  in  all  the  wet  soils  materially  assisted  the  temper- 
ature, which  rises  in  a  clear  relation  to  the  deepening  of  the  color  until 
in  the  case  of  brownish-black  humus  it  lacks  only  3.6°  of  being  as 
high  as  the  same  soil  dry  with  lampblack  surface. 

Among  earths  and  rocks  specific  heat  seems  to  vary  in  some  degree 
in  proportion  to  density ;  and  as  a  mean  value  we  may  saj"  that  gravel 
stone  in  comparison  with  water  taken  as  unity  has  a  specific  heat  of 
about  0.20.  The  upper  surface  of  a  filter  area  composed  of  fine  dark- 
colored  gravel  will  therefore  possess  greater  efficiency  than  one  not 
so  covered ;  for  such  covering  the  rounded  slate-colored  pebbles  of 
many  river-beds  will  answer  admirably. 

Again  the  specific  heat  of  wood  charcoal  is  0.24,  and  its  use  for 
surfacing  a  filter  can  be  considered,  on  account  of  its  black  color,  of 
possible  utility. 

Further,  on  the  subject  of  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  soil  of 
filter  areas,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  nitrifying  process  itself  is,  when 
active,  no  inconsiderable  source  of  heat,  which  is  liberated  by  chemi- 
cal action  from  the  organic  substances  in  process  of  disintegration. 

In  regard  to  increasing  the  temi^erature  of  filter  areas  by  the  use  of 
dark-colored  surfaces  it  may  appear  at  first  sight  that,  inasmuch  as 
radiation  or  absorption  are  apparently  converse  operations,  the  net 
result  for  a  complete  cycle  Avill  be  the  same  as  though  the  surface  had 
been  left  in  its  natural  condition.  The  principle  of  selective  absorp- 
tion, however,  shows  us  that  the  rays  of  low  intensity  of  wave-motion 
may  be  almost  completely  absorbed.  Again  radiation  is  not  in  every 
sense  the  converse  of  absorption,  the  quality  of  the  surface  has  more 
to  do  with  its  quantity  than  color,  as  may  be  proven  by  suspending 
tAvo  terrestrial  radiation  thermometers  at  the  same  height,  one  above 
sod  and  the  other  above  sand,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the  one  above 
sod  will  show  the  loAver  temperature.  Moreover  bodies  differ  in  their 
power  of  absorbing  and  radiating  heat  of  different  degrees  of  intensity 
of  wave-motion.  If  black  cloth  or  black  paper  be  spread  on  snow  on 
which  the  sun  is  shining  the  snoAv  will  melt  more  raiiidly  under  the 
cloth  than  elsewhere.     If  the  cloth  is  suspended  above  the  snow  the 


AMERICAN    SOIL    T?:MPKRATURE    OBSERVATIONS.  321 

melting  still  goes  on  the  same  as  when  resting  upon  it.  The  reasons 
for  this  are :  (1)  That  snow  has  a  special  capacity  for  heat  of  low  in- 
tensity ;  (2)  the  effect  of  absorption,  conduction,  and  radiation  by  the 
black  cloth  is  to  transform  the  solar  rays  from  a  state  of  high  intensity 
to  that  of  low  intensity,  in  which  state  they  are  capable  of  doing  their 
maximum  work  in  restoring  the  lost  latent  heat  of  snow.  Expressing 
the  fact  in  another  way  we  may  imagine  that  the  effect  of  the  black 
cloth  has  been  to  so  reduce  the  intensity  of  wave-motion  as  to  bring 
solar  heat  to  a  state  wherein  it  can  act  the  most  effectively  upon  snow, 
a  substance  which  is  only  exceeded  by  water  in  the  slowness  with 
which  it  receives  and  parts  with  heat.  We  may  conclude  then  that  the 
selecting  of  a  material  for  the  surface  of  a  tilter  of  such  absorbing  and 
radiating  capacity  as  to  utilize  to  some  extent  the  heat  gained  during 
the  day  in  maintaining  the  temperature  during  the  night  is  quite 
within  the  possibilities  of  our  present  knowledge  of  heat. 

American  Soil  Temperature  Observations. 

We  may  now  take  up  the  consideration  of  a  few  of  the  soil  tempera- 
ture observations  which  have  been  kept  by  a  number  of  the  Agricult- 
ural Experiment  Stations  for  the  last  few  years. 

Tlie  soil  thermometer  in  common  use  in  this  country  was  devised  for 
the  New  York  State  Station  at  Geneva,  by  Henry  J.  Green,  in  1882. 
So  far  as  known  to  tht;  author,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  series 
made  by  Dr.  Kedzie  of  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College  a 
few  years  previousl}^  the  Geneva  observations  were  the  first  extended 
series  begun  in  this  country.  Unfortunately  they  have  been  confined 
entirely  to  the  growing  season  from  April  to  October,  inclusive,  and 
are  without  value  for  the  present  purpose.  The  station  is  to  be  cred- 
ited, however,  with  the  first  systematic  beginning  of  such  work. 

The  thermometers  devised  by  Mr.  Green  are  a  series  of  ordinary 
mercurial  thermometers  with  sufficient  length  of  stem  to  project  above 
the  ground  for  any  depth.  The  graduation  is  far  enough  above  the 
surface  to  enable  the  thermometer  to  be  read  by  the  observer  when 
kneeling.  They  are  encased  in  well-seasoned  wood  except  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  bulb  and  at  the  graduation.  At  the  sides  of  the  bulb,  holes 
are  bored  through  the  wood  to  admit  of  more  perfect  contact  with  the 
soil.  In  setting  the  thermometer  a  trench  is  excavated,  a  groove  cut 
at  the  side,  the  thermometers  planted  tlierein  at  the  proper  depths 
and  the  trench  refilled  as  nearly  as  possible  to  its  natural  condition. 
Tlie  errors  of  soil  tlun-mometers  may  be  determined  by  comparison 
with  a  standard  and  corrections  api)lied  to  the  observations  the  same 
as  to  any  other  mercurial  thermometer. 

In  Tal)h'  No.  78  is  given  the  nu'an  soil  tenii)eratures  and  the  snowfall 
2X 


322 


SEWAGK    DISPOSAL    IN     rilK    I'NITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  78. —Maximum,  Minimum,  and  Mean  Tempehatures  op  the  Air  and 
THE  Same  for  the  Soil  at  Various  Depths,  for  the  Months  from  Novem- 
ber, 1890,  to  April,  1891,  inclusive,  at  State  College,  Pennsylvania. 

(Fahrenheit  ".) 


Air  15  feet  above  j 

Soil,  depth  of 

Soil,  depth  of 

Soil,  depth  of 

Soil,  depth  of 

. 

ground. 

3  inches. 

6  inches. 

Ifoot. 

2  feet. 

£!S 

Month. 

^.a 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min.  Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min.  Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

1890. 

1 

Nov.... 

m.o 

17.0 

41.2 

49.5 

33.5 

40.9 

50.0 

35.0 

41.7 

48.5 

37.5 

43.2 

48.0 

40..'> 

4.5.4 

0.6 

Dec... 

47.0 

1.0 

25.6 

34.0 

32.0 

32.8 

34.5 

33.0 

33.6 

37.5 

34.5 

35  4 

40.5 

3ti.5 

37.9 

32.6 

1891. 

Jan 

49.0 

1.0 

28.9 

32.5 

23.0 

30.6 

33.0 

27.0 

31.4 

34.5 

33.0 

33.3 

35.0 

34  5 

35.0 

13.8 

Feb.  ... 

58.0 

4.0 

3.3.1 

45.0 

Zi.b 

32.4 

1  41.5 

27.5 

32.3 

37.5 

33.0 

33.6 

36.5 

34.0 

34.4 

40.5 

March. . 

54.0 

0.0 

31.6 

41.5 

24.0 

32.7 

\  40.5 

30.0 

33.5 

39.5 

33.0 

34.4 

.38.0 

.34.0 

35.1 

15.1 

April... 

82.0 

20.0 

49.5 

62.0 

1 

31.5 

45.9 

56.5 

i 

33.0 

46.0 

55.0 

( 

35.0 

45.1 

50.5 

36.5 

43.1 

0.5 

in  comparison  with  the  mean  air  temperature  for  the  w'inter  of  1890  01, 
as  kept  at  State  College,  Pennsylvania  in  latitude,  40°  55'  north,  longi- 
tude 77°  51'  west.  Observations  have  been  made  during  the  growing 
season  for  several  years,  but  the  foregoing  are  the  first  winter  records 
kept.  The  station  is  1,200  feet  above  tide-water.  The  soil  in  which  the 
thermometers  stand  is  a  moderately  dark,  compact  loam  for  a  depth  of 
about  seven  inches  and  after  that  a  stiff  clay  subsoil.  The  surface  im- 
mediately over  the  thermometers  is  free  from  vegetation  and  during 
the  summer  kept  loose  by  stirring  from  time  to  time.  The  most  inter- 
esting point  in  connection  Avith  this  series  is  the  slight  frost  penetra- 
tion in  December,  1890,  when  the  minimum  temperature  for  the  month 
was  1.0°,  with  a  mean  of  25.6°,  the  snowfall  for  the  month  being  32.6 
inches. 

At  the  Maine  State  College,  Orono,  Maine,  in  latitude  44°  54'  north, 
and  longitude  68°  40'  west,  a  series  of  soil  temperature  readings  have 
been  kept  for  the  growing  season  of  the  last  three  years.  Table  No. 
79  gives  the  results  for  1889. 

Terrestrial  and  solar  radiation  readings  are  also  given  and  herewith 
included  by  way  of  illustrating  the  relation  of  this  class  of  data  to  soil 
temperatures.  The  terrestrial  radiation  thermometer  was  placed  over 
grass  and  within  six  inches  of  the  surface  of  the  ground,  while  the 
minimum  air  thermometer  with  which  it  is  compared  was  four  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  greatest  range  of  the  terrestrial  radiation  thermome- 
ter from  the  minimum  air  was  10.8°.  The  quality  of  the  soil  in  which 
the  soil  thermometers  are  placed  and  the  elevation  of  the  station  above 
tide-water  are  not  stated  in  the  reports  at  hand. 

The  mean  winter  temperatures  of  air  at  Orono  in  1889  were  :  Novem- 
ber, 38.9°  ;  December,  27.6°  ;  January,  25.0°  ;  February,  15.2°  ;  March, 
82.9°  ;  April,  45.1°.  The  minimum  winter  temperature  was —  20.0°,  in 
March.     The  snowfall  was:  November,  6  inches;  December,  6.5  in- 


AMERICAN    SOIL   TEMPERATURE    OBSERVATIONS. 


323 


Table  No.  79. — Mean  Temi'euatuke  op  the  Air,  Teurkstkial  Radiation,  So- 
lar Radiation,  and  Mean  Soil  Temperatures  at  Various  Depths  for  the 
Months  prom  May  to  October,  1889,  inclusive,  at  Maine  State  College, 
Orono,  Maine. 

(Fahrenheit  ".) 


Air. 

Terrestrial 
radiation. 

Solar  radiation. 

Soil,  depth  of  3  inches. 

Month. 

.ss. 

2 

_i 

IS 

ti 

7 
A.M. 

1 
P.M. 

7 
P.M. 

Mean. 

e  a 

sis 

2 

of 

o.-a 
S  a 
".a 

7 
A.M. 

1 
P.M. 

7 
P.M. 

Mean. 

1889. 

May 

52.95 

f58..30 

59.47 

60.24 

4C>.fi.3 

38.48 

8.15 

133.02!  67.85 

05.17 

51.50 

60..33 

59.70 

57.18 

June 

nH.m 

71.27 

08.(17  '  r,sS)7  [ 

,53.25 

49.20 

4.05 

134.22;  73.45 

00.77 

61. 3S 

09.62 

07.76 

60.25 

July 

«5.1-i 

75.75 

70.. sr,    70.58 

.55.08 

50  59 

4.49  : 

139.,55:  75.30 

64.25 

03.10 

7i».86 

09.54 

67.83 

August.  .  . . 

59.97 

74. -'11 

(itisi    (;c,.<.i9 

53.05 

47.6(i 

5.39 

1-37.56;  73.72 

63.M4 

61.75 

68.91 

OiS.Ol     66.23 

September. 

54.39 

70.M1 

(il  ..55    6-'.27 

49.07 

44.00 

4  47 

122.79 

71.23 

51.56 

57.74 

63.01 

02.^9  '  61.21 

October  . . . 

:i~.n 

n-.J.8(l 

44.05  1  44.75 

83.91 

28. 4S 

5.43 

10.5.86 

52.78 

5.3.  OS 

43.80 

47.31 

40.72  ,  45.94 

Means. . . 

55..">:i 

ti9.:if> 

01.80     62.2;i 

4cS.50 

43.17 

5.33 

128.83 

69.05 

,59.78 

56.54 

63.34 

62.44  1  60.77 

ches ;  January,  15.5  inches ;  February,  28.3  inches ;  March,  4  inches ; 
Ai)i-il,  -i  inches. 

In  Table  No.  80  we  have  the  means  of  a  series  of  observations  of 
temperature  of  air  and  soil  as  taken  at  2  r.  m.,  the  approximate  time  of 
maximum  daily  temperature  of  each  day  for  the  months  of  January  to 
April  inclusive,  1889,  at  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minnesota.  The  severity 
of  the  Minnesota  climate  will  be  appreciated  when  it  is  remarked  that 
the  mean  of  2  r.  M.  ol)servations  for  February  was  17°.  The  winter  of 
1888  8!)  is  stated,  however,  to  have  been  on  the  whole  a  mild  one. 
Nevertheless  the  soil  of  the  Minnesota  Station,  which  is  g-ravel  and  sand 
with  an  admixture  of  clay,  froze  to  a  depth  of  between  four  and  five 
feet ;  the  f^reatest  p(nietration  of  frost  took  place  in  the  month  of  March, 
when  the  mean  air  temperature  was  44°  and  the  upper  layers  of  soil  had 
entirely  lost  their  frost  to  a  depth  of  12  inches.  The  temperature^  at 
depth  of  fiv<;  feet  read  32°  on  three  days  in  that  month,  33°  beiiig-  the 
lowest  in  February,  that  temperature  only  bein.o-  reached  for  the  first 
time  on  Februaiy  22.     On  February  1  the  temperature  at  five  feet  was 


324 


SEWAGE   DI8POSAL    IN   TIIK    UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  80. — Appkoximate  Maximum,  Minimum,  and  Mean  Temperature  of 
the  alk  and  the  same  for  the  soil  at  various  depths,  for  the  months 
FROM  January  to  April,  1889,  Inclusive,  at  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minne- 
sota, * 

*  (Fahrenheit.") 


Month. 

Air  5  feet  above 
ground. 

Depth  of  3  inches. 

Depth  of  1  foot. 

Depth  of  2  feet. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

1889. 
January 

38 
46 

«2 
68 

10 

—  3 

14 

42 

25 
17 
44 
56 

33 
32 
59 
66 

15 

C 

21 

46 

25 

19 
41 
58 

30 
27 
39 
50 

18 
IS 
26 
35 

25 
22 
32 
43 

31 
28 
32 
45 

24 
18 
25 
32 

29 

February 

24 

March 

30 

April 

39 

18S9. 

January 

February 

March 

April 


Depth  of  3  feet. 

Depth  of  4  feet. 

Depth  of  5  feet. 

Depth  of  6 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

1 
Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

Min. 

35 

31 

33 

38 

34 

36 

40 

36 

38 

41 

37 

31 

2.5 

29 

34 

30 

32 

36 

33 

34 

37 

84 

32 

26 

30 

!     32 

30 

31 

33 

32 

33 

34 

34 

43 

32 

37 

1     ^^ 

32 

36 

40 

33 

36 

34 

39 

*  The  results  in  this  table  are  all  based  upon  the  2  p.m.  daily  observations.     The  maximum  and  minimum  are 
the  highest  and  lowest  observations  for  each  month. 

36°:  it  o-radnally  fell  until  33°  was  readied  on  the  22d,  as  just  stated. 
At  the  depth  of  six  feet  the  temperature  ranged  from  37°  to  34°  in 
February  and  remained  stationary  at  34°  for  the  whole  of  March  and 
until  April  14,  when  the  temperature  advanced  to  35°.  From  that  time 
to  the  end  of  the  month  the  tendency  was  slowly  upward  at  six  feet, 
reaching-  39°  at  the  end  of  the  month. 

In  reference  to  snow  protection  at  St.  Anthony  Park,  it  is  stated  that 
the  surface  about  the  soil  thermometers  was  nearly  bare  and  fully  ex- 
posed to  the  northwest  winds,  which  are  the  coldest  of  the  locality. 

These  Minnesota  observations  are  of  special  interest  as  illustrating- 
the  length  of  time  required  for  the  ground  to  free  itself  from  frost 
when  once  frozen.  The  mean  air  temperature  for  March  was  44°,  with 
a  mean  soil  temperature  at  the  depth  of  three  inches  of  41°.  At  the 
depth  of  two  feet  the  temperature  of  32°  was  not  attained  until  March 
28  and  remained  at  tliat  point  until  April  5.  These  results  show  the 
considerable  length  of  time  required  for  the  soil  and  entrained  moist- 
ure to  recover  its  lost  latent  heat.  In  winters  of  extreme  cold  the  soil 
of  Minnesota  is  said  to  freeze  to  the  depth  of  six  feet.  Experimental 
verification  of  this  by  the  use  of  thermometers  is  lacking,  as  those  ob- 
servations have  not  been  carried  on  since  the  winter  of  1888-89. 


AMERICAN    SOIL    TKMPERATURE    OBSERVATIONS. 


325 


lu  Table  No.  81  we  have  the  results  of  air  and  soil  temperature  obser- 
vations at  Lincoln,  Nebraska  (latitude  40°50'  north,  longitude  96°45' 
west),  for  the  winter  of  1890-91,  and  the  months  of  November  and 
December,  1891.  The  station  is  about  1,150  feet  above  tide-water  and 
subject  to  a  snowfall  at  times  of  over  two  feet.  The  soil  is  described 
as  a  fine  black  loam  from  11  to  18  inches  deep,  underlaid  bj^  a  bed 
of   yellow   clay.      Table   No.  81  is  of  special  interest   by  reason    of 

Table   No.  81. —  Maximum,  Minimum,  and  Mean  Temperature  of  Air  and  Soil 
FOR  THE  Months  Indicated,  at  Lincoln,  Nebraska. 

(Fahrenheit".) 


Air. 

Soil,  depth  of 

Soil,  depth  of 

Soil,  depth  of 

Soil,  depth  of 

a 

3  inches. 

1  foot. 

2  feet. 

3  feet. 

Month. 

a 

. 

a 

, 

13 

s 

c 

o  a 

« 

H 

0) 

V 

03 

w 

S 

S 

S 

^ 

53 

a 

•a 

a 

a 

a 

S 

^ 

S 

S     a 

1890. 

November.. . 

fi6.0 

20 

38.9 

57.5 

32.0 

37.5 

52.5 

40.0 

44.6 

53.7 

45.0 

49.4 

55.5  1  48.0    51.5 

December.  .. 

59.5 

5 

30.9 

41.0 

23.0 

3a.  1 

41.5 

34.0 

36.1 

45.0 

39.0 

41.0 

48.0  1  41.7    44.2 

3.2 

1891. 

1 

January 

aT.9 

35.1 

22.7 

29.4 

36.5 

31.4 

33.0 

39.2 

35.7 

37.1  ! 

41.6    3S.5    39.8 

February 

ail.  I 

31.7 

14.  C, 

24.5 

32.6 

24  2 

28.8 

35.9 

31.4 

33.5 

38.4    34.8    :35  4 

13.0 

March 

28.4 

41.(5 

If)  4 

30.7 

36.9 

22.  S 

30.3 

35.9 

30.0 

32  0 

36.4    33.2    34.4    18.8 

April 

btiA 

69.6 

33.7 

53.6 

6U.9 

35.  r 

48.6 

54.3 

36.2 

44.5 

50.6  j  36.5    42.4  1 

November... 

7S.0 

3 

:H5 

52.6 

26.3 

3(i.6 

51.0 

37.3 

43.4 

53.8 

42.8 

47.7 

55.2    46.0    50.7 

0.1 

December 

64.5 

-1 

3a.6 

44.9 

29.2 

33.9 

42.3 

35.0 

37.6 

43.3 

39.0 

41.1 

45  9    42.0    43.8 

0.4 

ex]iil)iting'  the  slig-ht  frost  penetration  in  the  month  of  February, 
1891,  when  the  mean  air  temperature  was  20.1°  ;  and  by  way  of 
illustration  Ave  will  considiu-  the  meteorology  of  that  and  the  fol- 
lowing mouth  a  little  in  detail.  The  preceding  month  of  January 
had  a  mean  air  temperature  of  27.9°  and  a  total  precipitation  of  1.58 
inch,  all  in  the  form  of  rain.  The  ground  was  in  consecpience  un- 
protected during  the  whole  of  January,  Avhieh  resulted  in  frost  pen- 
etration to  a  depth  of  12  inches  on  the  17th,  when  the  reading  at  12 
inches  was  31.5°.  At  the  depth  of  9  inches  a  reading  of  31.0°  was 
reached  on  the  13th.  On  January  31,  the  reading  at  G  inches  was  32.1°  ; 
at  9  inches,  32.1°;  at  12  inches,  32.9°;  at  2  feet,  36°;  and  at  3  feet, 
38.5°.  Except  the  first  6  inches  in  depth  the  ground  was  entirely 
clear  of  frost  on  that  date.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  on  Jan- 
uary 30  was  32.3°  ;  on  the  31st,  15.3°  ;  on  February  1  it  was  -  2.2° ; 
while  on  February  2  it  was  0.2°.  On  February  3  the  soil  temperature 
at  depth  of  3  inches  was  11.6°  ;  at  6  inches,  17.7°  ;  at  9  inches,  24°  :  at 
12  inches,  25.0°:  and  at  24  inches,  35.3°.  Several  inches  of  snowfall 
occurred  on  the  8tli  with  a  mean  air  temperature  of  16°.  From  the  8th 
to  the  loth,  when  an  additional  snowfall  occurred,  mean  air  tempera- 
tuivs  ranged  from  57°  on  the  9th,  to  45°  on  the  l4th  ;  to  14°  on  the  16th 
iind  17th.  and  27°  on  the  19th.     On  the  14th  tlu;  soil  temperatures  at 


326  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

various  depths  were :  3  inclies,  30.5°  ;  6  inches,  29.9°  ;  9  inches,  31.6°  ; 
12  inches,  30.6°  ;  at  2  feet,  33.4°  ;  and  at  3  feet,  36°.  Another  fall  of 
snow  of  a  few  inclies  occurred  on  the  27th,  with  a  mean  temperature  of 
the  air  for  that  day  of  8.7°.  On  February  28  the  mean  air  temperature 
was  3.3°,  with  soil  temperatures  for  the  same  date  as  follows :  at  3 
inches,  16.3°  ;  at  6  inches,  19.2°  ;  at  9  inches,  23.8°  ;  at  12  inches,  24.2°  ; 
at  2  feet,  31.4° ;  and  at  3  feet,  34.8°.  In  March  the  daily  mean  tem- 
jjerature  ran  below  32°  every  day  except  one  until  the  15th,  when  it 
rose  to  38°,  the  exception  in  the  previous  part  of  the  month  being-  34° 
on  the  10th.  From  the  IStli  to  the  end  of  the  month  the  mean  daily 
air  temperature  was  above  32°  for  every  day  except  the  18th  and  26th, 
when  29°  and  31°  were  respectively  reached.  Heavy  snowfalls  oc- 
curred on  the  6tli  and  7th,  the  total  for  the  month,  the  most  of  which 
fell  on  these  two  days,  being  18.8  inches.  The  soil  temperatures  in 
March  were:  On  the  14tli,  at  a  depth  of  three  inches,  24.7°;  at  12 
inches,  29.8°  ;  at  2  feet,  31.4°  ;  and  at  3  feet,  33.7.  With  the  great  rise 
in  air  temperature  which  began  on  the  15th  the  ground  cleared  itself 
of  frost  at  various  depths  as  follows  :  The  temperature  at  3  inches  was 
37.7°  on  the  16th  ;  at  6  inches  it  was  32.3°  on  the  20th  ;  at  9  inches, 
32.1°  on  the  23d  ;  at  12  inches,  32.1°  on  the  23d,  at  2  feet,  32.1  on  the 
17tli ;  the  minimum  temperature  at  that  depth  having  occurred  on 
March  5  and  6,  with  readings  at  30°.  At  the  depth  of  3  feet  the 
minimum  soil  temperature  of  the  winter  was  33.2°  on  March  9.  On 
March  31  the  soil  temperatures  at  various  depths  were ;  at  3  inches, 
41.6°;  at  6  inches,  40.3°;  at  9  inches,  37.8°;  at  12  inches,  36.9°;  at 
2  feet  35.9°  ;  at  3  feet,  36.4°. 

In  April,  with  a  mean  air  temperature  of  53.4°,  the  soil  temperatures 
rose  rapidly,  attaining  on  the  30th,  at  a  depth  of  3  inches,  66.1°  ;  at  12 
inches,  60.9°  ;  at  2  feet,  54.3° ;  at  3  feet,  50.6°. 

The  mean  air  temperature  of  May,  1891,  was  60°,  with  soil  tempera- 
tures on  the  31st  of,  at  the  depth  of  3  inches,  77.3°  ;  at  12  inches,  67.9°  ; 
at  2  feet,  59.9°  ;  and  at  3  feet,  56°. 

The  Nebraska  observations  contrast  strongly  with  those  in  Minne- 
sota, showing  how  much  quicker  the  fine  black  soil  of  the  Nebraska 
prairie  cleared  itself  of  frost  than  did  the  less  responsive  material  at 
the  Minnesota  Station.  Again  they  are  of  interest  in  comparison  with 
the  results  at  the  Colorado  station,  in  nearly  the  same  latitude,  where 
on  account  of  high  altitude  entirely  different  meteorological  conditions 
obtain. 

The  most  elaborate  set  of  observations  of  terrestrial  meteorology 
thus  far  made  by  any  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Stations  are  those 
of  the  Colorado  Station  at  Fort  Collins.  Tables  Nos.  82  to  87  show 
some  of  the  results  as  compiled  from  data  given  in  the  Annual  Reports 
of  the  station.     The  observations  at  Fort  Collins  are  of  considerable 


AMERICAN    SOIL    TEMPERATURE    OBSERVATIONS. 


327 


Table  No.  82. — Maximum,  Minimum,  and   Mean  Temperature  of  tue  Aiu   for 
THE  Months  January  to  April,  inclusive,  1889  and  1890,  at  Fort  Collins, 

Colorado.  (Fahrenheit  ".) 


1SS9. 

1890. 

Max. 

Min. 

Mean. 

Max. 

05.  (i 
tl8  3 
70.1 
78  0 

Min. 

Mean. 

58.0 
6-^.0 
H7.8 
79.0 

—  3.5 

—  16.0 
17.0 
24.0 

22.0 
25.  (i 
41.6 
50.6 

—  13.0 

—  20.0 

—  9.0 
13.8 

20.8 

Februiiry      

24.9 
36.0 

April 

45.2 

Table  No.  83. — Weekly  Means  of  Soil  Temperatures  at  the  Depths  Indicated 
FROM  January  to  May  for  the  years  1889  and  1890,  at  Fort  Collins,  Colo- 
rado. (Fahrenheit".) 


Week 
ending. 


January  5. . . 
Jdnuiiry  12. . 
January  19.. 
January  26. . 
February  2.. 
February  9. . 
Fobruarv  16. 
February  23. 

Man-h  2 

.March  9 

March  IB. . . . 
M^irch  33.... 
March  .30  . . . 

April  6 

April  13   .... 

April  20 

April  27  .... 
May  4 


21.3 
24..') 
24.8 
22.0 
26.0 
.30.2 
32.9 
25.4 
31.3 
.39.4 
42.1 
44.9 
46.1 
53.9 
48.5 
,53.6 
59.4 
51.7 


1889. 


Gin. 


23.4 
25.5 
25.9 
23.2 
26.7 
29  9 
•32  1 
27.3 
30.4 
.37.6 


1ft. 


27.6 
27.7 
28.2 
26.2 
27.9 
30.2 
31.1 
.30.0 
30.2 
35.6 


40.8 

39.6 

44.3 

43.0 

45.7 

44  2 

53  0 

49.8 

49.0 

48. 2 

5.3.2 

51.1 

58.5 

55.0 

52.9 

51.8 

33.6 
32.4 
32.2 
31.4 
.31.1 
31.5 
32.2 
32.8 
.32.3 
•34.7 
39.3 
41.5 
43.0 
46.8 
47.5 
49.7 
51.7 
51.7 


3  ft.      6  ft. 


37.0 
35.6 
35.1 
34  4 
.33.9 
33  9 
34.3 
31. S 
34.3 
35.6 
38.7 
41.2 
42.7 
45.3 
46.9 
48.1 
49.9 
51.0 


44.2 
43.2 
42.4 

41  7 
41.0 
4(1.5 
40.2 
40.2 
40.1 
39.9 
40.5 
41.4 
42.3 
43.5 
44.7 
45.7 
46.9 
48.0 


Week 
ending. 


January  4 . . 
January  11. 
January  18. 
January  25 
Februaiy  1 . 
February  S. 
February  15 
February  22 
March  1 . . . . 
March  8  . . . 
March  15. .. 
March  22... 
March  29... 
April  5  .... 
April  12.... 
April  19  ... 

April  26 

May  3  


1890. 


3  in. 


28.7 
27.5 
2.^).  6 
25.8 
32.7 
.35.0 
31.0 
.34.7 
29.0 
33.2 
34.4 
44.1 
45.1 
43.5 
51.2 
46.2 
47.6 
53.3 


6  in. 


31.1 
29.5 
27.2 
27.1 
32.2 
34.4 
82.5 
35.8 
31.2 
32  5 
35  3 
44.1 
46.0 
44.2 
.51.4 
47.1 
48.3 
5;i.3 


1ft. 


33  5 

31.5 
.30.0 
28.  S 
31  5 
32.0 
3:3.3 
.35.1 
33.3 
.32  2 
35.3 
41.9 
45.1 
4.S.6 
49.6 
47.2 
48. 7 
51.9 


2  ft.      8  ft.      6  ft. 


36.3 
34.4 
.33.4 
32.4 
32.4 
33.2 
34.6 
35.6 
35.2 
34.1 
.35.8 
39.5 
43.3 
43.0 
46.8 
46  7 
47. S 
49.3 


88.6 
37.0 
35.9 
34.9 
34.5 
34.8 
35.9 
.36.5 
36.7 
35.  S 
36.7 
38.7 
42.2 
42  8 
45.0 
46.2 
47.0 
47.9 


44.3 
43.5 
42.6 
41.7 
41.0 
40.6 
40.5 
40.6 
40.7 
40.5 
40.3 
40.7 
41.9 
43.1 
44.0 
45.2 
45.8 
46.6 


Table  No.  84. — Maximum,  Minimum,  and  Mean  Temperatures  of  Air  ;  Mean  op 
Terrestrial  Radiation  Observations  and  Mean  Soil  Temperatures  fob 
1890,  AT  Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

(Fahrenheit.") 


Air  6  feet  above  ground. 

Mean  terrestrial 
radiation. 

Mean  soil  temperatures,  depth  of : 

.1 

Month. 

■sg,. 

S 

•s-g 

eg 

a 

a 

JS 

*5 

1 

o 

^• 

^ 

i, 

^Sfi 

is  ^ 

c 

s 

c 

o 

S  ^  0. 

u 

1 

j^ 

e» 

m 

CO 

c 

a"'- 

s 

a  a  B 

to 

TO 

CO 

1890. 

January  

208 

.39.8 

24.7 

9.6 

4.4 

88.0 

29.4 

.31.1 

.33.8 

36.2 

42.0 

2.1 

February 

24.9 

45.0 

30.0 

15.0 

9.9 

10.8 

11.4 

32.5 

33.3 

.33.6 

34.6 

.36.0 

46.0 

2.3 

.March 

36.0 

52.9 

3a  0 

2,3.2 

18.4 

19.9 

19.7 

.39.2 

,39.5 

.38.6 

38,2 

38  3 

40.S 

2.7 

April 

45  2 

611.0 

46.5 

33  1 

29.2 

.30.3 

.30.4 

47.1 

47.7 

47.3 

46.1 

4.5.2 

44.6 

4.5 

May 

5.5.4 

71.2 

.58  0 

41.0 

33.8 

,36.9 

.37.7 

57.6 

57.5 

55.9 

52.9 

51.0 

48  6 

0.8 

.June 

63.5 
69  9 

S1.-.4 
87.1 

610 

71.1 

46.8 
.55.2 

.37.3 
46.2 

40.9 
Bl.l 

41  8 
51.6 

69.3 
74.3 

68.1 
73.8 

65  5 
71.0 

60.6 
67.3 

58.0 
64.7 

.53.2 

.58.8 

July 

AUKURt 

63.7 

80  9 

fiil.l 

51.2 

41  5 

47.6 

48  0 

66.7 

67.2 

67.0 

fi.5.9 

64.9 

61.7 

Scptpmber.... 

56  0 

770 

5.S..S 

39.6 

3.5.2 

30.2 

.57.6 

5H.7 

60.2 

61.2 

61  7 

62.0 

Octob'-r 

41  .K 

63.S 

47.4 

31  0 

26.3 

27.0 

47.0 

48.4 

50.5 

.53.0 

.54.6 

.577 

NovcTiilier. . .  . 

.30.  S 

.54.9 

38.1 

21.3 

12.S 

16.1 

17.3 

36.7 

,38.2 

40.  s 

44.2 

46.7 

.52.1 

.3.2 

December. ... 

27.2 

49.6 

.37.. s 

IS  3 

8.4 

14.» 

16.3 

32.1 

33.3 

35.5 

38.0 

40.5 

46.7 

2.2 

328 


SEWAGE   DISI>OSAL    IN    TIIH    IMTEI)    STATES. 


interest  by  reason  of  the  unusual  location  of  the  station  at  an  elevation 
of  about  4,980  feet  above  tide  (latitude  40°35'  north,  longitude  105°0'' 
west).  The  mean  air  temperatures,  January  to  April  inclusive,  for  the 
two  years  1888  and  181)0  are  shown  in  Table  No.  82.  The  weekly  mean 
soil  temperature  for  the  same  months  and  years  have  been  tabulated 
in  Table  No.  83,  the  record  here  used  being  from  a  set  of  thermometers 
placed  in  loam  which  sometimes  receives  artificial  moisture  from  the 
overflow  of  an  adjacent  irrigated  area.  The  rainfall  at  this  station 
is  slight,  the  record  showing  a  mean  of  13.58  inches  annually.  The 
larger  part  of  this  occurs  in  the  spring  and  summer  months.  The 
winter  months  are  stated  to  be  almost  entirely  free  from  storms  of 
every  character,  what  little  precipitation  there  is  being  in  the  form  of 
snow  and  lasting  only  a  short  time.  The  average  of  stormy  days  in 
winter  for  several  years  has  been  for  December,  1.3  days  ;  for  January, 
3.6  days ;  and  February,  3.6  days.  The  winter  days  are  mostly  clear 
with  a  relatively  intense  solar  radiation.  The  mean  total  percentages, 
six  months  of  the  year,  compared  with  Central  New  York,  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

January.     Febri:aiy.     March.      April.     November.     December. 

Fort  Collins,  Colorado 72  67  70         57  66  66 

Central  New  York 17 


25 


29 


39 


21 


Difference 55  42  41         18  41  45 

The  solar  radiation  at  Fort  Collins  is  high  and  generally  speaking 
probably  in  excess  of  the  terrestrial  radiation.  The  observations,  how- 
ever, are  still  in  the  experimental  stage  and  this  conclusion  can  be 

Table  No.  85  — Differences  in  Temperature  of  the  Soil  at  Various  Depths 
IN  Dry  and  Wet  Ground  at  Fort  Collins,  Colorado,  in  the  Months  Indi- 
cated, IN  1890. 

(Fahrenheit.") 


AVeekly  reading.s, 
1890. 


July.S 

July  10 

July  17 

July  24 

Julv31 

Ausust  7 

August  14  . . 
Augu>^t  '22. .  . 
August  28  . .  . 
September  4. 
Means.   . 

Noveinber  7. 
November  21 
November  28 
December  4 . . 
December  20 . 
December  2ti. 

1S91. 
Januaiy  2. . . 
Means. . . 


Set  B.,  wet  ground,  depth  : 


in.         1  ft. 


72.1 
7.3.3 
72  2 
74.6 
7.3.4 
74.1 
69.6 
69.1 
69.6 
68.9 
71.7 

.50.1 
.39  6 
25.1 
47.8 
38. 3 
3.5.0 

31.7 
37.5 


68  1 
69.4 
70.9 
70.7 
68.7 
70.4 
67.7 
65.3 
66.2 
65.1 
68. a 

46.6 
40.9 
39.9 
39.8 
.35.3 
B5  3 

.35.3 
39.0 


2  ft.  3  ft 


63.4 
64.4 
66.0 
66.2 
•  5.9 
66  6 
65.6 
63.5 
63  8 
63.8 
64.9 

49.6 
43  7 
42.9 
42.4 
38.7 
.38.0 

38.0 
41.9 


61  1 
61.9 
6.H.9 
64.2 
64.4 
64.7 
64.5 
62.8 
63.0 


Set  C  dry  giound,  dep;h  : 


63.4 

51  4 

46.4 

45.3 

44.6 

41.5 

40.7 

40.7 

44:.4: 

6  in. 

1ft. 
73  6 

2  ft. 

3£t. 

78  4 

70  0 

65.4 

77.2 

74.8 

70.5 

62  1 

76.3 

76.6 

72.6 

57  8 

80.7 

76.0 

72.1 

68.3 

76.8 

72.7 

.71.4 

68.5 

78.6 

75.2 

71.9 

68.3 

71.2 

70.5 

69.8 

67.8 

68.7 

67.1 

66.3 

65  2 

70.7 

68  0 

66.7 

64.8 

1  69.7 

67.1 

66.7 

64.8 

'    74.8 

7a.3 

69.8 

65.3 

43.7 

46.1 

50.9 

51.2 

1  38.9 

39  4 

43  4 

45  4 

•  35.4 

39.4 

42.3 

44.7 

•     37.0 

37.9 

41.8 

43.9 

31.4 

33.0 

37  4 

40.2 

34.2 

33.3 

.34.4 

39  2 

31.1 

33.1 

37.4 

39.1 

35.9 

37.5 

41.1 

43.4 

AMEKICAN    SOIL    TK.MPEUATURE    OBSERVATIONS. 


329 


Table    No.    86. — Monthly    Evaporation   at  Fort   Collins,   Colorado,   from 

1887  TO  1890,  INCLUSIVE. 

(Inches.) 


Year. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

1 
Mar.    April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Total. 

1S8T 

2.36 
1.69 

1 
4.60      5.55 

2^75      4.06 

5.19 
4.45 
3.72 

5.75 

7.70 
4.34 
5.71 

5.23 

7.00 
5.20 
5.44 

4.24 

4.06 
.5.15 
5.7K 

4.12 
3.94 
5.19 
3.69 

3.26 
2.17 

3.2S 

271 

1.48 
1.35 
0.62 
1.32 
1.19 

1.60 
0.99 
1.42 
1.10 
l.>i8 

1888 

1S89 

i.os 

0.8(i 
0.97 

37  S3 

1890  

3.48      3..''>U  i    4.32 

40  24 

Means 

3.G1    4.37,  4.4:^4   5.87 

1            1             1 

5.7^14.80 

4.a3   3.85 

Table  No.  87.— Solar  and  Terrestrial  Radiation  at  Fort  Collins,  Colorado. 

(Fahrenheit  ".) 


Day. 

Thermometer. 

Month. 

Day. 

Thermometer. 

Month. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Solar 
rad. 

Ter. 
rad. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Solar 
rad. 

Ter. 
rad. 

1888. 
January 

1 

7 

8 

15 

16 

20 

27 

28 

29 

3 

4 

5 

40 
13 
15 
2 
7 
50 
65 
67 
40 
28 
26 
80 

10 

-15 

-12 

-28 

-17 

21 

25 

30 

25 

9 

4 

3 

.33 
45 
48 
60 
65 
68 
60 
60 
8 
^7 
88 
76 

12 
11 

9 

7 
■8 
11 
21 
11 

9 
14 

4 
11 

18S8. 

3 
5 
11 
12 
22 
2 
6 
20 
26 
4 
21) 
27 
28 

71 
66 
(>3 
80 
87 
64 
40 
53 
49 
68 
,57 
31 
41 

SO 
46 
30 
30 
48 
29 
32 
13 
26 
26 
22 
4 
4 

44 

73 

62 

57 

20 

57 

67 

55 

70 

54 

59.1 

81 

55 

12 

18 

I' 

It 

y 

" 

'' 

16 

<< 

November .  

24 

February  

9 
22 

"                  '  " 

5 

>> 

.. 

8 

yMarch 

11 

15  5 

u 

<< 

13  5 

« 

11 

considered  as  tentative  onlj^  If  it  turns  out  to  be  true  on  further  study- 
it  may  be  considered  as  possibly  explaining-  the  relatively  liig-h  tem- 
perature of  the  soils  in  winter.  Thus  far  trouble  has  been  found  in 
making-  this  record  by  reason  of  the  ordinary  solar  radiation  ther- 
mometers linally  breaking  because  of  the  tube  not  being-  long  enough 
to  accommodate  the  mercury  when  expanding-  to  an  unusualh^  high 
radiation  ;  117°  has  been  registered  above  the  thermometer  in  the 
shade  close  by  in  February..  Table  No.  87  shows  the  record  of  solar 
and  terrestrial  radiation  for  a  few  days  in  January,  February,  March, 
November,  and  D(>cember,  1888. 

The  means  of  the  month  to  which  the  daily  readings  in  Table  87 
pertain,  so  far  as  they  can  be  made,  are  as  follows  : 

(Fahrenheit ».) 
Afax.  Min.  Sular  rad.  Ter.  rad. 

Jamiavy 42.7  10.0 

robrnary ,53.0  '2."i  0  40.3 

Maich    49.0  27.0  55.5  11.8 

April    73.3  40.(1  46.9                 

Noveinbor  4H.Ct  24.7  53.7  8  8 

Decembfir 4<).0  17.8  56.4  10.1 

In  the  preceding  tabulations  the  column  of  solar  radiation  ther- 
mometer gives  the  ditlerence  between  the  maximum  temperature  of 


330  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

the  air  in  the  shade  and  the  highest  temperature  indicated  by  the  solar 
radiation  instrument  phiced  in  full  sunshine.  The  reading-  of  the  latter 
instrument  may  be  found  by  adding  the  numbers  in  the  solar  radiation 
and  the  maximum  temperature  column.  The  column  of  terrestrial 
radiation  thermometer  gives  the  number  of  degrees  which  that  instru- 
ment falls  below  the  minimum  temperature  of  the  air. 

Observations  with  the  ordinary  glass  globe  vacuum  solar  radiation 
thermometers  were  discontinued  in  1889  and  the  Arago-Davy  acti- 
nometer  substituted  instead.  The  observations  with  that  instrument 
for  1890  are  included  in  the  Third  Annual  Report  of  the  Colorado  Ex- 
periment Station  ;  but  in  the  absence  of  the  reduction  constants,  which 
have  not  yet  been  determined,  a  comparison  of  the  solar  radiation 
with  the  soil  temperature  in  1889  and  1890  cannot  be  made. 

In  Table  No.  83  the  mean  soil  temperatures  are  given  by  weeks  from 
January  1  to  May  4.  In  reference  to  these  temperatures  it  is  stated 
that  there  are  slight  corrections  of  the  thermometer  which  have  been 
applied  to  the  readings  for  1890  but  not  to  those  of  1889.  The  differ- 
ences tabulated,  so  far  as  the  present  discussion  is  concerned,  are  not 
gi'eat  enough  to  seriously  affect  a  comparison  of  the  means. 

In  Table  No.  84,  the  temperature  of  the  air  six  feet  above  the 
ground,  terrestrial  radiation  at  three  different  elevations,  mean  soil ' 
temperatures,  and  snowfalls  are  compared  for  the  whole  year  1890. 
The  mean  soil  temjieratures  are  derived  from  the  table  of  weekly 
means,  and  will  vary  slightly  from  a  tabulation  of  actual  monthly 
means  by  reason  of  the  beginning  and  end  of  weeks  not  coinciding 
with  the  beginning  and  end  of  months.  Hence  the  observations  of 
one  month  in  some  cases  lap  into  another  in  this  table.  The  columns 
of  mean  terrestrial  radiation  illustrate  the  variation  in  mean  tem- 
perature at  various  heights  above  the  ground. 

In  Table  No.  85  we  have  a  tabulation  of  weekly  soil  temperatures 
from  two  sets  of  thermometers.  Set  B  is  placed  in  low  ground  near 
a  ditch  ;  set  C  is  on  a  knoll  in  dry  ground  which  is  never  irrigated. 
For  a  large  portion  of  the  year  the  water  table  is  not  far  below  the  three- 
foot  thermometer  of  Set  B ;  this  set  is  also  subject  to  the  influence  of 
the  irrigation  water  applied  to  the  adjacent  field.  The  soil  at  Set  B  is 
a  dark  loam,  while  Set  C  is  in  a  hard,  compact,  yellow  clay. 

Studying  this  table  it  appears  that  in  the  warm  months  the  soil 
temperatures  range  considerably  higher  in  the  dry  ground,  while  in 
the  cold  months  they  range  higher  in  the  wet  ground.  Some  of  the 
reasons  for  this  have  been  cited  in  the  preliminary  discussion,  but  by 
way  of  additional  illustration  Table  No.  86,  of  evaporation  from  a  Avater 
surface  at  Fort  Collins,  as  determined  by  observing  the  loss  from  a 
galvanized  iron  tank  three  feet  square  and  three  feet  deep,  sunk  flush 
with  the  ground,  is  also  given.     The  high  rate  in  June  and  July  is 


AMERICAN   SOIL   TEMPEKATCTRE    OBSERVATIONS. 


331 


specially  noticeable,  as  for  instance  in  1888,  when  for  these  two 
months  the  sum  was  14.7  inches,  which  g-ives  a  daily  rate  for  the  whole 
time  of  0.245  inch. 

Records  are  also  kept  at  Fort  Collins  of  barometer,  humidity,  wind, 
sunshine,  etc.,  but  the  foregoing  are  of  more  interest  in  discussing-  soil 
temi^eratures.     The  mean  barometer  is  about  25  inches. 

The  Experiment  Station  at  Auburn,  Alabama  (latitude  32°40'  north, 
longitude  85°30'  west ;  elevation  above  tide-water  826  feet),  has  made  a 
series  of  soil-temperature  observations  during-  the  last  few  years,  from 
the  record  of  which,  as  given  in  the  several  bulletins  of  the  station. 
Tables  No.  88  to  90  have  been  prepared.  In  Table  No.  88  is  given  the 
maximum,  minimum,  and  mean  temperature  of  the  air  and  soil  for  the 
mouths  from  October,  1888,  to  March,  1889,  inclusive.  The  soil  ther- 
mometers, of  which  the  record  is  given  in  Table  No.  88,  are  planted  at 
the  top  of  a  hill  in  sandy  soil  frequently  stirred  during  the  growing 
season.  Readings  are  made  at  7  a.  m.,  2  p.  m.,  and  7  p.  m.  A  similar 
set  of  thermometers,  of  which  the  record  is  not  here  given,  are  also 
buried  on  the  banks  of  a  running  stream  in  sandy  bottom  land.  Some 
of  the  results  of  comparing  the  set  in  the  bottom  with  those  in  the  dry 


Table  No.  88. — Te.mperature  op  the  Air  and  Soil  at  Various  Depths,  for  the 
.  Years  and  Months  Indicated  at  Auburn,  Alabama. 

(Fahrenheit  ".) 


1888. 

October 

November 

December 

1889. 

January 

February  

March 


Air 

Soil,  at  depth  of 

Soil,  at  depth  of 

Soil,  at  dept 

3  inches. 

1  foot. 

2  feet. 

n 

s 

^ 

93 

a 

as 

d 

a 

g 

X 

a 

e3 

X 

a 

c 

s 

S 

S 

s 

S 

a 

S 

S 

S 

S 

S 

81 

43.0 

62.5 

80.5 

49  0 

65.5 

73.5 

55.5 

64.5 

70.5 

63.5 

78 

29.0 

54.7 

76.0 

35.5 

57.0 

68.5 

43.5 

57. 0 

67.5 

51.0 

66 

20.0 

46.1 

58.5 

33.0 

48.3 

54.0 

39.5 

47.3 

54.0 

45.0 

67 

23.0 

40.9 

47.3 

46.7 

75 

16.5 

46.3 

46.8 

45.8 

76 

30.0 

54.7 

66.4 

53.5 

66.5 
59.0 

50.4 

49.9 
47.7 
53.4 


Month. 

Soil,  at  depth  of 
3  feet. 

Soil,  at  depth  of 
4  feet. 

Soil,  at  depth  of 
5  feet. 

Soil,  at  depth  of 
6  feet. 

Soil,  at  depth  of 

7  feet. 

a 

c 

c 

a 

d 

ii 

a 

«■ 

s 

a 
13 

X 

c* 

i 

d 

1 

d 

i 

d 

1888. 

October 

71.0 

(1.5.5 

f-hS.O 

72.5 

67.0 

69.5 

73.0 

6S.0 

70.0 

73.0 

68.5 

70.5 

73.0 

69.0 

71.0 

November 

67.0 

.55.0 

6-J.O 

67.5 

58.5 

64.0 

68.0 

61.0 

65.0 

68.5 

62.0 

(iti.O 

68.5 

6:^.5 

66.0 

Dt^cember 

1889. 

55.5 

49.5 

53.0 

58.0 

52.5 

55.2 

60.5 

r.5.0 

.57.5 

62.0 

56.0 

58.7 

63.5 

57.5 

60.1 

Jannnry 

50.6 

.52.5 

53,6 

54.7 

55.9 

48.9 
53.1 

50.3 
53  2 

.51.6 

.52.4 
53.3 

53.4 

March 

54  0 

332 


SEWAC4E   DISPOSAL    IN    TIIP:    UNITED    STATES. 


Table  No.  89. — Mean  of  Air,  Terrestkial,  and  Soil  Thermometers  at  Auburn, 

Alabama,  in  1889. 

(Fahrenheit  °.) 


Mean 

Mean 

Mean  soil  temperatures  at  depth 

sof  : 

Month. 

air 
temp. 

ter. 
temp. 

Sins. 

1  ft. 

2  ft. 

3  ft. 

4  ft. 

5  ft. 

6  ft. 

7  ft. 

8  ft. 

January 

46.9  ■ 

39.7 

47.3 

46.7 

49.2 

50.8 

52.5 

53.6 

54.7 

55.9 

57.5 

February  . . 

40.3 

36.8 

46.8 

45.8 

47.7 

48.9 

50.3 

51.6 

52.4 

53.4 

55.0 

March 

54.7 

43.2 

56.4 

53  5 

53.4 

53.1 

5.3.2 

53.3 

53.3 

54.0 

54.8 

April 

62.5 

55.6 

67.2 

63.9 

62.6 

61.1 

60.9 

59.0 

i58.3 

58.2 

58.0 

May 

70.1 

57.2 

76  7 

73.9 

71.6 

69.3 

66.7 

65.4 

64.2 

63.3 

62.4 

June 

76.1 

65.8 

81.9 

78.3 

76.1 

74.0 

72.5 

70  6 

69.3 

68.5 

67.2 

July 

8n.7 

70.0 

86.6 

a3.3 

80  9 

78.7 

77.2 

74.7 

7.3.3 

72.5 

70.8 

August 

77.6 

67.5 

81.6 

79.3 

79.1 

78.3 

77  5 

76.4 

75.6 

75.0 

73.3 

September  . 

74.S 

65.2 

78.4 

77.0 

77.8 

77.2 

77.1 

77.8 

75.6 

75.0 

73.8 

October 

62.3 

49.5 

68.5 

67.1 

69.0 

68.3 

71.2 

72.3 

72.3 

72.2 

72.2 

November. . 

53.1 

42.9 

56.2 

56.2 

E9.6 

61.6 

63..') 

64.7 

65.7 

66.6 

67.0 

December . . 

57.8 

45.5 

57.9 

55.2 

56.7 

57.5 

58.7 

60.0 

60.5 

61.5 

62.9 

upland  may  be  briefly  referred  to.  Thus  it  is  found  that  the  same 
difference  exists  here  as  at  Fort  Collins  between  the  temperature  of 
upland  and  lowland  soil,  althoug-h  the  differences  at  usual  tempera- 
tures are  not  as  x^i'onounced  in  Alabama  as  in  Colorado.  But  when 
the  air  temperature  falls  below  about  40°,  at  times  the  soil  tempera- 
ture in  the  upper  layers  ranges  several  deg-rees  higher  in  the  bottom 
than  in  the  upland.  The  daily  range  of  the  bottom  land  is  also  less 
than  that  of  the  upland  in  winter,  though,  as  may  be  expected,  the 
daily  range  decreases  with  increase  of  depth. 

In  Table  No.  89  the  mean  air,  terrestrial,  and  soil  temperatures  are 
tabulated  for  the  twelve  months  of  1889.     In  this  series  the  soil-tem- 


Table  No.  90. — Comparison  op  the  Maximum  and  Minimum  Air  Temperature, 
OF  Terrestrial  Radiation,  Air  and  Soil  Thermometers,  by  Months  fob 
the  Year  1889  ;  at  Auburn,  Alabama. 

(Fahrenheit".) 


1889. 

£ 

"-5 

1 

S. 

c 
s 

1-5 

1-5 

c 

.a 
S 
B 

a, 
m 

c 
O 

1 
S 

> 

1 

1 

67.0 
51.0 

63.5 
52.5 
.53.5 
59.5 

33.0 
31.0 

33.5 
46.5 
51.5 
56.5 

75.0 
•66.5 

69.0 
57.0 
53.0 
56.5 

16.5 
34.0 

32.0 
44.0 
48.0 
54.5 

76.0 
54.0 

73.5 
.58.5 
56.5 
56.0 

30.0 
33.0 

37.0 
49  0 
50.5 
54.5 

83.0 
63.0 

82.5 
67.0 
63.0 
60.5 

38.0 
37.0 

4S.5 
58.0 
56.5 
54.0 

89.0 
63.0 

92.5 
76.5 
71.5 
62.5 

45.0 
43.0 

52.0 
64.5 
63.0 
60.0 

91.5 
74.0 

96.0 
80.0 
75.0 
69.0 

46  0 
43.0 

52.0 
68.5 
69.5 
65.5 

98-0 
73.5 

101  5 
86.0 
79  5 
73.0 

67.5 
60.0 

71.5 
77.0 
74.5 
69.0 

93.5 
73.5 

95.0 
82  0 
79.0 
73.5 

63.0 
63.0 

69.5 
78.0 
77.0 
73.0 

93.0 

78.0 

96.5 
89.5 
84.5 
76.5 

48.0 
48.0 

.54.5 
72.0 
75.0 
73  5 

83.0    76.0 

74.0 

60.0 

84  5 
74.0 
74  5 
74.5 

38.0 
36.0 

45.(1 
6-2.5 
67.0 
70.5 

60.0 

69  5 
65.5 
69  0 

70. C 

34.0 
33.0 

35.0 
.52.0 
58.0 
64.0 

59.5 

Max.  soil  tkm. 

Deiith  of  3  in 

Depth  of  2  ft  

69.0 
60  0 

Depth  of  4  ft 

Depth  of  8  ft     

60  5 
65.0 

39.0 

Min  ter.  ther 

Min.  soil  tem. 

Depth  of  3  in 

30.5 

35.0 

Depth  of  2  ft 

.50.0 

Depth  of  4  ft 

56.5 

Depth  of  8  ft 

62.0 

REMEDIES    FOK    FROST.  333 

perature  observations  are  carried  to  a  depth  of  8  feet,  which  is  con- 
siderably deeper  than  most  of  those  thus  far  made  here. 

In  Table  No.  90  the  maximum  and  minimum  air,  terrestrial,  and  soil 
temperatures  are  contrasted.  The  value  of.  this  tabulation  would  be 
g-reater  if  solar  radiation  were  included  ;  but  thus  far  solar  radiation 
observations  have  not  been  taken  at  the  Alabama  Station. 

The  foregoing-  tables,  from  78  to  90  inclusive,  together  with  the  anal- 
ysis of  the  same,  can  hardly  be  considered  other  than  a  very  inade- 
quate presentation  of  the  information  which  has  been  receutly  ac- 
quired in  this  country.  Of  necessitj^  the  discussion  and  tabulations 
have  been  considerably  condensed  in  order  to  bring-  them  within  the 
limits  of  a  single  chapter.  Observations  have  been  made  at  a  number 
of  places  in  addition  to  those  here  cited,  of  which  for  lack  of  space  no 
account  has  been  taken  in  this  paper.  Whoever  wishes  to  studj'  the 
question  at  length  will  do  well  to  consult  the  original  data  as  found  in 
the  annual  rejiorts  and  bulletins  of  the  several  Agricultural  Stations.* 

Remedies  for  Frost. 

The  foregoing  discussion  has  indicated  why  frost  will  probably  in 
the  colder  climates  of  this  country  interfere  with  the  successful  use  of 
broad  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration  in  extreme  winter  weather, 
and  we  may  next  inquire  what  remedies,  if  any,  can  be  applied.  To  this 
it  may  be  answered  that  it  is  doubtful  if  broad  irrigation  can  be  made 
to  work  at  all  when  mean  winter  temperatures  are  for  any  considerable 
period  much  below  about  20°  to  25°.  The  quality  of  the  soil  irrigated 
and  its  capacity  for  absorbing  and  retaining  heat  Avill,  however,  mate- 
rially influence  the  result ;  sandy,  gravelly  soils  undoubtedly  admitting 
of  successful  irrigation  at  lower  temperatures  of  the  air  than  clay  and 
humus.  The  amount  of  snow  will  be  also  to  some  extent  a  controll- 
ing factor.  In  regard  to  intermittent  filtration,  it  can  probably  be 
successfully  operated  by  good  management  down  to  a  mean  air  tem- 
perature of  about,  or  somewhat  below,  20°;  and  when  the  mean  falls 

*  The  chief  sources  of  information  for  the  preparation  of  this  chapter  have  been  : 

(1)  An.  Repts.  of  New  York  St.  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.  at  Geneva,  18S3-1S90. 

(2)  An.  Repts.  Penn.  St.  Col.,  1880-1890. 

(.3)  Bulletin  No.  7  of  the  Minn.  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,  Apr.,  1889. 

(4)  An.  Repts.   Maine  St.  Col.,  1SS9-1890. 

(5)  Fourth  and  Fifth  An.  Repts.  of  Neb.  Ag.  Ex.  Sta..  1890-1891. 

(6)  First,  Sec.  and  Third  An.  Repts.  of  Col.  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,  1888,  1889,  1890. 

(7)  Metcrological  Bulletins  of  the  Ala.  Ag.  Ex.  Sta..  1889,  1890,  1891. 

(8)  Second  An.  Rept.  of  the  South  Carolina  Ag.  Ex.  Sta.,   1889. 

The  authors  wish  to  especially  acknowled^'e  indebtedness  to  Dr.  Peter  Collier  of  the  New 
York  State  Station  at  Geneva,  to  Profi  ssor  Wm.  Frear,  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  College,  and  to 
Professor  Louis  (?.  Carpenter  of  the  Colorado  Station,  for  data  furnishe.l.  Also  to  the  directors 
of  several  of  the  other  stations,  virho  have  furnished  the  reports  and  bulletins  of  their  stations  as 
soon   as  published. 


334  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

much  lower  there  are  four  remedies  either  of  which  may  be  applied, 
namely  : 

(1)  At  the  approach  of  winter  to  cover  the  entire  area  with  boards. 

(2)  To  cover  a  portion  only,  as  for  instance  a  series  of  trenches,  at 
the  aj)proach  of  winter. 

(3)  To  artificially  warm  the  sewage  to  such  temperature  as  will  ad- 
mit of  filtering  without  freezing  under  extreme  climatic  conditions 
and  without  any  protective  covering  of  the  field. 

(4)  Where  the  topographical  conditions  admit  of  such  treatment  to 
lay  the  filtration  area  down  with  special  sand  trenches  and  permanent 
board  covering  as  illustrated  and  described  in  Part  II.  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Special  Report. 

As  indicated  in  the  i)receding  discussion  of  this  chapter,  and  also  in 
Chapter  XIY,,  the  areas  can  also  be  worked  continuously  during  ex- 
treme cold  weather,  though  with  the  chance  always  that  the  frost  may 
interfere  with  successful  operation.  For  an  absolute  guarantee  against 
interruj)tion  in  extreme  temperatures  either  the  protective  covering 
or  artificial  warming  may  be  used  ;  which  of  these  to  adopt  in  any 
locality  where  special  protection  of  some  kind  is  indicated,  will  be 
chiefly  a  question  of  comparative  cost. 

COMPAKATIVE  ESTIMATES. 

By  way  of  illustration  let  us  assume  favorable  conditions  for  the 
construction  of  high-grade  intermittent  filtration  areas ;  this  assump- 
tion implying  either  a  nearly  level  or  gently  sloping  original  natural 
surface  to  which  sewage  can  be  delivered  by  gravity.  Assume  coarse, 
clean  mortar  sand  within  such  reasonable  distance  as  to  admit  of  trans- 
porting and  placing  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  50  cents  per  cubic  yard. 
Also  assume  a  daily  flow  of  1,000,000  gallons,  which  at  80  gallons  per 
head  per  day  will  represent  the  sewage  of  12,500  people.  We  will 
further  assume  that  the  conditions  of  purification  will  be  satisfied 
when  filtering  at  the  maximum  rate  of  100,000  gallons  per  acre  per 
day.  At  this  rate  10  acres  will  be  required,  but  for  the  contingency  of 
allowing  an  occasional  rest  of  the  area  we  will  prepare  15  acres,  and  for 
liberal  surroundings  will  purchase  a  total  of  25  acres.  The  estimated 
cost  of  this  with  the  assumed  favorable  conditions  may  be  j)ut  at : 

25  acres  of  land  at  .§250 $6,250 

14  acres  leveled,  tyraded,  and  embanked,  at  $300 4,500 

15  acres  nnderdrained  to  depth  of  5  feet,  at  $250 3,750 

15  acres  furnished  with  coarse  sand  3  feet  deep  (50c.  per  cubic  yard),  at 

.$2.400 , ". 36,000 

Distribution  carriers,  tanks,  straining  arrangements,  etc 10,000 

Barns,  sheds,  team,  wagon,   tools,  etc 2,000 

Contingent  expense  about  12  per  cent 7,500 

Amount $70,000 


COMPAKATIVE    ESTIMATES.  335 

Annual  cost  of  operation  : 

1  foreman  at  S75  per  month §900 

4  laborers,  each  835  per  mouth 1,680 

Keejjiug  team,  repairs  of  tools,  etc 400 

Annual  cost  of  repairo  and  renewals 920* 

Amount S3, 900 

83,900  capitalized  at  4  per  cent 897,500 

Total  caijitalization 8167,500 

So  for  as  present  experience  can  guide  us  the  foregoing  may  be  con- 
sidered an  ample  estimate  of  the  cost  of  constructing  and  operating 
without  any  special  winter  protection  a  high-grade  filtration  area  of 
the  capacity  indicated,  favorable  conditions  being  as  stated  assumed. 
The  total  capitalized  investment  per  inhabitant  served  would  be 
($167,500  ^  12,500)  =  $13.-40. 

We  may  now  consider  the  addition  to  the  foregoing  caused  by  reason 
of  either  a  protective  winter  covering  of  the  area  or  by  artificial  warming. 

A  protective  covering  for  the  whole  area  will  require  the  providing 
and  renewing  of  the  necessary  lumber  for  covering,  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  sheds  for  storing  the  same  in  summer,  the  pro- 
viding of  the  labor  for  laying  down  the  covering  in  the  fall  and  taking 
up  and  storing  in  the  spring.  Tlie  first  cost  of  the  lumber  and  store 
sheds,  with  the  capitalization  of  renewals,  maintenance,  and  additional 
labor  will  constitute  the  addition  to  be  made  to  the  jDrevious  estimate 
in  order  to  obtain  the  total  capitalized  cost  under  the  new  conditions. 

We  have  assumed  that  the  conditions  of  purification  will  be  satisfied 
when  filtering  at  the  maximum  rate  of  100,000  gallons  per  acre  per 
day  ;  accordingly,  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  covering  for  only 
ten  acres.  The  amount  of  lumber  per  acre,  including  posts,  joists,  and 
deck  boards,  may  be  estimated  at  55,000  feet  B.  M.  We  have  then  as 
additional  first  cost  : 

55,000  ft.  B.  M.  coarse  lumber  at  816,  which  for  10  acres  amounts  to $  8,800 

Sheds  for  storing  same  during  summer 3,300 

Total  additional  first  cost  of  disposal  works 811,800 

Additional  annual  cost  of  operation  will  be  : 

Kenewal  of  lumber  and  store  sheds 8850 

Additional  labor  for  putting  down  and  taking  up  protective  cover- 
ing each  year  at  850  per  acre 500 

Total  additional  cost  of  operation 81,350 

SI, 350  capitalized  at  4  per  cent 833,750 

Total  additional  capitalization 8  45,550 

Bringing  forward  the  previous  capitalization  of 107.500 

Total  capitalization  including  protective  covering 8213,050 

*  This  amount,  with  the  allowance  of  $l,f>80.00  per  year  for  common  labor,  is  considered  sufficient 
to  not  only  provide  for  ordinary  repairs  and  renewals  of  buildings,  tools,  etc.,  but  to  further  admit 
of  chanfpn^  the  upper  'I  to  3  inches  of  sand  on  from  one  to  two  acres  each  year  ;  this  amount  of 
annual  renewal  of  sand  bein;^  considered  sufficient,  as  an  average,  in  view  of  the  liberal  i>rovi8ion 
of  surplus  area  which  has  Vjeen  made. 


336  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    Tisr    THE    UNITED   STATES. 

In  this  case  the  total  cost  per  inhabitant  served  will  be  ($213,050  -H 
12.500)  =  $17.14. 

For  covering  of  trenches  merely,  the  cost  of  lumber  and  store  sheds 
will  be  only  about  one-third  of  that  for  complete  covering  as  per  last 
estimate.  The  amount  of  labor,  however,  will  be  somewhat  greater, 
the  whole  cost  leading  to  a  final  capitalization  of  $201,000,  which 
represents  a  total  cost  per  inhabitant  of  $16.08.  The  advantage  of 
operation  will  probably  be  somewhat  in  favor  of  the  complete  cover- 
ing. 

For  the  case  of  artificial  warming  we  will  assume  that  the  climatic 
conditions  are  such  as  to  require  sewage  which  reaches  the  disposal 
works  in  winter  at  a  normal  temperature  of  45°  to  be  warmed  to  a 
temperature  of  65°  for  45  days.  1,000,000  gallons  daily  raised  from 
temperature  of  45°  to  65°  is  (1,000,000  x  8.34  x  20)  =  166,800,000  heat- 
units  required  per  day.  We  will  further  assume  the  evaporation  of 
10  pounds  of  water  from  212°  for  each  pound  of  coal  consumed  in  the 
furnace,  the  temperature  of  the  steam  to  be  high  enough  to  yield  at 
least  1,000  heat-units  per  pound  of  water  when  recondensed  in  the  ra- 
diating coils.  On  these  assumptions  10,000  heat-units  will  be  realized 
from  each  pound  of  coal  consumed  in  the  furnace.  The  dail}^  con- 
sumption of  coal  becomes  then  (166,000,000  4-  10,000)  =  16.600  pounds. 
Adding  to  this  for  warming  station,  operation  of  pump  for  returning 
water  of  condensation  to  boiler,  etc.,  and  we  reach  a  total  of  18,000 
pounds  =  9  net  tons,  as  the  daih'  use  of  coal  under  the  conditions  as- 
sumed. 

We  may  then  estimate  the  additional  first  cost  as  :  For  steam 
plant,  including  building,  coal  shed,  boilers,  foundations,  and  settings, 
connections,  return  pump  and  radiating  coil,  etc.,  complete,  at  $13,000. 

Additional  cost  of  operation,  on  an  average  will  be : 

9  net  tons  of  coal  per  day  for  45  days,  at  .S3.50  per  ton $1,417.50 

Additional  labor  for  45  days ^ 180.00 

Benewals  and  repairs  of  steam-heating  plant 600.00 

Total  additional  cost  of  operation $2, 197.50 

$2,197.50  capitalized  at  4  per  cent  gives $54,937. 50 

Amount $67,9.37.50 

Bring  forward  previous  capitalization 167,500.00 

Making  the  total  caj^italization  for  artificial  warming $235,437.50 

For  intermittent  filtration,  assisted  by  artificial  warming  in  winter, 
the  total  cost  per  inhabitant  served  will  therefore  be,  for  the  assumed 
case,  $18.84. 

For  complete  comparison  of  methods  of  sewage  disposal  we  may 


COMFAUATIYK    KSTOIATES.  387 

also  estimate  the  cost  of  purifying-  1,000,000  gallons  per  day  by  chemi- 
cal treatment.     For  such  works  the  estimate  may  stand  as  follows : 

6  acres  of  laud  at  §250 §1,250 

Disjjosal  works  jjlant,  including  buildings,  precipitation  tanks,  sludge 
press,  air  compressor,   grinding  and  mixing  macbiuerv,   pumps, 

etc.,  complete 30,000 

Contingent  expense,  about  12  per  cent 3,750 

Amount ." $35,000 

Annual  cost  of  operation  : 

Superintendent    at  .SlOO  per  moutb $1,200 

Steam  engineer,  fireman,  and  3  laborers  at  §225  per  month 2,700 

Fuel,  water,  oil,  and  waste 1,000 

365  million  gallons  of  sewage  treated  annually  at  S12  per  million 

gallons  for  cliemicals 1,380 

Disposal  of  sludge    300 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  buildings  and  plant 1,600 

Amount §11,180 

311,180  capitalized  at  1  per  cent 8279,500 

Total  capitalization §311,500 

For  chemical  purification  the  total  cost  per  inhabitant  served  is 
therefore  found  to  be,  under  the  assumed  conditions,  §25.16. 

For  intermittent  filtration  with  a  permanent  board  covering  of  spe- 
cially prepared  trenches,  as  i^er  experimental  field  at  Lawrence,  the 
comparative  estimate  of  first  cost  for  purification  of  1,000,000  gallons 
daily  may  stand  as  follows  : 

25  acres  of  land  at  §250   §6,250 

20  acres  underdrained  at  .§300  * 6,000 

For  excavating  trenches  2  feet  wide  and  2.5  feet  deep  in  20  aci'es,  includ- 
ing removal  of  suridus  material  (trenches  to  be  5  feet  apart),  1,630 

cu.  yds.  per  acre,  at  20c.  —  §326  per  acre §6,520 

For  replacing  the  excavated  material  from  said  trenches  with  coarse  sand 

at  50c.  per  cu.  yd.  20  acres,  at  .§815 16,300 

For  furnishing  and  laving  foi-  20  acres  the  permanent  board  covers  of  coarse 

lumber    =  360  M.  ft.B.  M.  at  §24 8,610 

Distribution  carriers,  tanks,  stiaining  arrangements,  etc 10.000 

Barn,  shed,  team,  wagon,  tools,  etc •. 2  000 

Contingent  expense,  about  12  per  cent 6,700 

Amount §62,500 

Annual  cost  of  operation  : 
For  this  svstem  the  total  mav  be  taken  at  §1,300,  which  capitalized  at  1  per 

ceiit  gives '. §107,500 

Total  capitalization §170,000 

*  In  tliis  ca.«ie  a  somewhat  greater  area  may  be  assumed  as  necessary  by  reason  of  only  a  portion 
of  thi'  total  content  of  soil  to  any  given  dejjth  l)eing  actr.alh'  in  service.  Tlie  cost  of  underdrain- 
ing  will  also  be  somewhat  greater  than  in  the  previous  c.ises,  due  to  greater  depth  of  excavation  re- 
quiring Ut  be  made.  In  the  previously  considered  cases  the  drains  are  considered  as  iai<l  after  the 
leveling  of  field  has  been  coni|)leteil  and  before  placing  of  the  3  feet  of  coarse  sand,  requiring  un- 
der these  conditions  only  2  feet  excavation  for  drains  to  be  at  depth  of  5  feet  when  area  was  com- 
plete. 

22 


'SSi>  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    TIIK    UXITED    STATES. 

From  which  we  deduce  a  total  cost  per  inhahitaiit  of  $13.60,  an 
amouut,  it  will  be  noted,  subtantially  the  same  as  for  iutermitteut  filtra- 
tion with  specially  prepared  sand  area,  without  any  protective  cover- 
ing. Moreover,  it  is  important  to  remember  that  this  estimate  pro- 
vides 20  acres  of  filtration  area,  which  gives,  when  the  whole  area  is 
in  service,  a  daily  mean  rate  per  acre  of  50,000  gallons. 

Although  not  necessary  for  the  arg-ument  we  may  still  properly  con- 
sider for  full  completion  of  the  subject  two  other  cases  in  intermittent 
filtration,  as  for  instance  :  (1)  When  good  material  is  so  entirely  avail- 
able i)i  situ  that  preparation  of  artificial  area  by  bringing  coarse  sand 
from  a  distance  is  unnecessary  ;  and  (2)  the  case  when  some  little  sort- 
ing and  selecting  of  material  at  hand  will  suffice  for  the  preparation  of 
an  eflicient  filtration  area.  We  will  base  our  estimates,  as  before,  on 
the  disposal  of  a  daily  flow  of  1,000,000  gallons. 

In  the  first  of  these  two  cases  we  will  assume  the  preparation  of  20 
of  the  25  acres  purchased  at  a  total  cost  of,  including  first  cost  of  land 
as  before,  together  with  levelling,  embanking,  underdraining,  con- 
struction of  barns  and  sheds,  teams,  wagons,  and  tools  and  for  contin- 
gent expense,  an  amount  of  $32,700.  Expense  of  operation  will  be  the 
same  as  in  the  previous  estimates ;  whence  we  reach  a  final  total  capi- 
talization of  $130,200,  which  gives  again  per  inhabitant  served,  $10.42. 
In  the  same  way  for  the  second  case  the  total  cost  per  inhabitant  will 
be  $11.42. 

Taking  into  account  all  of  the  foregoing  comparative  estimates 
it  appears  that  even  when  liberal  allowance  is  made  for  artificial 
warming,  which  is  also  found  to  be  the  most  expensive  method  of  in- 
suring successful  winter  purification  by  intermittent  filtration,  we  may 
still  purify  our  assumed  quantity  of  1,000,000  gallons  daily  flow  at  na 
greater  expense  than  by  chemical  treatment.  For  many  localities  the 
cost  of  intermittent  filtration  will  be  far  below  that  of  chemical  treat- 
ment. Indeed,  as  between  intermittent  filtration  with  artificial  warming 
in  winter  and  chemical  treatment  the  estimates  show  a  diff'erence  in 
total  cost  per  inhabitant  served  of  ($25.16  -  $18.84)  =  $6.32  in  favor  of 
the  intermittent  filtration.  We  must  remember,  however,  that  our  es- 
timate of  cost  of  an  intermittent  filtration  area  was  based  upon  fairly 
favorable  conditions  ;  if  we  assume  unfavorable  conditions  we  may  in- 
crease the  original  capitalized  cost  of  filtration  area  with  artificial 
warming  in  winter  from  $18.84  to  about  $22.00  per  inhabitant  served, 
which  still  leaves  a  balance  of  $3.16  in  favor  of  high-grade,  and  arti- 
ficially warmed,  intermittent  filtration. 

Again  if  we  refer  to  the  estimate  of  annual  cost  of  operation  with 
artificial  warming  it  will  be  observed  that  coal  is  estimated  at  $3.50 
per  ton,  whereas  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coal  regions  it  will  be  obtained 
at  considerably  less,  in  some  places  as  low  as  $1.25  per  net  ton.     On. 


DKDUCTION^S.  339 

the  other  hand,  a  few  of  the  items  of  cost  of  chemical  treatment  will 
probably  be  somewhat  less  than  used  in  the  estimates  in  many  lo- 
calities. 

As  a  general  statement  based  on  present  information  we  may  there- 
fore say  that  intermittent  filtration  under  the  most  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances and  in  the  severe  climate  of  our  northern  winters  will  not 
exceed,  when  all  the  items  are  taken  into  the  account,  the  cost  of  puri- 
fication by  chemical  treatment.  This  statement,  it  will  be  remembered, 
is  based  upon  delivery  of  the  sewage  at  the  purification  area  or  station 
by  gravity.  In  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  include  the  additional 
cost  of  pumping  to  an  elevated  filtration  area  the  balance,  as  a  matter 
of  total  capitalization,  may  be  in  favor  of  chemical  purification. 

Again  no  account  is  taken  of  relative  length  of  main  outfall  sewer 
required  to  reach  the  point  where  the  purification  is  applied,  the  as- 
sumption being  the  use  of  the  same  location  in  either  case.  Expe- 
rience indicates,  however,  that  frequently  the  finding  of  a  favorable 
filtration  area  necessitates  going  further  away  than  for  the  location  of 
a  cliemicid  purification  station.  In  such  cases  with  relative  costs  of 
outfall  sewer  included  in  the  capitalization  the  balance  may  also  as 
a  matter  of  total  cost  lie  in  favor  of  chemical  purification. 

The  present  discussion  is  not  concerned,  except  incidentally,  with 
the  comparative  efficiency  of  the  various  methods  of  sewage  purifica- 
tion —  the  Lawrence  experiments  appear  conclusive  on  that  point ; 
and  it  may  be  merely  remarked  that  the  chemical  treatment  obtained 
at  the  foregoing  expense  would  be  somewhat  less  efficient  than  that 
obtained  by  intermittent  filtration  even  in  winter ;  for  the  whole 
season  the  mean  efficiency  of  the  chemical  treatment  would  be  far 
below  that  of  the  intermittent  filtration. 

Deductions. 

In  conclusion,  by  way  of  summary,  we  may  say : 

(1)  That  any  place  with  a  mean  temperature  of  the  air  for  the  cold- 
est winter  month  not  lower  than  about  20°  to  25°  F.,  and  with  sewage 
distiil)uted  to  the  purification  area  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than 
-1")'  F.,  the  purification  of  sewage  b^^  broad  irrigation  may  probably  be 
effected  without  serious  interruption  from  frost,  although  winter  puri- 
fication will  be  somewhat  less  efficient  than  that  during  the  warm 
months.  Below  a  mean  temperature  of  20"  to  25°  ¥.  purification  by 
broad  irrigation  will  probably  be  interrupted  considerably  by  frost. 

(2)  Purification  by  intermittent  filtration  can  probably  be  sucess- 
fully  worked  at  a  lowc!r  temperature  than  broad  irrigation.  As  a  safe 
limit  we  may  set  the  lowest  mean  air  temperature  at  about  18°  to 
20°  F. 


340  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

(3)  The  quality  and  temperature  of  the  soil  to  be  used  will  materially 
iutlueiice  the  result,  and  before  deciding  what  can  be  reasonably  ex- 
pected in  any  given  locality  we  need  to  know  the  physical  properties 
of  the  soil  to  be  used  as  well  as  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  dur- 
ing- the  winter  months. 

(4)  As  a  corollary  to  (3)  we  may  say  that  sandy  soils  are  preferable 
for  broad  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration,  not  only  on  account  of 
their  open  texture,  but  because  of  their  greater  capacity  for  retaining 
heat ;  clay  and  humus  are,  on  the  contrary,  the  poorest  soils  for  this 
purpose  by  reason  of  their  relatively  low  capacity  for  retaining  heat. 
The  close  texture  of  clay  also  constitutes  another  serious  objection  to 
its  use.*  The  great  desideratum  of  successful  sewage  disposal  by 
broad  irrigation  or  intermittent  filtration  in  winter  is  a  medium  which, 
acting  in  conjunction  with  the  water,  will  prolong  to  the  utmost  limit 
the  time  of  congelation.  Sand  answers  to  this  condition  better  than 
any  other  material. 

(5)  The  capacity  of  a  filtration  area  to  absorb  and  retain  heat  in  win- 
ter will  be  increased  by  making  the  upper  surface  an  inch  or  two  in 
depth  of  coarse  black  sand  or  dark-colored  gravel. 

(6)  It  appears  that  the  climate  of  the  greater  portion  of  the  United 
States  will  admit  of  ordinary  open  intermittent  filtration  in  the  aver- 
age winter.  Exceptions  to  this  are  however  found  in  portions  of  the 
northern  belt  of  States. 

(7)  In  general  we  may  say  that  in  any  of  the  Middle,  Central,  and 
Southern  States  a  very  efficient  purification  can  be  attained  by  broad 
irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

*  There  is  a  reason,  however,  why  clay  may  be  of  vahie  as  a  sewage  purification  medium,  namely, 
its  peculiar  behavior  with  reference  to  urine. 

Professor  Way,  in  his  investigation  on  the  Power  of  Soils  to  Absorb  Manure,  Jour.  Roy.  Ag. 
Soc.  of  Eng. ,  vol.  xi.,  p.  SiiB,  describes  the  following  experiment  : 

Three  quantities  of  fre.sh  mine  of  2.000  grains  each,  were  measured  out  into  similar  glasses. 
With  one  portion  its  own  weight  of  white  sand  was  mixed  ;  with  another  its  own  weight  of  white 
clay  ;  the  third  being  left  without  admixture  of  any  kind.  When  smelt  immediately  after  mixt- 
ure, the  sand  appeared  to  have  no  effect,  while  the  clay  mixture  had  entirely  lost  the  smell  of 
urine.  The  three  glasses  were  covered  lightly  with  paper,  and  put  in  a  warm  place,  being  ex- 
amined from  time  to  time.  In  a  few  hours  it  was  found  that  the  urine  containing  sand  had  be- 
come slightly  putrid  ;  then  followed  the  natural  urine ;  but  the  quantity  with  which  the  clay  had 
been  mixed  did  not  become  putrid  at  all,  and  at  the  end  of  seven  or  eight  weeks  it  had  only  the  pe- 
culiar smell  of  fresh  urine,  without  the  slightest  putridity.  The  surface  of  tlie  clay,  however,  be- 
came afterward  covered  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  confervse,  which  did  not  happen  in  the  other 
glasses. 

Professor  Way  likewise  found  that  filtering  urine  through  clay  prevented  putrefaction  and  kept 
the  urine  as  if  fresh  for  a  month  or  more. 

Professor  S.  VV.  Johnson,  cites  the  foregoing  experiment  of  Professor  Way  in  his  How  Crops 
Peed  (p.  o93),  and  discusses  at  length  the  conditions  under  which  the  nitrogen  of  urine  is  absorbed 
and  assimilated  by  vegetation.  As  the  result  of  his  own  and  the  researches  of  other  agricultural 
chemists  whose  investigations  are  cited,  Professor  Johnson  concludes  that  it  is  not  necessary 
for  the  nitrogen  of  urine  to  undergo  nitrification,  but  that  immediately,  or  after  undergoing 
a  slight  but  easy  alteration,  it  may  bo  taken  up  and  assimilated  by  growing  plants.  The  absence 
of  bad  smells  from  well-managed  sewage  farms  is  probably  largely  explained  by  Professor  Way's 
experiments. 


DEDUCTIONS.  341 

(8)  111  localities  where  the  climate  is  too  severe  for  purificatioii  by 
ordinary  open  intermittent  filtration  the  efficiency  of  the  process  may 
be  considerably  increased  by  covering  the  area,  either  partially  or 
wholly,  or  by  artificially  warming-  the  sewag-e  before  application. 

(9)  Other  things  being  equal  purification  by  high-grade  intermittent 
filtration  is  cheaper  than  purification  by  chemical  precipitation.  As  a 
general  statement  we  may  say  that  this  still  holds  true  even  in  severe 
winter  climates  where  special  protection  of  the  filter  area  or  artificial 
warming  is  required. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ON  BEGGIATOA  ALBA  AND  ITS  RELATION  TO  SEWAGE  EFFLUENTS. 

Mr.  a.  W.  Bennett  lias  given  in  a  paper  on  "  Fungi  Found  in  Sew- 
age Effluents,"  read  before  the  American  Society  of  Microscopists  in 
1884,  an  account  of  Beggiaioa  alba  as  developing  in  immense  quantities 
in  several  sewage  effluents  in  England.  Inasmuch  as  this  organism  is 
found  in  this  country  a  short  account  in  the  way  of  extracts  from  some 
of  the  literature  may  be  properly  given  in  this  place.  Mr.  Bennett 
says : 

This  organism  occurs  abundantly  in  the  effluent  water  from  sewage  works,  and  is 
well  known  to  English  sanitary  engineers  under  the  name  of  the  "  sewage  fungus." 
It  forms  dense,  flocculent,  grayish-white  masses  attached  to  the  bottom  and  side  of 
the  channel,  or  to  ordinary  green  algse.  Under  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to  consist 
of  an  immense  quantity  of  colorless  threads,  with  but  little  or  no  chlorophyll,  full 
of  granular  protoplasm,  and  containing  a  number  of  bright,  strongly  refractive, 
globular  particles';  it  is  the  Deggidtoa  alba  of  Vaucher,  but  differs  slightly  from 
the  typical  form  described  by  Zopf  (Spalt-i^ilze,  p.  7G).  The  filaments  are 
branched,  either  dichotomously  or  laterally,  and  situated  either  at  the  base  of  the 
branches  or  elsewhere,  and  the  cells  are  frequently  remarkably  constricted,  both 
above  and  below  the  septa.  The  globular  refringent  particles  have  been  determined 
by  German  experimenters  to  consist  of  pure  sulphux",  and  are  most  commonly  situ- 
ated immediately  below  each  sejitum,  but  sometimes  towards  the  centre  ^f  a  cell, 
or  more  generally  diffused. 

The  systematic  position  of  Beggiatoa  is  somewhat  obscure.  Zopf  places  it,  with- 
out hesitation,  among  the  lowest  section  of  fungi,  the  Schizomycetes,  which  form 
one  division  of  Sachs'  primary  class  of  Protophyta.  It  may,  in  fact,  be  regarded 
as  the  Leptothrix  condition  of  an  organism  of  this  class,  having  also  its  corre- 
sjionding  bacillus,  coccus,  and  si^irillum  conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  it  apjjears 
to  be  closely  allied  to  the  Oscillatorite  through  Crenothrix. 

The  source  of  the  globules  of  sulphur  contained  in  this  organism  is  a  very  in- 
teresting question.  The  Beggiatoa  is  not  necessarily  indicative  of  partially  decom- 
posed sewage  ;  it  occurs  also  in  the  effluent  water  from  manufactories,  especially 
from  sugar  factoi'ies,  tanneries,  etc.,  thermal  sulphur  springs,  as  well  as  in  drains. 
Luerssen  (Die  Kryptogamen,  -p.  24),  gives  as  its  habitat  putrid  water,  noisome 
ditches,  the  effluents  of  manufactories  and  mineral  springs,  especially  all  thermal 
sulphur  springs,  as  those  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  Aix  la  Chapelle,  baths  of 
Vienna,  etc.  It  appears,  therefore,  to  have  the  power  of  extracting  siilphur,  not 
only  from  decomposing  organic  matter,  but  also  from  the  mineral  sulphates  dis- 
solved in  spring  water.  Sulphur  may  be  set  free  in  this  way  by  the  mutual  de- 
composition of  soluble  sulphides  and  siilphites.  Independently  of  the  source  of 
sulphur  in  the  organic  matter  jiresent  in  the  sewage  itself  there  is  an  abundant 
supply  of  this  element  in  the  substances  used  for  purifying  or  i^recipitating  the 
sewage,  which  are  usually  sulphate  of  alumina,  lime,  and  jsroto-phosphate  of  iron. 

The  growth  of  the  so-called  "  sewage  fungus"  must  undoubtedly,  therefore,  be 
regarded  as  evidence  of  the  presence  in  the  water  of  an  abnormal  amount  of  sul- 
phates, derived  either  directly  from  sewage  or  from  the  .substances  used  in  precipi- 


ON    BEGGIATOA    ALBA.  843 

tating  it,  or  in  other  ways  in  manufactories.  But  there  seems  no  reason  to  believe 
that  it  will  itself  have  any  injurious  effects  on  the  water.  It  is  difficult  to  see  how 
the  sulphur,  once  set  free,  can  again  combine  with  hydrogen  to  form  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  gas  as  long  as  the  organism  is  growing  in  the  water.  Indeed,  ii  allowed 
to  accumulate  and  periodically  removed,  it  may  tend  to  purify  the  water  by  ab- 
stracting from  it  some  of  the  undiie  proportion  of  sulphur. 

At  the  Merton  sewage  disposal  works  of  the  Croydon,  England, 
Piural  Sanitary  Authority,  the  Beygiatoa  alha  has  been  the  subject  of 
interesting  legal  proceedings.  The  outfall  from  these  works  discharges 
into  a  large  pond  at  the  head  of  a  bye-wash  from  whence  the  effluent 
flows  into  the  river  Wandle.  After  the  discharge  into  the  pond  had 
continued  for  some  time,  complaints  were  made  by  adjoining  pro- 
prietors that  the  pond  had  become  the  source  of  a  serious  effluvium 
nuisance,  and  one  of  the  riparian  owners  sought  to  restrain  the  Sani- 
tary Authority  from  discharging  the  effluent  into  the  j)Ool.  An  exam- 
ination disclosed  the  fact  that  Jjeggiatoa  grew  extensively  in  the 
underdrains  and  was  constantly  breaking  away  and  flowing  out  in 
the  effluent,  accompanied  by  enormous  quantities  of  vorticella. 

Mr.  Justice  Denman,  who  before  deciding  the  case  himself  actually 
viewed  the  alleged  nuisance,  in  his  decree,  says  : 

The  water  which  flows  into  the  bye-wash  (and  here  I  sj^eak  partly  from  personal 
observation)  contains  in  it  a  very  large  quantity  of  what  is  called  sewage-fungus. 
The  evidence  about  that  substance  was  interesting  and  curious.  ...  It  was  said 
to  be  without  odor  whilst  alive,  but  when  dead  to  be  capable  of  giving  off  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  and  so  becoming  foul  to  the  nose.  My  own  observation  of 
what  was  happening  last  Tuesday,  coupled  with  the  aj)pearances  in  the  jjond  itself, 
and  the  evidences  of  the  witnesses,  entirely  confirms  this  account.  ...  I  liave 
no  doubt  whatever  that  that  pond,  which  was  proved  to  have  been  clear  within  the 
last  four  or  five  years,  and  good  for  perch,  has  been  turned  into  a  very  filthy  pond 
mainly  by  this  agency.  .  .  .  It  is,  I  think,  as  plain  as  anything  can  be,  that  a 
continual  discharge,  such  as  I  myself  saw  running  into  the  pond  in  large  quantities,  is 
"  1  discharge  of  sewage  or  filthy  water  "  not  free  from  all  foul  or  noxious  matters, 
such  as  would  affect  or  deteriorate  the  purity  and  quality  of  the  water  in  the  bye- 
wasli,  but  that  it  has  seriously  affected  and  deteriorated  it,  and  must  inevitably  do 
so. 

A  decree  of  |)erpetual  injunction  was  granted,  restraining  the  Sani- 
tary Authority  froui  polluting  the  pond  and  imposing  a  fine  of  $1,000. 
To  obviate  this  difficulty  fungus  filters  were  constructed,  and  the  Sani- 
tary Authority  acquired  the  pond  and  the  upper  part  of  the  b^'e-wash. 


CHAPTEK  XIX. 

THE  EFFECT   OF  THE   POLLUTION  OF  STREAMS  BY  MANUFACTUR- 
ING WASTES  UPON  THE  LIFE  OF  FISH. 

This  division  of  our  subject,  while  of  considerable  importance,  has 
furnished  as  yet  comparatively  little  detailed  information  upon  which 
to  base  conclusions.  The  principal  investigations  thus  far  are :  (1) 
Those  of  Penny  and  Adams  in  Scotland ;  (2)  those  of  Saare  and 
Schwab  in  Germany,  and  (3)  a  few  made  under  the  direction  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commissioner  in  this  countr}^  The  following 
g-ives  some  of  the  more  important  results  of  Penny  and  Adams'  exper- 
iments. 

Penny  and  Adams'  Experiments.* 

In  order  to  determine  the  effect  of  various  substances  upon  fish, 
two  kinds  were  selected,  namely,  the  minnow  and  the  goldfish.  These 
iwo  kinds  of  fish  are  stated  to  possess  difterent  temperaments,  the 
minnow  being  remarkable  for  its  delicate  vitality  and  for  the  fine 
sensibility  it  evinces  toward  all  kinds  of  disturbing  influences ;  the 
goldfish,  on  the  other  hand,  is  comparatively  tenacious  of  life,  and 
possesses  a  sluggishness  of  nature  that  permits  sufficient  length  of 
time  for  observing  the  action  of  poisonous  agents. 

Before  beginning  the  experiments,  a  sufficient  stock  of  fish  Avas  se- 
cured and  stored  under  such  conditions  as  to  satisfy  the  experimenters 
that  the  fish  to  be  experimented  upon  were  in  a  healthy  state. 

The  experiments  included  a  trial  of  a  number  of  the  acids,  sulphuric, 
nitric,  muriatic,  etc.;  of  the  mineral  salts,  sulphate  of  copper,  chloride 
of  lime,  acetate  of  lime,  etc.;  the  special  chemicals,  chlorine,  iodine, 
etc.;  of  sumach,  madder,  logwood,  etc.;  and  various  miscellaneous  pol- 
luting matters,  such  as  furnace-cinders,  blood,  and  coal-tar. 

Of  the  mineral  acids,  the  nitric  and  sulphuric,  when  present  in  the 
proportion  of  1  part  to  50,000,  killed  minnows ;  but  goldfish  lived  in 
the  same  proportion.  In  muriatic  acid,  both  lived  in  a  mixture  of  1 
part  to  50,000. 

Tannic  acid  killed  a  minnow  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  to  14,000, 
and  a  goldfish  with  1  part  to  7,000.  In  gallic  acid,  1  part  to  7,000, 
both  died,  while  in  1  part  to  14,000  both  lived. 

*  Fourth  Report  of  the  Rivers  Polhition  Commission,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  377-391. 


PENNY   AND   ADAMS'    EXPERIMENTS. 


345 


In  acetic  acid,  a  minnow  lived  20  hours  before  succumbing  in  a  mixt- 
ure of  1  part  to  8,750  ;  a  goldfish  lived  in  a  proportion  of  1  part  in 
3,500  for  20  hours,  and  survived. 

In  carbolic  acid,  a  minnow,  in  one  case,  subjected  to  the  action  of  1 
l^art  in  70,000,  died  in  40  minutes.  A  goldfish  died  in  1  part  in  3,000 
but  lived  in  one  part  in  7,000. 

The  most  virulent  of  the  metallic  salts  was  sulphate  of  copper.  Both 
minnows  and  goldfish  died  in  a  mixture  of  1  part  in  100,000  :  both 
lived  in  a  mixture  of  1  part  in  200,000. 

Sugar 'of  lead,  alvim,  salts  of  iron  and  potash  are  all  destructive  of 
fish  life  in  about  the  same  proportion,  namely  1  part  in  4,000.  The 
salts  of  potash,  the  bicarbonate,  red  prussiate,  and  yellow  prassiate 
are  comparatively  harmless  ;  both  kinds  of  fish  lived  in  all  these  in  a 
mixture  of  1  part  in  500.  With  carbonate  of  soda  a  minnow  died  in  1 
part  in  17,500,  and  lived  in  1  part  in  35,000 ;  a  goldfish  lived  in  1  part 
in  17.500. 

In  a  saturated  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  a  minnow  died  in  1  part  in 
16,000  ;  both  lived  in  1  part  in  21,000. 

In  a  saturated  solution  of  chlorine  both  lived  in  1  jjart  in  2,000. 
Iodine  and  bromine  killed  in  a  mixture  of  1  part  in  35,000. 

Caustic  potash,  when  present  in  1  part  in  35,000,  destroyed  a  minnow ; 
a  goldfish  was  destroyed  by  1  part  in  7,000,  but  lived  in  1  part  in  35,000. 

Galls  killed  a  minnow  in  1  part  in  2,808,  and  goldfish,  1  part  in  930. 

Sumach  and  madder  solutions  both  killed  a  minnow  1  part  in  7,000. 
In  sumach  solution  a  goldfish  lived  in  1  part  in  7,000,  but  in  madder 
of  the  same  strength  died. 

In  boiled  logwood  chips  both  kinds  of  fish  lived  in  1  part  in  2,800 ; 
in  logwood  extract  both  lived  in  1  part  in  8,750. 

Linseed  oil  was  found  entirel}'  innocuous  as  regards  fish  life. 

In  a  solution  of  crude  soap,  1  part  in  8,750,  a  goldfish  lived  for 
twenty  hoiirs  and  showed  no  after  ill  effects ;  in  double  that  strength  a 
strong  fish  died  in  six  hours. 

Table  No.  91.— General  Results  op  Penny  and  Adams'  Experiments  on  Fish. 


Clai.8  of  agentB. 


Water  

AcidR 

Metallic  salts 

S|H>cial  chernicalrt. 

Drysalteries 

MiRcellaneniig 

Waste  discharRe  . . 

Totals 


No.  of 
agent-s. 


No.  of 
fish. 


6 

n 

16 

7 

10 

n 

10 


.3(i 
35 
61 
30 
i:« 
77 
37 

4i8 


Total  Nc 

.  of  fish. 

Died. 

Lived. 

36 

3.5 

20 

28 

3a 

23 

7 

20 

112 

60 

117 

8 

29 

174 

254 

Goldfish. 


3 
15 
13 

3 
38 
13 
20 

105 


Minnows. 


Died. 

Lived. 

3 

22 

6 

24 

20 

16 

4 

12 

74 

49 

4 

7 

2 

130 

119 

346  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Aslies  and  ordinary  furnace  cinders  were  found  to  be  specially  dele- 
terious. With  500  grains  of  furnace  ashes  to  a  gallon  of,  or  1  part  to 
140,  water  a  minnow  died  in  45  minutes  and  a  vigorous  goldfish  in  five 
and  one-half  hours. 

Coal-tar  killed  a  goldfish  in  1  part  in  8,750. 

Heavy  pitch-oil  killed  both  minnow  and  goldfish,  1  part  in  35,000 ;  a 
goldfish  lived  1  j^art  in  70,000.  In  naphtha  a  minnow  lived  in  1  part  in 
8,750. 

The  general  results  of  these  experiments  are  given  in  Table  No.  91. 

Saare  and  Schwab's  Experiments. 

Saare  and  Schwab  experimented  upon  tench  and  trout.  They  found 
that  liquids  containing  from  0.04  to  0.005  of  one  per  cent,  of  a  bleach- 
ing solution  were  fatal  to  tench,  while  a  solution  of  0.0008  were  fatal  to 
trout.  The  action  of  the  chlorine,  which  is  the  destructive  agent  in 
bleach  liquids,  was  found  to  be  increased  by  the  presence  of  an  acid. 

Mercuric  chloride  was  fatal  in  proportions  of  0.1  to  0.05  of  one  per 
cent.  Copper  sulphate  in  0.1  and  1.0  per  cent,  killed  trout  in  a  few 
minutes.  Potassium  cyanide  killed  in  the  iDroportion  of  0.01  to  0.005 
per  cent. 

Carbolic  acid  was  found  fatal  to  trout  in  proportions  between  0.01 
and  0.005  per  cent.* 

Experiments  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission. 

A  number  of  papers  in  regard  to  the  influence  of  the  pollution  of 
streams  upon  the  fisheries  have  appeared  in  the  publications  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  the  more  important  of  w^hich  are  as 
follows  : 

(1)  A  translation  of  a  paper  on  The  Injurious  Influence  on  Piscicult- 
ure of  the  Betting  Water  of  Flax  and  Hemp,  by  E.  Reichard,  of  Jena,t 
in  which  are  given  the  results  of  a  series  of  experiments  on  the  immer- 
sion of  a  tender  fish,  like  the  whiting  as  found  in  the  river  Salle,  and 
a  less  delicate  fish,  the  bastard  carp,  in  mixtures  of  various  proportions 
of  clear  water  and  retting  water.  The  retting  water  used  was  obtained 
by  soaking  flax  5  days. 

In  1  part  retting  water  and  3  parts  running  water  the  fish  immedi- 
ately showed  signs  of  uneasiness  and  both  died  in  the  course  of  12 
hours.  A  repetition  of  the  experiment  gave  the  result  that  the  fish 
died  in  3  hours. 

A  large  bastard  carp  lived  in  a  3  to  1  mixture  for  two  days,  but  lost 

*For  Saare  and  Schwab's  experiments  in  detail,  see  Archiv  fiir  Hygiene,  vol.  lit.,  Part  I.,  p.  81. 
+  Ann.  Rept  U.  S.  Pish  Commissioner,  1880,  pp  545-550. 


EXPERIMENTS   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES   FISH   COMMISSION.     847 

its  color  and  gradually  grew  weaker;  and  although  again  placed  in 
running  water,  died  after  8  days. 

In  1  part  retting-  water  and  9  parts  running  water  the  fish  quickly 
showed  signs  of  sickness.  After  24  hours  in  the  mixture,  they  were 
again  placed  in  running-  water,  where  they  died  in  a  few  days. 

In  1  part  retting  water  and  2  parts  running  water  small  fish  died 
very  soon.  A  large  bastard  carp  was  at  the  point  of  death  in  42  hours  ; 
it  was  then  removed  and  placed  in  pure  running-  water,  where  it  par- 
tially recovered,  but  died  in  two  weeks. 

In  a  mixture  of  1  part  retting  water,  14  days  old,  and  4  parts  fresh 
water  the  fish  died  in  36  hours. 

Fish  placed  in  a  mixture  of  1  part  retting  water,  3  weeks  old,  and  4 
parts  fresh  water  became  sick  and  changed  their  color,  but  revived  on 
transfer  to  fresh  water  after  a  few  days. 

(2)  In  a  report  by  Marshall  McDonald,  on  the  Pollution  of  the  Poto- 
mac river  by  the  Discharge  of  Waste  Products  from  Gas  Manufacture,* 
the  point  is  made  that  even  though  the  discharge  of  the  waste  products 
should  seem  to  have  no  injurious  effect  in  driving  the  larger  fish  away, 
yet  such  discharge  and  the  consequent  deposits  upon  the  bottom  may, 
by  destroying  their  food,  make  impossible  the  development  and  growth 
of  young  fish.  In  the  case  examined  the  discharge  into  the  river 
amounted  to  at  least  100  gallons  per  minute  of  the  waste  products  of 
gas  manufacture  ;  and  the  conclusion  at  which  Mr.  McDonald  arrives 
is  that  the  bottom  of  the  stream  is  affected  by  the  deposited  matter 
for  a  distance  of  several  miles. 

(3)  A  report  was  by  Mr.  McDonald  upon  the  Effect  of  AVaste 
Products  from  Page's  Ammoniacal  Works  upon  Young  Shad  Fry.f 

A  series  of  experiments  were  made  with  mixtures  of  the  wastes  from 
the  Ammoniacal  Works  in  Potomac  river  water  of  various  degrees  of 
strength,  with  the  result  of  showing  that  a  distinctly  deleterious  influ- 
ence is  exerted  when  the  waste  products  are  present  to  the  amount  of 
1  gallon  to  400  gallons  of  the  river  water.  The  following  gives  the 
detail  of  the  three  last  experiments  of  the  series : 

One  hundred  newly  hatched  shad  were  put  in  20  ounces  of  mixture, 
0.5  per  cent,  strength  (  |  part  refuse  and  991  parts  water)  at  2  p.m., 
June  2;  at  6  p.m.,  9  fish  dead;  6  a.m.,  June  3,  16  fish  dead;  6  a.m., 
June  4,  25  fish  dead,  and  remainder  weak ;  0  p.m.,  June  6,  all  dead. 

One  hundred  newly  hatched  shad  were  put  in  20  ounces  of  mixture, 
0.25  per  cent,  strength  (0.25  part  refuse  and  99.75  parts  water)  at  2  p.m., 
June  2  ;  at  0  P.M.,  all  well ;  6  a.m.,  June  3,  four  fish  dead  ;  6  a.m.,  June 
5,  16  fish  dead  ;  6  p.m.,  Juue  6,  57  fish  dead  ;  6  a.m.,  June  7,  all  dead. 

One  hundred  newly  hatched  shad  were  put  in  20  ounces  of  Potomac 

*  Bulletin  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  vol.  v.,  pp.  125-126. 
i  Bulletin,  etc.,  voL   v.,  pp.  313-iil4. 


348  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

water  at  2  p.m.,  June  2 ;  but  few  were  alive  at  noon  on  June  8,  and  the 
few  showed  but  little  vitality. 

Mr.  McDonald  observes  that  newly  hatched  shad  are  much  less  sensi- 
tive to  the  injurious  influences  in  the  water  in  which  they  are,  than  are 
the  same  fish  after  their  sacs  have  been  absorbed  and  they  have  begun 
feeding. 

It  is  also  suggested  that  the  minute  food  of  young  shad  is  more 
sensitive  to  injurious  iufluence'fe  than  are  the  young  fish  which  feed 
upon  them. 

The  authors'  observations  upon  the  haunts  of  minute  life  of  various 
kinds  is  corroborative  of  this  observation,  and  undoubtedly  one  very 
marked  effect  of  stream  pollution,  as  regards  the  life  of  fish,  is  the 
driving  away  or  destruction  of  many  kinds  of  favorite  food. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  alewives,  which  are  epecially  sensitive 
to  sewage  pollution,  will  live  in  perfect  health  for  an  indefinite  period 
in  the  efiiuents  from  intermittent  sand  filters.  The  same  fish  died 
when  placed  for  a  short  time  in  the  efiiuents  from  chemical  processes. 


CHAPTER  XX. 
CONCLUSIONS  TO  PART  I. 

The  Royal  Commission  on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Discharge  remarks 
in  its  second  report  that  the  satisfactor}"  solution  of  sewage  disposal 
problems  is  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty.  The  additional  remark 
may  be  properly  made  that  sewage  disposal  will  always  be  a  matter 
of  considerable  expense.  As  a  problem  in  economics,  therefore,  the 
question  may  be  stated  somewhat  as  follows : 

Having  given  a  specific  case  ofseioajcje  disposal,  it  is  required  to  determine 
the  method  of  treatment  or  ^purification  ivhich  ivill  best  satisfy  all  the  attend- 
ant sanitary  conditions  whatever  they  may  be  ;  expense  so  far  as  compatible 
ivith  the  foregoing  to  be  kept  at  a  minimum. 

When  stated  in  tliis  form  it  at  once  becomes  apparent  that  the  so- 
lution of  sewage  disposal  problems  will  require  the  highest  skill  of 
trained  sanitary  specialists. 

As  regards  the  various  methods  of  disposal  discussed  in  the  preced- 
ing chapters  it  may  be  stated  by  way  of  final  conclusion,  that : 

(1)  Discharge  into  tidal  or  other  large  body  of  water  will  be  ordi- 
narily, independent  of  other  considerations,  the  cheapest  method  of 
dis]iosal.  Such  discharge  should  never  be  permitted  into  bodies  of 
fit'sh  water  which  are  the  sources  of  public  water-supplies  at  any  point 
within  the  influence  of  the  sewage.  The  range  of  intiuence  in  streams 
has  been  defined  in  general  terms  in  the  preceding  chapters. 

Moreover,  in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results  from  the  self-purifica- 
tion processes,  the  quantity  of  water  into  which  raw  sewage  is  dis- 
charged should  always  be  large  enough  to  dilute  the  sewage  from 
thirty  to  fifty-fold.* 

(•2)  Sewage  may  be  greatly  improved  by  chemical  treatment  but  we 
have  as  yet  no  reason  for  supposing  either  that  chemically  purified 
sewage  is  fit  to  drink  or  even  that  it  may  be  safely  permitted  to  fiow 
into  streams  used  as  public  water-supplies.  Other  things  being  equal, 
the  expense  of  chemical  purification  will  be  greater  than  that  of  either 
broad  irrigation  or  intermittent  filtration. 

AVitli  reference  to  Anua-iean  conditions  it  may  be  stated  as  a  general 

*See  Eng.  Record,  vol.  xxvi.,  No.  24  (Nov.   1-',  1S9J),  p.  380,    "Purification  of  Sewage  by  Mi- 
crobes." 


350  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

proposition  that  chemical  treatment  only  applies  in  those  places  where 
land  purification  is  impracticable. 

(3)  Broad  irrigation  offers  a  rational  and  efiicient  method  of  sewage 
purification,  although  the  relatively  high  price  of  common  labor  in 
this  country  will  limit  its  application  here.  The  use,  however,  of  the 
silo  for  preserving  the  large  forage  crops  naturally  produced  by 
sewage  farming,  and  the  consequent  extension  to  dairying,  will  be 
likely  to  lead  to  its  gradual  adoption  in  the  more  thickly  settled  por- 
tions of  the  country.  In  the  arid  regions  of  the  AVest  the  scarcity  of 
water  has  already  led  to  a  considerable  development  of  sewage  irriga- 
tion, as  we  have  indicated  in  detail  in  Chapter  XLIV.,  in  Part  II. 

From  an  economic  point  of  view  a  marked  advantage  of  broad  irri- 
gation is  that  the  sum  realized  from  the  sale  of  the  produce  assists  in 
reducing  the  net  cost  of  the  purification.  The  most  marked  disad- 
vantage is  that  the  sewage  must  be  cared  for  in  all  sorts  of  weather, 
whether  required  for  the  crops  or  not.  While,  therefore,  it  is  impossible 
to  say  that  broad  irrigation  can  always  be  conducted  at  a  x>i'ofit,  it  is 
nevertheless  true  that  it  will  offer  in  many  cases  a  cheap  and  efficient 
method  of  sewage  purification.  The  probable  limit  of  temperature  at 
which  it  can  be  carried  on  in  winter  has  been  indicated  in  Chapter 
XVII. 

(4)  Taking  into  account  all  the  elements  of  the  problem,  intermittent 
filtration  is  the  most  practicable  method  ol  purifying  sewage  thus  far 
worked  out.  Its  effluents,  when  the  best  possible  standard  is  main- 
tained, may  flow  without  prejudice  into  streams  used  as  public  water- 
supplies,  while  the  moderate  areas  required  for  its  application  permit 
its  use  in  the  majority  of  cases  where  any  sort  of  purification  is  re- 
quired. 

As  regards  the  use  of  intermittent  filtration  in  winter,  we  may  pred- 
icate from  present  information  a  fairly  successful  purification  from 
properly  managed  areas,  even  in  extreme  cold  weather. 


PART  11. 
DESCRIPTIONS    OF   WORKS. 


CHAPTEK  XXI. 

PAIL  SYSTEM  AT  HEMLOCK  LAKE. 

The  domestic  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Rochester,  New  York,  is 
obtained  from  Hemlock  lake,  in  the  County  of  Livingston,  about  30 
miles  southerly  from  and  at  an  elevation  of  386  feet  above  the  city. 

Hemlock  lake  is  about  seven  miles  long  and  f  mile  wide.  It  oc- 
cupies the  northern  extremity  of  a  deep,  narrow  valley,  15  miles  long. 
The  shores  of  the  lake  are  bluff  and  steep,  rising  to  a  height  of  from 
300  to  700  feet,  and  along  the  beach  are  mostly  covered  with  a  growth 
of  timber.     The  average  depth  is  over  40  feet. 

About  the  time  at  which  Hemlock  lake  was  utilized  as  a  source  of 
water  supply  for  the  city  the  attention  of  the  citizens  of  Rochester,  as 
well  as  those  of  surrounding  cities  and  towns,  was  attracted  to  the 
lake  as  a  desirable  point  for  summer  residence.* 

In  1892  there  were  in  use  about  120  cottages  and  several  hotels  or 
summer  boarding-houses,  and  the  summer  population,  including 
transient  visitors,  was  from  800  to  1,000  persons. 

The  gradual  growth  of  this  large  summer  population,  living  directly 
on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  and  using  it  not  only  as  the  source  of  water 
supply  but  also  allowing  all  refuse  substances,  including  contents  of 
privies,  to  drain  into  it,  had  its  natural  effect  in  a  probable  marked 
deterioration  of  the  quality  of  the  water,t  and  the  necessity  for  an 
efficient  sanitary  i)rotection  of  this  watershed  accordingly  became 
self-evident.  In  the  spring  of  1885  a  complete  sanitary  survey  Avas 
made  and  sketch  plans  prepared  of  every  source  of  pollution  aboiit 

*  See  16th  An.  Rept.  of  the  Ex.  Bd.  of  the  City  of  Rochester  for  estimates  in  detail  of  perma- 
nent and  transiont  population  in  the  various  cottages,  permanent  residences,  hotels,  etc.  During 
July  and  August  there  is  stated  to  be,  probably,  a  constant  population  of  aljout  1,-00,  which  is 
largely  increased  on  holidays  and  by  special  excursions. 

+  See  (1)  On  the  Micro-organisms  in  Hemlock  Water,  by  Geo.  W.  Rafter  (188S)  ;  and  (2)  A 
Report  on  an  Kndemic  of  Typhoid  Fever  at  Springwater,  N.  Y.,  in  October  and  November,  1889, 
by  Geo.  VV    Rafter  and  M.  L.  Mallory  (1S90). 


352 


SEWAGK    DISPOSAL    I\    TITE    UNIT?:D    STATES. 


T^o  20    ?v-Nt^ 


liiJ 


\l"^\VtT  b 


^ 


the  lake.  At  the  same  time  the  State  Board  of  Health,  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  act  already  referred  to  on  page  71  formulated  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  sanitary  protection  of  this  water-shed  (see  Appen- 
dix III.).  These  regulations  provide :  (1)  That  privies,  pig-pens,  and 
barn-yards  shall  not  be  located  over  or  adjacent  to  any  stream,  spring, 
or  dry  water-course  tributary  to  the  lake,  where  the  contents  can  reach 
the  lake ;  (2)  that  any  j^rivy  situated  within  50  feet  of  any  spring,^ 
stream  or  dry  water-course,  or  ravine,  must  be  constructed  without  a 
A'ault,  and  provided  under  the  seats  with  water-tight  receptacles  for 
night-soil,  which  shall  be  frequently  removed,  emptied,  cleaned,  and 

returned,  and  the  contents 
buried  in  the  earth  in  such 
a  manner  that  they  cannot 
reach  any  water-course  or 
permanent  level  of  subsoil 
water. 

Further,  no  manufactur- 
ing waste  is  allowed  to  be 
discharged  or  drained  into 
any  spring,  stream,  or  dry 
water-course  on  said  water- 
shed. The  same  restric- 
tion applies  to  depositing- 
dead  animals,  birds,  lish,. 
decayed  fruit,  leaves,  saw- 
dust, roots,  branches  or 
trunks  of  trees  in  any 
spring,  dry  water-course,, 
or  in  the  lake  itself.  The 
washing  of  sheep  or  other 
animals  in  the  lake  or  any 
of  its  tributaries  is  also 
prohibited. 
The  provisions  relating  to  houses,  cottages,  tenements,  tents,  and 
picnic  grounds  within  200  feet  of  the  shores  of  the  lake  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  Each  property  is  furnished  with  at  least  one 
privy  set  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  without  a  vault,  and  so  con- 
structed that  metallic  pails,  15  inches  high  by  15  inches  in  diameter, 
can  be  placed  under  the  seats  and  easily  removed  with  their  contents. 
This  pail  is  shown  by  Fig.  30  A. 

The  occupants  are  required  daily  to  add  dry  loam  in  small  quan- 
tities, as  a  deodorizer  and  absorbent.  It  is  also  made  the  duty  of  the 
occupant  to  provide  a  receptacle  for  garbage  and  to  place  the  same 
therein.     Slop  or  wash  water  is  to  be  scattered  upon  the  surface  of 


,..........k 


Fig.  30  A. 


PAIL  systp:m  at  hemlock  lake.  353 

the  grouud  at  a  distance  from  either  tlie  lake,  or  any  ravine  or  water- 
course, and  the  points  at  which  slops  are  deposited  frequently  changed. 

Animal  manures  from  stables  are  to  be  deposited  in  tight  covered 
receptacles  and  the  contents  frequently  removed. 

The  city  of  liochester  furnishes  under  the  rules  a  sufficient  number 
of  metallic  pails  for  the  use  of  each  privy  within  200  feet  of  the  lake 
and  is  required  to  remove,  empty,  cleanse,  and  disinfect  the  same  as 
often  as  necessary.  Whenever  a  full  pail  is  removed  an  empty  one  is 
supplied  in  its  place.  The  pails  during  removal  are  j)rovided  with 
air-tight  covers,  so  that  no  odor  can  escape.  The  contents  of  the  pails, 
together  with  the  dry  garbage,  are  removed  to  a  point  below  the  foot 
of  the  lake  and  buried. 

In  practice,  the  night-soil  and  garbage  is  collected  and  removed  to 
the  foot  of  the  lake  by  means  of  a  broad,  flat-bottomed  steamboat,  the 
collections  being  usually  made  in  the  early  morning.  From  the 
steamboat  landing  at  the  foot  of  the  lake  the  night-soil  and  garbage 
are  transported  by  a  tramway  about  1,800  feet  to  the  sanitary  building 
and  disposal  grounds,  where  it  is  treated  as  follows  :  Narrow  trenches 
are  excavated,  care  being  taken  that  the  permanent  level  of  the  sub- 
soil water  is  not  reached,  and  the  contents  of  the  pails  are  deposited 
therein  in  thin  layers,  and  immediately  covered  with  dry  loam  to  a 
depth  of  six  inches.  This  process  is  repeated  day  by  day  until  the 
trench  is  nearly  filled,  when  the  balance  is  rounded  up  with  earth  and 
a  new  trench  started.  The  location  of  the  trenches  is  recorded,  the 
surface  cultivated  and  cropped,  and  after  a  suitable  period  the  same 
land  again  used.  A  trench  500  feet  in  length  has  proved  sufficient  for 
a  year's  operation,  and  as  these  trenches  need  not  be  more  than  three 
feet  apart,  a  small  area  is  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

The  cans,  as  emptied,  are  taken  to  a  sanitary  building,  which  is 
provided  with  an  elevated  tank  filled  with  a  solution  of  copperas, 
and  other  necessary  appliances  for  washing,  cleansing,  deodorizing, 
and  drying  the  cans.  The  cans  are  constructed  of  heavy  galvanized 
iron,  coated,  inside  and  out,  with  black  asphalt  varnish.  In  cleansing 
the  cans,  if  necessary,  more  active  deodorizing  and  disinfecting  agents 
than  copperas  are  employed. 

The  ])rocess  has  been  so  conducted  that  local  prejudice  has  sub- 
sided and  fears  as  to  possible  offensive  odors  in  the  neighborhood  al- 
layed. In  the  sanitary  building  and  about  the  grounds  no  offensive 
odors  are  discernible,  although  during  the  year  1890  the  contents  of 
3,128  cans  and  80  tubs  of  garbage  were  thus  removed  and  treated.* 

*See  (1)  Paper  by  J.  Nelson  Tubbs  in  Proceedinfjs  of  the  11th.  An.  .Moetins;  of  the  Am.  W. 
Wks.  Assn.  (Cleveland.  18H8).  pp.  18  28. 

(•2)  The  several  An.  Hepts.,  Hoch.  VV.  Wks..  188(5  to  18'.t2,  inclusive. 

(.3)  Eng.  and  Bldg.  Ilec. ,  vol.  xxii. ,  p.  412  (Nov.  29,  1890),  where  illustrations  of  appliances  ma/ 
be  found,  and  from  wliicli  F'ig.  8()A  has  been  taken. 
23 


354  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES, 

In  connection  with  the  disposal  by  burial  of  this  refuse  organic  mat- 
ter from  the  habitations  on  the  shores  of  Hemlock  lake,  it  may  be  of 
interest  to  note  that  the  soil  in  the  trenches  which  were  tilled  one,  two, 
and  three  years  before,  was  examined  in  November,  1890,  to  ascertain 
whether  complete  decomposition  had  taken  place.  The  excavations 
disclosed  the  following-  facts :  In  trench  No.  3,  used  in  1888,  no  quick- 
lime was  emploj^ed  to  hasten  decomposition ;  nevertheless  the  soil  ex- 
hibited no  trace  of  putrescible  matter,  either  by  appearance  or  odor. 
In  trench  No.  2,  used  in  1889,  quicklime  had  been  strewn  upon  each 
layer  of  organic  refuse  as  it  had  been  deposited  and  then  covered  with 
a  layer  of  earth,  but  although  traces  of  the  lime  and  a  discoloration  of 
the  soil  could  plainly  be  seen,  yet  the  earth  was  entirely  free  from  any 
unpleasant  odor.  The  excavation  was  made  about  three  feet  deep.  In 
trench  No.  1,  burial  with  the  use  of  lime  was  commenced  in  May,  1890, 
and  only  partial  decomposition  was  found  to  have  occurred  after  the 
lapse  of  six  or  seven  months.  It  was  also  found,  as  anticipated,  that 
the  destruction  of  the  organic  matter  took  place  much  more  quickly 
near  the  surface  that  at  a  depth  of  three  feet.  The  soil  is  a  clayey 
loam,  whose  surface  is  from  four  to  five  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water 
in  the  outlet.  From  these  examinations  it  appears  that  shallow 
trenches  are  better  than  deep  ones,  and  after  a  period  of  three  years 
the  indication  is  that  the  same  trench  can  be  used  again.  The  trenches 
were  again  examined  in  November,  1891,  with  the  result  that  a  decom- 
position of  the  organic  wastes,  similar  to  that  already  described,  was 
observed.* 

This  Hemlock  lake  pail  system  is  operated  chiefly  by  steamboat  for 
the  summer  season,  only  a  few  of  the  habitations  being  in  use  the 
balance  of  the  year.  In  winter  the  necessary  collections  are  made  by 
wagon.  The  total  cost  of  ojjeration  during  the  municipal  year  ending 
April  6,  1891,  was  as  follows  :  f 

Wages  of  steamboat  engineer  and  crew  and  other  labor  involved  in 

collecting  excreta,  garbage,  etc.,  during  ojien  season ^1,413.05 

Cost  of  collection  by  contract  during  winter   103.03 

Cartage  of  coal  and  supplies  for  boat 21.00 

Coal  for  steamboat 65.57 

Copperas  and  chloride  of  lime 9.80 

Asphaltum  paint  and  oil 64.40 

Moving  pig-jjens  to  other  locations , 15.00 

Miscellaneous  expenses  and  repairs 47.61 

Total ^1,739.46 

■*15th  An.  Kept.  Ex.  Bd.  city  of  Rochester,  for  year  ending  April  6,  1801,  p.  42.  Also  see  16th 
Rept.,  p.  32. 

t  From  June  1,  1891,  to  October  1  of  the  same  year,  there  were  collected  by  steamboat  .3,060  pails 
of  excreta.  171  tubs  of  garbage,  and  83^  pails  of  dead  fish.  From  October  1,  1891,  to  April  1,  1892, 
the  collections  were  made  by  wagon  and  row-boat,  and  amounted  to  1,208  pails,  the  cost  of  thia 
latter  service  being  $6  per  week. 


PAIL    SYSTEM    AT    HKMLOCK    LAKE.  355 

During  the  year  there  was  also  expended  in  the  way  of  permanent 
additions  to  plant  and  renewals,  the  sum  of  $352.18. 

The  approximate  first  cost  of  the  permanent  plant  is  given  by  the 
following  statement,  which  is  made  in  detail  in  order  to  show  what  the 
several  items  making  up  the  total  cost  of  such  a  plant  really  are  : 

(1)  Sanitary  surveys  and  examinations,  and  law  expenses  attending 

inauguration  of  system  in  1885 §265.40 

(2)  Surveys  for  and  preparation  of  plans  of  sanitaiy  building,  lake 

pier,  tramway,   and  other  permanent  fixtures  and   superinten- 
dence of  construction,  estimated  at 500.00 

(3)  Frame  building,    elevated    tank,    and  additions    to    same   since 

original  construction,  including  inside  fittings,  pump,  etc 850.22 

(4)  Flat-bottom  scow  in  use  for  first  three  years 149.77 

,  (5)  Original  roatl  from  lake  to  sanitary  building 39.59 

(6)  Original  landing  dock  at  lake 11.25 

(7)  For  permanent  i^ier  400  feet  long,  and  tramway  1,800  feet  long. .  4,660.55 

(8)  Tram-cars 57.50 

(9)  Flat  bottom  steamboat  with  small  row-boat 1,907.20 

(10)  Kemodelling  about  100  privies  for  reception  of  pails 69.47 

(11)  For  metallic  sanitary  pails,  transportation  of  same,  etc 1.256.17 

(12)  Miscellaneous,  including  land  (partly  estimated) 232.88 


Total  approximate  cost  of  permanent  plant  to  April  6,  1891 . .  SIO,  000.00* 

The  total  cost  of  ojoeration  for  six  years  is  shown  by  the  following 
statement : 

For  the  municipal  year  ending  April  5,  1886  f 8497.491 

"     4,1887 1,525.58 

"     2,1888 1,461.53 

"           "     1,1889 1,740.78 

"     7,1890 3,912.09J 

"     6,1891 1,739.46 


Total  cost  of  operation  for  six  years $10,876.93 

During  the  six  years  of  operation  which  are  here  included,  from 
18,000  to  20,000  pails  of  night  soil,  garbage,  and  dead  fish  have  been 
disposed  of  by  this  pail  system. 

The  expense  of  doing  this  work,  both  in  first  cost  and  annual  cost  of 
operation,  is  evidently  much  greater  than  it  would  be  for  a  similar 
performance  in  a  town  or  city.  The  peculiar  nature  of  the  plant  and 
the  long  distances  covered  may  be  taken  as  the  main  reasons  for  this. 

*  In  this  total  of  $10,000  is  included  the  cost  of  all  new  metallic  pails  purchased  to  April  6, 
1891.  Some  of  these  are  properly  chargeable  to  renewals,  but  by  reason  of  the  impossibility  of 
determining  from  the  accounts  as  kept  just  where  renewal  stops  and  legitimate  increase  of  plant 
begins,  all  such  expenses  are  grouped  together  in  item  (U).  The  plant  may  now  be  considered 
complete  and  fully  adequate  to  perform  the  work  required  of  it  without  further  extension,  and 
from  this  time  on  expenses  of  the  sort  under  consideration  may  be  properly  charged  t<>  renewals. 

+  First  year,  not  in  operation  for  the  whole  season. 

t  The  statement  for  this  year  contains  a  large  amount  of  labor  properly  chargeable  to  other  ac- 
counts which  cannot  now  be  separated.  The  expenses  of  operation  proper  probably  did  not  exceed 
about  SI, 7(K). 


356  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  moving  of  the  pails  by  boat,  aud  the  construction  of  a  pier  for 
facilitating-  such  moving  at  all  stages  of  the  lake,  is  an  imperative 
necessity  due  to  the  peculiar  situation.  The  west  side  of  the  lake,  on 
which  is  located  a  considerable  number  of  the  cottages,  is  absolutely 
inaccessible  except  by  water ;  the  cottagers  themselves,  even,  going  to 
their  temporary  homes  by  boat  from  the  opposite  side.  As  yet  we  have 
no  pail  system  in  a  town  with  which  to  compare  the  figures  as  given  for 
this  exceptional  case. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE  FULLERTON  AVENUE  CONDUIT  AND  THE  BRIDGEPORT  PUMP- 
ING STATION,  AT  CHICAGO. 

The  gradual  increase  in  the  pollution  of  the  two  branches  of  the 
Chicago  river  on  account  of  receiving-  larger  and  larger  amounts  of 
sewage  from  year  to  year  led  in  1874  to  the  beginning  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit,  which  was  designed  especially 
for  the  relief  of  the  North  branch.  The  plan  adopted  included  the 
construction  of  an  open  cut  and  tunnel  conduit  from  the  river  to  the 
lake,  and  the  erection  of  machinery  for  operating  a  screw  by  which 
a  current  of  water  could  be  sent  at  will,  either  from  the  lake  to  the 
river,  or  from  the  river  to  the  lake,  as  might  be  necessary  at  different 
stages  of  the  lake  to  secure  the  most  thorough  flushing  of  the  river. 

The  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit. 

So  far  as  the  authors  know,  up  to  that  time  no  similar  plan  for  sew- 
age disposal  had  been  carried  out  anywhere,  probably  because  just  the 
conditions  which  seemed  to  necessitate  this  parti ciilar  arrangement 
had  not  occurred  in  any  other  place.  Since  then  a  similar  arrange- 
ment has  been  carried  out  at  Milwaukee,  and  we  may  accordingly  in- 
clude a  description  of  the  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit,  and  its  piimpiug 
machinery,  as  involving  on  the  whole  a  somewhat  unique  method  of 
sewage  disposal,  at  any  rate  so  far  as  its  mechanical  features  are  con- 
cerned.* 

Owing  to  the  failure  of  the  original  contractors,  and  other  causes 
of  delay,  the  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit  was  not  completed  ready  for 
operation  until  January,  1880.  The  following  description  of  its  pro- 
portions and  principal  mechanical  features  as  originally  carried  out, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  Figs.  31  and  32  will  give  a  general  idea  of 
this  work.f 

The  conduit  is  of  l)rick,  circular  in  section,  12  feet  internal  diameter, 
and  11,8'J8  feet  long,  from  the  lake  shaft  to  the  North  Branch  of  the 

*  For  extended  discussion  of  some  of  the  engineering  features  of  the  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit 
see  a  paper  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit,  etc.,  by  Lyman  E.  Cooley,  C.  E.,  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  iii., 
pp.  212,  220,  229  (July  1,  8,  and  15,  1876).  A  paper  descriptive  of  the  Milwaukee  plant  was  pre- 
sented Ijy  Oeo.  H.  BenzenV)erg,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C  E.,  before  the  International  Engineering  Congress 
at  Chicago,  in  August,  18'.>3.     The  paper  will  be  published  in  Trans.  Am.  Soc   C.  E. 

f  Abstracted  from  the  4th  An.  Kept,  of  the  Dept.  of  Public  Works,  etc.,  of  Chicago,  for  the 
year  ending  Dec.  31,  18711,  pp.  70-75. 


3o8 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Chicago  river.     The  bottom  of  the  invert  from  the  river  to  Kacine 
avenue,  a  length   of  4,270  feet,  is  level,  and  13  feet  below  the  city 


datum.  East  of  Eacine  avenue  there  is  a  vertical  reversed  curve  con- 
necting the  upper  and  lower  grades  of  the  conduit,  which  latter  at  this 
point  is  27|  feet  below  datum.     The  tunnel  continues  by  a  series  of 


THE   FULLEKTOX    AVENUE    CONDUIT. 


859 


descending  grades  to  the  lake-shore  shaft,  where  the  invert  is  Bih  feet 
below  city  datum.  From  the  shore  shaft  to  the  lake  discharge  shaft, 
a  distance  of  1,000  feet,  the  conduit  is  level.  From  the  North  Branch 
to  Racine  avenue  the  work  was  in  open  cut,  and  from  Racine  avenue 


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eastward  in  tunnel,  the  grade  followed  the  level  of  suitable  ground 
for  tunnelling. 

The  ujopcr  part  of  the  lake  shaft  is  a  cast-iron  C3'linder,  \\  inches 
thick,  14  feet  2^i  inches  outside  diameter,  and  24  feet  long,  cast  in  six 
sections  of  four  feet  eacli,  and  bolted  togetlier  with  internal  flanges. 
The  cylinder  is  lined  with  brick  masonry,  making  it  12  feet  internal 


360  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    TllK    UNITED    STATES. 

diameter.     The  part  of  the  shaft  below  the  cylinder  is  also  12  feet  in- 
ternal diameter. 

The  top  of  the  cylinder  is  41  feet  below  city  datum,  and  located  in  a 
wooden  chamber,  34  x  18  feet  inside,  with  openings  on  the  east  side 
into  the  lake.  These  openings  are  fitted  with  gates,  which  are  intended 
to  be  closed  only  when  the  cover  is  on  the  shaft,  in  order  to  prevent  it 
being-  lifted  or  damaged  bj'  the  violence  of  the  waves.  At  this  end  the 
water  may  be  shut  off  from  the  conduit  by  a  conical  cover  of  boiler 
plate,  on  the  lower  end  of  which  is  a  strong  flange,  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  45°  with  the  horizon,  and  fitting  on  a  similar  flange,  cast  on 
the  top  of  the  shaft,  with  a  packing  of  India  rubber  tubing  between 
the  two  flanges,  making  a  jjerfectly  water-tight  jcnnt.  The  cover  pro- 
jects above  the  water,  and  is  provided  w^ith  an  opening  to  allow  access 
to  the  shaft. 

The  shaft  is  protected  from  the  violence  of  the  waves  by  a  pier  of 
pilework  securely  braced  together,  and  filled  at  the  ends  to  the  level  of 
the  water  with  loose  stones  or  riprap,  and  built  so  as  to  offer  the  least 
resistance  to  ice  and  storms  ;  on  the  pier  and  over  the  shaft  is  a  frame 
house  in  which  is  fixed  a  winch  for  raising  or  lowering  the  cover  of 
the  shaft.  The  shafts  at  the  lake  shore,  Larrabee  street,  and  Sheffield 
avenue,  are  12  feet  internal  diameter,  being  built  of  a  size  to  atibrd 
suitable  facilities  for  working  during  the  construction  of  the  conduit. 
At  each  street  intersection  are  shafts  of  6  feet  internal  diameter,  with 
eyes  or  junctions  formed  in  them  at  suitable  depths  to  afibrd  ready 
means  to  connect  with  the  sewerage  system  if  it  is  found  desirable  to 
do  so. 

These  shafts  are  carried  up  to  the  level  of  the  street,  domed  over, 
with  openings  on  top  for  access,  and  covered  with  strong  covers,  and 
all  provided  with  ladder  irons.  At  the  river  end,  where  the  machinery 
is  located,  the  conduit  is  divided  into  two  semicircular  channels, 
which  pass  one  on  each  side  of  a  wrought-iron  chamber.  After  pass- 
ing the  chamber  the  two  channels  are  again  united  to  form  one  chan- 
nel, of  the  same  size  and  section  as  the  main  conduit,  which  is  con- 
tinued to  the  outlet  on  the  river.  The  outlet  is  protected  by  a  heavy 
masonry  dock  wall,  in  which  is  fixed  a  screen  of  iron  rods  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  floating  debris  from  entering  the  tunnel  and  ob- 
structing the  screws  when  the  current  is  from  the  river  to  the  lake. 

The  water  is  forced  through  the  conduit  by  means  of  two  screws 
similar  to  those  of  an  ordinary  propeller,  one  fixed  at  each  end  of  a 
horizontal  shaft  40  feet  in  length,  and  placed  in  the  centre  line  of  the 
conduit.  This  shaft  passes  through  a  boat-shaped  iron  chamber,  10 
feet  in  its  greatest  diameter,  and  secured  to  masonry  foundations  by 
28  two-inch  bolts.  All  joints  in  the  chamber  are  calked  and  made 
water-tight.     The  motive  power  is  two  single-cylinder  condensing  en- 


THE    FULLEKTOX    AVEXUE    CONDUIT.  861 

gines,  with  cylinders  20  inches  diameter  and  30  inches  stroke,  with  side 
valves,  cut-oli"  motion,  and  reversing-  gear,  in  order  to  permit  them  to 
run  either  way.  The  engines  are  placed  on  top  of  the  chamber  at  the 
level  of  the  engine-house  floor. 

The  driving-shaft  is  8  inches  in  diameter  and  made  in  three  sec- 
tions. The  engines  are  coupled  to  the  middle  or  crank  section  by 
connecting-rods  16  feet  long.  This  section  also  carries  the  eccentrics 
for  working  the  valves  and  is  supported  on  pillow-blocks  bolted  to 
the  masonry  foundations.  The  end  sections  are  connected  to  the 
middle  by  couplings,  which  have  a  longitudinal  play  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  thrust  being  communicated  to  the  middle  section.  They  are 
also  provided  with  an  adjustable  device  to  prevent  the  thrust  and 
wear  from  the  screw  coming  upon  the  end  post  of  the  chamber. 

The  original  screws  were  four-bladed,  6  feet  7  inches  diameter,  with 
a  pitch  of  8  feet.  The  back  and  forw^ard  edges  of  the  blades  were  pro- 
jected upon  a  plane  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  parallel  one  to  another, 
and  the  blades  as  foreshortened  in  projection  were  made  12  inches  in 
width,  giving  the  total  area  of  the  four  blades  of  each  screw  one-half 
of  the  total  area  of  a  complete  turn  of  the  helicoid.  The  original 
screws  were,  however,  removed  in  1882  and  a  set  8  feet  in  diameter 
substituted  in  their  place. 

There  are  three  cylindrical  boilers,  16  feet  long  and  66  inches 
diameter,  with  forty  o-iuch  longitudinal  tubes  in  each  boiler.  Each 
boiler  has  30  square  feet  of  grate  surface  and  1,000  square  feet  of 
heating  surface,  and  is  connected  with  a  brick  chimney  3|  feet  square 
inside  and  100  feet  high.  The  boilers  are  designed  to  bear  a  constant 
pres.sure  of  80  pounds  per  square  inch  above  the  atmosphere,  although 
it  is  not  intended  to  work  them  with  more  than  60  pounds  pressure  of 
steam. 

The  engines  are  designed  to  work  at  a  uniform  rate  of  100  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  required  to  make  as  many  as  125  revolutions  per 
minute  without  injury. 

The  portion  of  the  conduit  surrounding  the  shaft  chamber  and  at 
each  end  of  the  same,  a  total  length  of  64  feet,  is  lined  with  a  circular 
timber  lining,  funnel-shaped  at  the  ends.  At  each  end  the  lining  is 
12  feet  inside  diameter,  from  thence  forward  it  is  contracted  in  size, 
and  at  the  screws  it  is  only  one  inch  more  in  diameter  than  the  screws. 

In  designing  the  machinery  there  was  some  doubt  as  to  the  best 
size  and  form  of  the  screw,  there  being  no  precedent  of  a  propeller 
wheel  used  for  forcing  water  in  a  confined  channel,  and  the  lining 
of  the  screw  chamber  was  accordingly  made  somewhat  of  a  temporary 
character,  easily  altered  and  adapted  to  any  size  and  form  of  wheel 
which  from  experience  might  be  found  best  and  most  economical  to 
perform  the  required  work. 


362  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

To  afford  easy  access  to  that  part  of  the  conduit  where  the  screws 
are,  two  circular  slide-g"ates  are  placed,  one  at  each  end  of  the  engine- 
room,  about  92  feet  apart ;  these  gates  are  12  feet  clear  opening-,  made 
of  boiler  plate  and  faced  with  brass  ;  in  the  centre  of  each  gate  is  a 
supplementary  gate  36  inches  diameter,  to  relieve  the  j^ressure  from 
the  large  gate  when  required.  The  g-ates  are  operated  by  worm  gear 
placed  in  the  engine  room,  and  when  closed  the  portion  of  the  con- 
duit between  the  gates  can  be  pumped  dry  in  a  short  time,  so  that  the 
necessary  repairs  or  alterations  can  be  made  in  the  screws. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  head  of  water  against  the  screws,  two  wells 
are  built  adjacent  to  each  other,  each  connected  with  the  conduit  by  a 
4-inch  pipe,  one  to  the  west  of  the  shaft  chamber  and  the  other  to  the 
east  of  it. 

The  original  cost  of  the  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit,  including  the 
pumping  machinery,  was  about  $565,000. 

The  Bridgeport  Pumping  Station. 

In  1883  the  present  pumping  plant  at  Bridgeport,  which  w^as  de- 
signed to  force  a  larger  quantity  of  water  than  had  previously  been 
possible  from  the  South  Branch  of  the  Chicago  river  into  the  Illinois 
and  Michigan  canal  was  completed  ready  for  operation.  This  work, 
as  leading  to  disposal  of  the  seAvage  flowing  into  the  South  Branch, 
may  be  now  described,  reference  also  being  had  to  Figs.  33  to  37, 
inclusive.* 

The  building  is  located  across  the  old  channel  of  the  canal,  about 
265  feet  west  of  the  South  river,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33.  The  influent 
channel,  60  feet  wide,  was  dredged  to  a  depth  of  10  feet  below  city  da- 
tum. Its  sides  are  vertical  and  maintained  by  a  timber  dock  built  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  eflluent  channel  was  excavated  to  a  depth  of 
6  feet  below  city  datum,  and  the  side  slopes  paved  with  stone.  The 
position  of  the  boiler  and  engine-houses  in  reference  to  the  channels 
is  so  fully  shown  on  the  accompanying  plan.  Fig.  33,  as  to  render 
description  unnecessary.  The  machinery  consists  of  four  sets  of  cen- 
trifugal pumps,  having  a  combined  capacity  of  about  50,000  (nominally 
60,000)  cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute,  raised  to  a  height  of  eight  feet.f 

Each  set  consists  of  two  centrifugal  pumps  placed  in  a  dry  well 
below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  river,  and  driven  direct  by  a  ver- 
tical condensing  compound   engine,  with  high-pressure   CNdinder   18 

*  Abstracted  from  7th  An.  Kept,  of  Ohicago  Bd.  Pub.  Works  for  year  1882. 

+  The  enlargement  of  the  pumping  plant  to  a  capacity  of  100,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  has  been 
begun  since  the  above  was  written.  The  contract  called  for  eight  undulating  pumps,  each  with  a 
capacity  of  12,500  cubic  feet  per  minute,  but  was  conditioned  upon  the  success  of  the  first  two  pumps, 
which  were  tested  July  17,  1893.  SeeEng.  News.  vol.  xxx..  p.  70  (July  27,  1893),  for  results  of  tests, 
illustration  and  description  of  new  pump,  recent  operation  of  old,  and  condition  of  the  Chicago 
river  in  1893. 


THE   BRIDGEPORT    PUMPING    STATIOT^. 


863 


inches  diameter,  both  being-  34  inches  stroke.      Surface  condensation 
is  effected  by  a  series  of  pipe  condensers  placed  in  the  current  of 


water  in  the  intiuent  channel,  and  so  devised  that  each  may  be  hoisted 
sojiarately  out  of  the  water,  and  cleaned  orrejiaired,  and  then  replaced 
without  emptying  the  cliannel  or  interfering-  with  the  ()[)eration  of  the 


364 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


THE   BRIDGEPORT    PUMPING    STATION. 


365 


366 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATKS. 


others.  The  air-pumps  are  independent,  and  located  in  the  dry  wells. 
The  pump-wheels  are  cast  iron,  6  feet  diameter,  of  the  form  shown  by 
the  accompanying  drawings.  Each  is  furnished  with  separate  sup- 
ply and  discharge  pipes,  which  are  3|  feet  diameter  at  the  pump,  and 
increased  gradually  to  4^  feet  by  4|  feet  at  the  outlet.     They  are  pro- 


S' 


}^i:^---;  .--■:."■  i;.-.,eo^c,9f^<.;-,  ......  y. '■•.•.•:.•.  •  "^'"l!^Uj__X   T^    J   '3''"'/ 

W^:^-.-P:.-:^'^}^f^;ihrf^^;^^^^7^X^   (^  ''j.^^^^iAj^'!  «-*^^C^Vi.^  ^^^^f^^^T 


^■»'°  '  f  ^  f  f 


Scale 


f^ 


Fig.  36. — Longitudinal  Section  of  Onr  Set  of  Bridgeport  Pumping  Engines. 


vided  Avith  gates  to  shut  off  the  water,  which  are  operated  on  the  floor 
of  the  engine-room. 

Each  pump  is  coupled  direct  to  the  engine  crank-shaft,  which  may 
be  conveniently  disconnected,  if  desired,  by  removing  the  coupling- 
bolts.  The  engines  are  adapted  for  running  at  high  speed,  and  are 
provided  with  adjustable  cut-off  valves.  All  wearing  surfaces  are  of 
steel,  with  boxes  of  phosphor-bronze. 

There  are  eight  horizontal  return  tubular  boilers,  each  6|  feet  in 
diameter,  and  18  feet  long,  and  containing  60  tubes,  each  4|  inches 


THE    BRIDGEPORT   PUMPING   STATION. 


567 


diameter  and  18  feet  long.  The  boilers  are  designed  to  withstand  a 
pressure  of  80  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  are  provided  with  the 
usual  gages  and  valves.     Each  set  of  boilers  is  connected  with  a  9-inch 


steam-pipe  in  the  engine-room,  from  which  smaller  branches  lead  to 
the  different  engines. 

The  water  of  condensation  is  delivered  into  boiler-iron  tanks,  and 
from  there  returned  to  the  1  toilers  by  two  steam  feed-pumps,  each 
having  8-incli  steam  and  o-incli  water  cylinder. 

For  the  purpose  of  determining  the  capacity  of  the  pumps,  a  mov- 


368  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

able  weir  was  constructed  across  the  effluent  channel  near  its  junction 
with  the  canal,  with  four  openings,  each  10  feet  wide,  with  knife 
edges. 

To  prevent  the  water  returning  into  the  river  from  the  canal  a  timber 
lock  was  constructed  in  the  canal  a  short  distance  east  of  the  junction 
of  the  influent  channel.  The  walls  are  of  crib-work,  built  with  2x8 
inch  timbers,  laid  flat,  one  on  top  of  the  other,  spiked  together  and  filled 
with  stone.  The  chamber  is  240  feet  long  between  gates,  and  19  feet 
wide.  The  floor  is  formed  of  10x12  sleepers,  bedded  in  the  ground  and 
covered  with  two  thicknesses  of  2-inch  plank.  This  floor  extends  be- 
yond the  chamber  to  the  nose  of  the  crib-work. 

Outside  of  the  lock  ar^  waste-gates,  38  feet  wide,  to  be  opened 
when  the  works  are  not  running  during  flood-time,  or  when  the 
works  are  not  in  operation  from  anv  cause,  so  as  to  leave  as  large 
a  way  as  possible  for  the  passage  of  water.  The  gates,  sills,  and 
quoins  are  of  white-oak  timber,  framed  together  and  sheeted  with 
pine,  and  have  sluice-valves  in  the  bottom  operated  by  levers  and 
racks. 

The  total  cost  of  these  works  was  about  $270,000. 


CHAPTEE   XXIII. 

CHEMICAL     PRECIPITATION     PLANTS    AT    CONEY    ISLAND,    ROUND 
LAKE,  WHITE  PLAINS,  AND  SHEEPSHEAD  BAY,  NEW  YORK. 

The  disposal  plants  at  Cone^^  Island,  Eound  Lake,  AVbite  Plains, 
and  Sheepshead  Bay,  New  York,  all  employ  the  same  general  system 
of  puritieatiou  and  may  therefore  be  described  together.  This  process, 
in  brief,  consists  of  the  automatic  introduction  of  lime  and  perchloride 
of  iron  to  sewage  in  precipitating  tanks,  the  deodorization  and  disin- 
fection of  the  sludge,  or,  if  desired,  of  all  the  sewage,  hj  chlorine,  and 
the  removal  of  the  sewage  from  one  compartment  of  the  tanks  to 
another  and  finally  to  the  effluent  pipe  by  means  of  siphons,  the  latter 
also  effecting  the  change  of  level  in  the  tanks  which  causes  the  auto- 
matic introduction  of  the  precipitants  in  the  desired  quantities.  The 
system  was  designed  b}^  J.  J.  Powers,  C  E.,  Brooklyn,  who  holds  pat- 
ents on  certain  features. 

Coney  Island. 

The  first  of  the  iouv  plants  to  be  put  in  operation  Avas  that  at  Co- 
ney Island,  in  1887.  This  place  is  a  well-known  sea-side  summer  re- 
sort near  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  the  sanitary  condition  of  which 
some  ten  years  ago  was  deplorable.* 

In  1884  the  New  York  Legislature  empowered  the  Board  of  Health 
of  the  town  of  Gravesend  to  construct  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal 
systems  in  any  district  of  the  town  upon  petition  of  a  majority  of  the 
property-owners  of  the  district  affected.  Since  that  date  the  Boai-d  of 
Health  has  built  scM-age  purification  plants  for  both  the  Coney  Island 
and  She(>i)shead  Bay  districts,  after  designs  by  Mr.  Powers.  The  plans 
for  the  Coney  Island  plant  were  submitted  in  a  competition  and  were 
approved  by  Bobert  Van  Buren,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 

The  Coney  Island  plant,  being  the  first  one  constructed,  is  the  sim- 
plest of  the  four,  liut  is  essentially  like  the  others  except  in  minor 

♦See   results  of  an  investigation  by  W.  P.  Gerhard,  C.  E.,   Eng.  News,  vol.  xiv.,  pp.  1781-83 
and  310-'}14  (Sept.   19  and  Oct.  3,  ISS.'i).      These  articles  describe  the  sewage  disposal  methods 
adopted  prior  to  Sept.,  1885,  by  the  large  hotels  at  Brighton   and   Manhattan  beaches,  some  of 
which  seem  to  have  been  the  precursors  of  the  Powers  process  as  applied  to  town  sewage. 
24 


170 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


details  aud  comparative  smalluess  of  tlie  tauks.  Perchloride  of  iron 
was  the  only  precipitant  used  until  the  fall  of  1892,  since  which  time 
lime  has  also  been  used. 

A  sketch  plan  and  approximate  longitudinal  section  of  the  plant  are 
shown  by  Figs.  38  and  39.  Two  24-inch  trunk  sewers  join  in  a  30-inch 
pipe  near  the  works,  which  branches  to  supply  sewage  to  the  two 
halves  of  the  tanks.  The  sewage  settles  and  is  screened  in  the  tirst 
tank,  lime  being  used  to  increase  the  sedimentation  since  the  fall  of 
1892.  A  T-overllow  conveys  the  sewage  into  the  next  compartment, 
where  perchloride  of  iron  is  added  automatically.    A  siphon  discharges 


Itiler  ^ 


5erT/in(j& 
.  Screenina 
^    Tank 

.[ 

Precipi- 
tating < 
Tank 

•1 

^  TOyerf/oiv'- 

[ 

,< 
Sipho'h 

V, 


S    i? 

1  .^L_ 

J  ^ 

Fig. 


. — Sketch  Plan. 


1 


Oarbaqe  and 
Sludqe  Furnace 


Precipitatina 
^.  ,,  Tank.^ 
T  Oyer  flow 


Settling  and 
Screening  Tank 


\.      (        f    \  \L£j^=i       :^creen/ng  larjn  i    pji 


Fig.  39. — Longitudinal  Section  Through  Tanks  and  Pump  Well. 


this  compartment,  when  full,  into  the  pump-well.  The  change  in  the 
level  of  sewage  in  this  tank  operates  a  float-valve  to  discharge  the  per- 
chloride of  iron  from  a  tank  provided  for  the  purpose.  The  method 
employed  to  introduce  the  chlorine  into  the  sludge  is  described 
further  on. 

The  first  year  the  works  were  operated  the  sludge  was  carried  away 
by  a  scow,  the  works  being  close  by  Coney  Island  creek.  For  the 
last  few  years  the  sludge  has  been  mixed  with  sawdust  and  burned  in 
an  Engle  garbage  crematory  shown  in  plan  at  the  end  of  the  building. 
Fig.  38. 

Two  Davidson  pumps  lift  the  effluent  a  few  feet  and  discharge  it 
through  a  pipe  into  salt  water. 

The  summer  population  and  visitors  at  Coney  Island  probably  ex- 


ROUXD    LAKE.  8?] 

ceed  100,000  for  a  few  hours  on  some  days.  The  census  of  June,  1890, 
showed  a  population  of  3,313  in  the  incorporated  viHage  of  Coney 
Island.* 

KouND  Lake. 

The  second  plant  built  under  the  Powers  patents  is  located  at 
Round  Lake.  It  needs  but  brief  description,  since  it  is  only  an 
elaboration  of  the  Coney  Island  plant  with  details  chang-ed  to  suit 
local  requirements.  William  B.  Landreth,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  was  the 
designing,  and  J.  Leland  Fitzgerald,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  the  construct- 
ing- engineer,  these  two  g-entlemen  having-  been  associated  at  the  time 
under  the  firm  name  of  Landreth  &  Fitzgerald,  of  Schenectady,  New 
York.  Mr.  Fitzgerald  described  the  works  in  detail  in  Fire  and  Water 
for  February  14,  1891.  The  following  is  slightly  abbreviated  from  a 
condensation  of  the  above  paper,  combined  with  later  information, 
which  appeared  in  Engineering  ]V9ics  of  October  20, 1892  : 

Eound  Lake  is  a  summer  resort  near  Saratoga  Springs  which  has 
developed  from  a  camp-meeting  ground  with  tents  for  shelter  to  a  col- 
lection of  cottages  and  other  buildings  which  serve  a  permanent  popu- 
lation of  about  400  and  a  summer  population  averaging  1,500,  perhaps, 
with  7,000  or  more  people  on  the  grounds  during  some  daj^s.  The 
cottages  and  property  are  owned  by  the  Round  Lake  Association,  of 
which  J.  D.  Rogers  is  superintendent. 

AYater- works  and  a  sewerage  system  were  built  in  1887,  the  sewers 
having  been  laid  in  the  same  trench  as  the  water-mains.  Money  to 
pay  for  the  water  and  sewer  systems  was  raised  by  subscription  and 
lot  assessment. 

A  restricted  amount  of  surface  water  is  admitted  to  the  sewers  in 
the  centre  of  the  village  only.  The  buildings  are  so  close  together 
that  a  single  house  drain  serves  from  two  to  six  buildings,  thus  reduc- 
ing the  total  length  of  the  sewers  proper. 

The  only  available  water  into  which  the  sewage  could  be  discharged 
was  Round  lake,  close  by  which  the  buildings  are  located.  Some 
form  of  purification  was  therefore  necessary.  Broad  irrigation  was 
out  of  the  question,  as  a  sufficient  area  accessible  by  gravity  could 
DOt  V)e  secured.  An  area  of  three  acres  was  chosen  for  downward 
intermittent  filtration,  the  location  being  governed  by  distance  from 
the  residence  section  rather  than  by  suitability  for  the  purpose.  The 
land  needed  grading  and  undcrdraining.  As  nothing  of  the  sort  was 
done  except  to  lay  a  few  lines  of  tile,  purification  was  not  effected  and 
a  nuisance  arose.  It  was  finally  decided  to  put  in  a  plant  for  chemical 
treatment  and  the  process  of  Mr.  Powers  was  adopted. 

*  A  more  detailed  description  of  this  plant  is  given  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  p.  368  (Oct. 
20,  189-i).  Mr.  IJaker  visited  the  disposal  works  shortly  before  the  date  just  named  and  found 
them,  apparently,  in  excellent  condition. 


372  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

A  sectional  plan  of  the  purification  works  is  shown  by  Fig.  40  and 
several  vertical  sections  by  Fig-.  41. 

The  pit  A,  Fig.  40,  in  the  first  compartment,  is  designed  to  retain  a 
large  part  of  the  sludge.  The  screens  S  detain  all  large  objects  which 
have  not  settled,  there  being  a  screen  or  stop  at  the  surface  to  intercept 
floating  matter  and  a  mesh  screen  placed  across  the  channel.  The 
sewage  j^asses  into  the  siphon-chamber  GB  through  the  inverted 
trapped  overflow  O.  The  siphon  SI  removes  the  sewage  automatically 
from  GB  to  the  long  narrow  chamber  C,  from  which  it  overflows  into 
D  and  again  into  L,  from  which  the  final  siphon  SI  delivers  it  into  the 
manhole  N.  From  this  manhole  the  eflluent  passes  through  a  pipe 
to  the  lake,  700  or  800  feet  distant. 

The  lime  is  admitted  to  the  sewage,  as  it  enters  the  first  compart- 
ment, from  the  left  end  of  the  lime  tank  LI.  The  perchloride  of  iron 
is  admitted  to  the  sewage  before  it  joasses  through  the  first  siphon, 
being  discharged  from  the  measuring  tank  MT,  which  is  connected 
with  the  storage  tank  CI.  Both  the  lime  and  perchloride  of  iron  are 
discharged  automatically  through  feed-cocks  worked  by  lever-floats. 
For  the  lime  tank  a  spring  trijDped  by  a  cam  on  the  lever  is  used.  The 
chlorine  generators  CH  are  in  a  semi-detached  building  at  the  left 
ventilated  by  louvres. 

When  the  precipitating  tank  AEFGB  is  cleaned  the  liquid  is  first 
drawi)  off  into  the  final  settling  tank  through  the  valves  shown  in  the 
plan,  Fig.  40,  after  wliicli  the  more  fluid  portion  of  the  sludge  in  the 
pit  A  is,  or  may  be,  pumped  into  the  other  side  for  further  treatment 
by  means  of  the  centrifugal  hand-pump  located  at  P,  in  compartment 
E.  Provision  seems  to  have  been  made,  also,  for  pumping  from  the 
pits  H  and  M  by  centrifugal  hand-pumps.  Such  sludge  as  is  not 
pumped  from  pit  A  has  some  absorbent  mixed  with  it  (charcoal-dust 
has  been  used  some  of  the  time)  after  which  it  is  shovelled  into  an  iron 
bucket,  lifted  by  a  difl'erential  hoist  and  finally  convej'ed  to  a  cart  by 
means  of  an  overhead  trolley. 

Mr.  Fitzgerald  states  that  for  the  two  seasons  1889  and  1890  it  was 
unnecessary  to  remove  the  sludge  from  the  pits  H  and  M  more  than 
once  or  twice  in  the  season  ;  but  that  it  was  necessary  to  remove  the 
sludge  from  pit  A  every  four  days  during  the  season ;  that  chemicals 
were  not  used  in  winter,  sedimentation  being  suflicient  for  the  actual 
population  of  only  400 ;  that  for  the  two  years,  the  average  cost  of 
labor  and  repairs  had  been  $200  per  year,  and  of  chemicals,  $150. 

In  August,  J.  D.  Rogers,  superintendent,  wrote  that  during  the 
past  season  lime  and  perchloride  of  iron  had  been  used,  but  that 
chlorine  had  not  been  used,  because  a  cock  could  not  be  obtained  that 
w^ould  "  hold  out  against  the  corrosion  of  the  chemicals  more  than  a 
few  weeks,"  after  which  it  became  dangerous.     The  j)lant  had  been  run 


ROUND   LAKE. 


373 


SI 


a— 


c  — 


-IL 


r,   5 


SI 


e^.4^r^^_- 


-b 


Fig.  40.— Sectional  Plan  of  Round  Lake  Works. 


DqtumL^ 
Bottom 
of  Sewer 


I  ^~zI~IL  Section  b-  h . 


Datum 


Section   i-j 


Fig.  41.— Vehtical   Sections  Sewage   Puiufkwtfon  Works  at 
IlodNi)  Lake,   New  Yokk. 


374  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    S'lAI'KS. 

very  well  without  tlie  chlorine  and  the  cost  of  its  operation  had  thus 
been  lessened.  The  cost  of  running  the  plant  for  1892,  Mr.  Rogers 
stated,  would  be  about  $150,  including  chemicals  and  labor,  while  the 
resulting  fertilizer  would  be  worth  about  $30. 

AVhite  Plains. 

This  plant  and  that  at  Sheepshead  Bay  Avere  built  at  about  the 
same  time  and  differ  more  in  engineering  design  and  construction 
than  in  the  details  of  the  i^rocess,  except  that  no  final  settlement  of  the 
effluent  is  provided  at  Sheepshead  Bay.  The  process  in  its  latest 
developments  is  described  sufficiently  in  detail  below  for  an  under- 
standing of  its  essential  features  : 

White  Plains  is  a  suburb  of  New  York,  located  on  the  New  York  and 
Harlem  Railroad,  22  miles  from  the  42d  street  station.  Its  popula- 
tion by  the  census  of  1890  was  4,042. 

A  public  water  supply  was  introduced  in  1885.  On  Sept.  1,  1892, 
there  were  about  15  miles  of  Avater  mains  and  450  taps,  the  consump- 
tion of  water  being  at  the  rate  of  about  350,000  gallons  per  da}'. 

The  sewerage  system  was  put  in  use  about  March  1,  1892,  it  having 
been  under  construction  for  some  time  previously.  Wm.  B.  Landreth, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  Schenectady,  Ncav  York,  made  the  plans  for  the  pipe 
system,  which  were  approved  in  1889  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  of 
New  York.  Wm.  B.  Rider,  C.E.,  of  South  Norwalk,  Connecticut,  was 
made  engineer  of  the  work  after  construction  started,  and  later  E.  D. 
Bolton,  C.E.,  now  of  Brookline,  Massachusetts,  Avas  made  engineer, 
and  under  him  the  AAorks  Avere  completed.  Geo.  R.  Byrne,  C.E.,  of 
Byrne  &  Darling,  W'liite  Plains,  Avas  resident  engineer  in  charge  of 
construction  under  Mr.  Bolton. 

About  ten  miles  of  sewers  are  noAV  in  use.  From  April  1  to  Sept.  16, 
1892,  222  sewer  connections  were  made.  Prior  to  April  1  about  20 
connections  had  been  made. 

The  separate  system  is  used,  with  about  50  flush  tanks,  mostly 
Rhodes-Williams  Avith  a  feAv  Van  Vranken.  There  are  about  100  man- 
holes in  the  system,  Avith  perforated  covers.  As  most  of  the  roads  or 
streets  are  of  dirt  these  perforated  covers  admit  much  dirt  to  the 
sewers,  increasing  the  amount  of  sludge  at  the  purification  works.  In 
addition,  the  attendant  in  charge  of  the  works  states  that  when  new 
connections  are  made  Avith  the  sewers  some  house-OAvners  take  advan- 
tage of  the  opportunity  to  empty  their  cesspools. 

About  2|  miles  of  underdrains  were  laid  about  on  the  same  level  as 
the  sewers,  as  deemed  necessary.  These  underdrains  discharge  into 
brooks  where  most  convenient. 

A  24-inch  trunk  sewer,  about  7,000  feet  long,  leads  to  the  purification 


jf3ug 


^/^g 


Ph 


sui 


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a 

z 

o 


o 

O 


o 


^ 


^ 


CO 

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O 


I- 
< 

o 

LU 

CC 
GL 


-I    >- 

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LiJ 


CO 


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CO      I- 

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LU 

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r-t"3=±' 


PLATE  III.    PUNS  AND  SECTIONS  OF  CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION  WORKS 
AT  WHITE   PUINS,  N.  Y. 


d 


WIIITF.    PLAINS.  375 

plant,  Avhich  is  located  about  5,000  feet  from  the  villa^-e  on  tlie  west  bank 
of  the  Bronx  river  close  by  the  tracks  of  the  New  York  and  Harlem 
Railroad.  This  outlet  pipe  is  of  cast  iron,  except  the  last  600  or  700 
feet,  which  is  vitrified  pipe.  Mr.  Byrne  states  that  cast-iron  pipe  was 
probably  used  in  order  to  exclude  "round-water.  The  effluent  passes 
from  the  purification  works  through  about  3,000  feet  of  24-inch  vitrified 
pipe,  laid  parallel  to  the  Bronx  river,  into  which  it  finally  discharges 
just  below  a  mill-dam. 

The  main  sewer  from  the  village  terminates  in  the  well  at  the  end  of 
the  building,  shown  in  the  plan,  Plate  III.,  Fig.  1.  From  this  well  the 
sewage  may  be  turned  into  either  set  of  tanks  through  the  gates  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose. 

As  the  first  compartment  of  the  tank  is  deeper  than  the  others, 
much  of  the  solid  matter  settles  and  is  retained  in  it,  going  to  the 
bottom  by  its  own  Aveight.  The  chemicals  deposit  more  of  the  sludge 
as  the  sewage  fiows  slowly  on.  A  sludge-pit  is  provided  in  the  centre 
of  each  final  settling  tank,  as  shown  in  Plate  III. 

The  sludge  from  the  sludge-pits  and  from  the  first  compartment 
of  the  precipitation  tanks  may  be  lifted  by  the  4-inch  centrifugal 
pumps  through  the  piping  shown  in  the  plan  and  section,  Plate  III., 
and  discharged  into  the  opposite  side  for  further  treatment.  The 
"  primers  "'  of  the  pumps  are  charged  through  1-incli  galvanized  iron 
pipe  from  the  force-main  described  above.  The  pumps  are  driven  by 
engines  supplied  with  steam  from  the  boiler-room.  The  sludge  can 
be  removed  fiiudly  by  means  of  the  bucket,  car,  and  tramway  shown 
in  the  cross-section,  in  Plate  III.,  Fig.  4,  the  tramway  being  shown  ex- 
tending the  whole  length  of  the  tanks  in  plan  in  Plate  III.,  Fig.  3.  The 
buckets  have  a  capacity  of  ^  ton,  are  of  steel,  self-dumping,  and  are 
raised  by  differential  one-ton  hoisting  blocks  and  tackle,  which  rim  on 
an  overhead  single-rail  tramway  of  one  ton  capacity. 

The  two  dump  cars  are  of  :^-incli  boiler  iron,  one  ton  capacitj^  The 
tramway  consists  of  60-pouud  rails,  two  feet  apart,  clamped  to  the  top 
of  iron  beams. 

Before  the  sludge  is  removed  from  the  tanks  it  is  rendered  less 
litjuid  and  more  easily  handled  by  the  addition  of  "  German  bog,"  said 
to  come  off  the  top  of  [)eat-beds.  This  bog  comes  in  bales  2  x2i  x3^ 
feet  and  is  a  good  absorbent. 

All  the  slndge  which  had  been  removed  from  the  tanks  from  the 
time  the  plant  was  put  in  operation  until  Sept.  2,  1892,  was  outside 
the  building  in  a  ]>ile  on  that  date.  Some  of  it  was  colored  brown  by 
tlie  peat,  some  pink,  presumably  by  the  iron,  but  much  of  it  had  the 
ajjpearance  of  ordiuarv  lime  and  sand  mortar,  due  to  the  lime  used 
as  a  precipitant  and  to  the  furtlnr  fact  tliat  nnu-li  dirt  is  admitted 
to  the  sewers  tiirnugli  the  pcrloratcd   manhole  covers,  as  stated  above. 


376  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

This  larg-e  heap  of  sludg'e  was  perfectly  free  from  odor,  quite  as  in- 
otfeiisive  as  a  pile  of  mortar.  Neither  was  there  the  slightest  offensive 
odor  anywhere  about  the  works. 

Thus  far  the  sludge  has  been  removed  from  the  tanks  and  the 
chlorine  used  about  once  a  month.  The  tanks  may  be  washed  per- 
fectly clean  by  the  use  of  water  from  a  small  reservoir  on  the  hill  or  by 
direct  pressure  from  a  small  duplex  pump  provided  to  fill  the  reser- 
voir. This  pump  also  affords  fire  protection  for  the  building.  The 
pump  has  10-inch  steam  and  6-inch  water  cylinders,  with  10-inch  stroke. 
A  6-inch"  suction-pipe  extends  to  the  river,  only  a  few  feet  dis- 
tant. A  4-incli  force-main  extends  from  the  pump  to  the  reservoir  on 
a  hill  near  by,  at  a  sufficient  elevation  to  give  a  pressure  of  47  })ounds 
at  the  works.  From  the  force-main  a  2-inch  galvanized  iron  pipe 
extends  through  the  building  and  connects  by  means  of  1-inch  cast- 
iron  pipe  with  the  chlorine  generators  and  tanks.  Connections  are 
also  made  with  all  the  plumbing  where  water  is  needed.  Linen  hose, 
200  feet  in  length,  is  provided  for  washing  the  tanks  and  for  fire  use. 

The  reservoir  is  of  stone,  cemented,  20  x  10  x  5  feet,  and,  according' 
to  the  specifications,  covered  with  a  building  and  connected  by  an 
electric  indicator  with  the  i:)ump-room. 

The  settling  chambers  inside  the  building  have  rolling  covers,  the 
wheels  running  on  I-beams,  the  wheels  of  one  set  of  covers  running 
on  the  upper  and  of  another  on  the  lower  flange  of  the  beam,  so  that 
the  covers  of  one  side  may  be  rolled  over  or  beneath  those  of  the 
other. 

The  final  settling  tanks  are  covered  with  8-inch  brick  arches  sup- 
ported by  90-pound  I-beams  resting  on  12-inch  brick  piers.  Openings 
6  feet  long  and  12  feet  wide,  with  sliding  covers,  are  provided  in  each 
corner  of  the  covering  in  these  tanks. 

The  bottoms  of  all  the  tanks  are  composed  of  18  inches  of  Portland 
cement  concrete.  The  specifications  state  that  all  walls  and  piers  to 
the  height  of  the  cross-walls  miast  be  laid  in  Portland  cement  mortar 
and  plastered  with  the  same  where  brick  is  used  ;  also  that  the  entire 
inner  surface  of  the  tanks  must  be  covered  with  two  coats  of  asphalt 
paint  up  to  the  coping.  Provision  has  been  made  for  heating  the 
building,  including  the  settling  tanks,  by  steam. 

There  are  two  lime  tanks,  as  shown  in  the  plan  and  longitudinal 
section,  Plate  ITT.,  Fig.  1,  each  of  riveted  wrought  iron,  Ig  x  2  x  10  feet. 
There  are  also  two  2,000-gallon  riveted  l-inch  wrought-iron  tanks  for 
holding  the  perchloride  of  iron. 

A  hand  hoist  or  elevator  is  provided  in  the  chemical  storage  room, 
shown  in  the  plan  on  Plate  III.,  Fig.  3,  for  lifting  the  chemicals  to  the 
mixing  tray  of  the  chlorine  generators  and  for  lifting  materials  for 
storage  in  the  second  story. 


WHITE    PLAIXS 


877 


Fig. 


42.— Hinged  Screen   in  Sewage  Tank 
AT  White  Plains,  New  York. 


The  screens  for  stopping-  the  large  particles  in  the  sewage  as  it 
passes  through  the  tanks  are  shown  in  detail  by  Fig-.  42.  There  are 
two  of  these  screens  for  each  set  of  tanks,  located  as  shown  bj^  Plate 
III.  They  are  made  of  g-inch 
wire,  1-inch  mesh,  swinging 
as  shown  in  the  illustration, 
to  facilitcite  cleaning. 

In  order  that  the  chemicals 
used  as  precipitants  may  be 
admitted  to  the  sewage  auto- 
matically and  in  lixed  propor- 
tion, the  mechanism  shown  in 
Fig.  43  is  employed  for  the 
lime  and  that  shown  in  Fig. 
■44  for  the  perchloride  of  iron. 
Each  of  these  devices  depends 
for  its  action  upon  the  varying  levels  of  the  sewage  in  a  tank  which 
contains  a  float  connected  by  a  lever  with  a  cock,  all  so  arranged,  as 
described  beloAv,  that  the  chemicals  will  be  discharged  in  quantities 
and  at  intervals  as  desired. 

Both  Figs.  43  and  44  are  designed  to  illustrate  the  principles  upon 

which  the  mechanisms 
work,  and  not  to  show 
their  exact  arrangement  at 
White  Plains,  although 
they  do  very  nearly  show 
the  latter. 

The  lime  is  slacked  in 
the  lime  tank.  Fig.  43. 
Water  is  added  to  make  a 
milk  of  lime,  which  is  fed 
into  the  sewage  over  the 
lip  of  the  lime  tank. 
Water  is  admitted  to  the 
lime  tank  through  the 
pipe  A,  which  is  sup]»lied 
from  an  elevated  tank  on 
a  hill  through  the  pipe  B 
and  the  feed -cock.  The 
water  tank  gives  a  pressure 
of  47  pounds  per  square 
incli  in  the  building.  The  pipe  B  is  perforated  at  different  levels,  to 
cause  the  water  to  be  discliiirged  horizontally  in  order  to  stir  uj)  the 
lime,  much  of  which  would  otherwise  remain  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 


u._- 


Fig.  43.— Automatic  Feed-cock  from  Lime  Tank, 
White  Plains,  New  York. 


378 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


The  pipes  A  and  B  connect  with  the  casing-  of  the  cock  C,  as  shown 
in  the  two  enlarged  sections.  The  cock  is  inserted  in  this  casing  and 
is  provided  with  longitudinal  sluts  at  regular  intervals  on  its  circum- 
ference, which  are  so  arranged  that  whenever  one  of  these  slots  opens 
against  the  contracted  end  of  the  pipe  A  another  will  open  against  the 
pipe  B  and  vice  versa. 

The  Hoat  is  connected  with  the  plug  in  such  a  way,  that  when  it 
rises  the  cock  is  not  turned,  but  when  it  falls  a  pawl  engages  with  a 
ratchet  and  turns  the  cock  so  when  the  float  is  half  way  down  the 
slots  come  opposite  each  pipe,  and  Avater  is  discharged  into  the  lime 
tank  and  lime  carried  over  the  lip  into  the  sewage.     If  the  feed-cock 


PeixJilonde  oflmn 
TcnH 


I 


Fig.  44. — Automatic  Three-way  Cock  fou  Pekchlokide  of  Iron  Tank, 

was  opened  with  the  rise  of  the  sewage  it  is  obvious  that  the  slower 
the  flow  of  sewage  the  greater  would  be  the  discharge  of  lime. 

The  device  for  admitting  the  perchloride  of  iron,  Fig.  44,  is  slightly 
different,  in  that  it  is  designed  to  measure  this  chemical  accurately 
and  to  draw  it  from  a  storage  tank  of  considerable  size.  To  do  this 
the  storage  tank  is  connected  through  a  three-way  cock  with  a  small 
measuring  tank  i^laced  on  a  lower  level.  The  port  of  the  cock  which 
connects  directly  with  the  measuring  tank  is  larger  than  the  others 
and  is  always  open.  The  third  port  connects,  when  in  the  proper 
position,  with  a  pipe  having  its  lower  end  over  the  sewage  tank.  The 
cock  is  turned  automatically  by  the  rise  of  the  sewage  so  that  the 
measuring  tank  is  always  emptied  when  or  just  before  the  float  and 
the  sewage  are  at  their  highest  level  and  at  no  other  time.  The  sew- 
age is  at  its  highest  level  just  liefore  it  is  siphoned  from  the  chamber 
to  the  large  final  settling  tank  shown  on  Plate  III. 

In  preparing  the  perchloride  of  iron  for  use,  the  storage  tank  is  first 


WHITE   PLAINS.  879 

filled  about  half  full  of  water,  the  desired  amount  of  the  chemical 
added  and  then  the  tank  filled  full.  This  method  is  followed  to  pre- 
vent injury  to  the  valve.  A  60  per  cent,  perchloride  of  iron  is  used, 
and  two  grains  per  gallon  is  considered  a  fair  amount  for  ordinary 
sewage.  The  perchloride  of  iron  is  bought  from  Martin  Kalbfleisch's 
Sons  Co.,  New  York,  for  3h  cents  per  pound,  or  about  ^4:.15  per  carboy. 

In  passing  from  a  consideration  of  the  use  of  chemicals,  attention 
may  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  lime  is  admitted  intermittently  to 
sewage  which  has  a  contiuvious  flow,  and  therefore  some  sewage  may 
pass  the  series  of  chambers  of  the  first  tank  to  the  weir  over  which  the 
sewage  flows  to  the  first  siphon  chamber  without  receiving  any  direct 
addition  of  lime.  Such  sewage  would  have  little  or  no  precipitation  to 
this  point,  but  it  would  have  sedimentation  owing  to  the  slow  rate  of 
flow.  Since  lime  is  discharged  each  time  the  first  siphon  works,  every 
discharge  of  sewage  into  the  final  settling  tank  will  contain  lime,  the 
only  question  being  whether  it  is  well  mixed  with  the  sewage.  It 
would  seem  preferable  to  dischage  the  lime  into  the  sewage  continu- 
ously, or  nearly  so.  This  might  be  effected  by  arranging  the  float  and 
feed-cock,  Fig.  43,  so  that  the  water  would  be  discharged  into  the  tank 
with  every  few  inches  rise  of  the  float,  still  maintaining  a  fixed  rela- 
tion between  the  lime  and  sewage.  Or,  better  yet,  a  constant  flow  of 
lime  might  be  maintained  and  the  quantity  varied  to  correspond  with 
the  volume  of  sewage  by  slowly  passing  the  latter  through  a  rect- 
angular trough  containing  a  lever-float  which,  rising  and  falling  with 
the  volume  of  sewage,  would  regulate  the  flow  of  lime  through  a  feed- 
cock.  The  advantages  of  having  the  lime  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
sewage  the  moment  the  latter  reaches  the  first  tank  are  obvious. 

The  chlorine  for  deodorizing  the  sludge,  or  for  treating  the  total 
volume  of  sewage  if  desired,  is  made  from  common  salt,  black  oxide  of 
manganese,  and  sulphuric  acid.  The  salt  and  black  oxide  of  manga- 
nese are  mixed,  1  to  1,  in  a  tray  above  the  chlorine  generators,  and 
washed  down  into  the  generator  with  21  parts  of  water.  The  cocks 
being  turned  to  allow  the  chlorine  to  pass  through  the  pipes  and  into 
the  sewage  tanks,  sulphiiric  acid  is  then  slowly  admitted  to  the  tanks 
and  the  ehlcn-iiie  generated.  Acid  should  be  admitted  only  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  develop  a  pressure  of  2  poimds,  the  pressure  being  indi- 
cated by  a  gage.  A  safety  water-column  and  safety -gage  are  provided 
to  keep  the  pressure  down  to  5  pounds,  the  blow-off  pipe  from  the 
safety-gage  extending  up  through  the  roof  of  the  building.  In  addi- 
tion the  covers  of  the  tanks  being  treated  should  all  be  tightly  closed, 
and  it  is  well  to  have  tln^  windows  and  door  open.  As  inhalation  of 
any  amount  of  chlorines  would  be  injurious  to  the  nostrils,  trachea,  and 
lungs,  the  precautionary  measures  mentioned  are  advised  on  the 
printed  directions  for  the  generation  and  use  of  the  chlorine  and  the 


380  SEWAGK   DISPOSAL    I.N    THE    UNITKD    STATES. 

safety -frag-e  is  made  a  part  of  the  XDlant.  lu  practice,  liowever,  no 
trouble  with  the  chlorine  is  experienced.  It  is  obvious  that  since  the 
chlorine  is  used  to  disinfect  sludge  or  sewage  it  will  be  admitted  to 
the  tanks  only  when  the  perforated  pipes  are  submerged,  and  if  the 
chlorine  should  pass  up  through  the  sludge  it  would  at  once  make  the 
fact  known,  whereupon  the  acid  could  be  turned  off  from  the  genera- 
tors. In  practice  it  seems  probable  that  a  deficiency  rather  than  an 
excess  of  chlorine  will  find  its  way  to  the  tanks. 

The  capacity  of  the  final  settling  tank  is  about  27,500  gallons  and  of 
the  small  siphon  tank  or  chamber  which  empties  into  it  about  2,000 
gallons,  allowing  for  the  sewage  which  flows  into  the  latter  while  it  is 
discharging.  The  sewage  travels  about  150  feet  in  the  first  or  precip- 
itating tank  and  50  feet  in  the  final  settling  tank,  making  200  feet  in 
all. 

There  were,  early  in  September,  about  450  tajis  connected  with  the 
water- works  and  about  250  sewer  connections,  which,  being  taken  to 
yield  as  much  sewage  as  the  consumption  of  water  jDer  tap,  780  gallons, 
would  give  195,000  gallons  per  day  of  natural  discharge  into  the 
sewers.  If  the  above  figures  are  all  ajaproximately  correct  only  a 
small  amount  of  ground-water  now  finds  its  way  into  the  sewers. 
When  the  plant  had  been  in  operation  only  a  month,  however,  it  is 
said  that  the  daily  flow  through  the  tanks  was  266,000  gallons.  At 
that  time  there  were  but  few  sewer  connections  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  flow  must  have  been  ground-water.  The  tanks  are  sunk  in  the  old 
bed  of  the  Bronx  river,  the  river  having  been  turned  when  the  New 
York  and  Harlem  Railroad  was  built,  and  at  first  there  may  have 
been  some  seepage  into  the  tanks. 

The  amount  of  sewage  treated  at  White  Plains  in  September,  1892, 
was  said  to  vary  from  some  200,000  gallons  or  under  per  day  to  about 
300,000  gallons,  or  less,  for  which  about  one  barrel  of  lime  and  one  car- 
boy, 10  to  12  gallons,  of  perchloride  of  iron  was  being  used. 

To  operate  the  plant  an  engineer  and  a  laborer  are  required  during 
the  day  and  a  watchman  at  night.  About  one  ton  of  coal  a  week  is 
consumed  in  generating  steam.     The  coal  costs  $6  per  ton,  delivered. 

The  contract  price  for  the  purification  plant  alone,  without  allowance 
for  superintending  construction,  was  $50,049.  This  was  increased  about 
$3,000  by  errors  in  grade  which  necessitated  the  lowering  of  the  foun- 
dations, but  should  not  be  charged  to  the  cost  of  jDurification. 

No  analyses  of  the  sewage  after  purification  have  been  made,  to  the 
authors'  knowledge,  and  as  the  plant  has  been  in  operation  but  a  short 
time  little  can  be  said  regarding  the  results  obtained.  At  the  plant 
nothing  objectionable  could  be  seen  or  smelled  and  everything  seemed 
to  be  in  good  shape. 

At  the  outlet  into  the  river  the  efiluent  was  somewhat  clouded,  which. 


SHEEPSHEAD    BAY.  381 

might  have  been  due,  iu  part  at  least,  to  the  use  of  lime.  For  several 
hundred  feet  down  the  river  some  of  the  liner  particles  of  sewag-e  were 
deposited  in  shallow  water  having  little  motion.  In  places  these  de- 
posits were  3  to  4  inches  deep,  but  they  gave  off  little  or  no  odor  upon 
being  stirred.  The  deposits  may  liave  been  the  result  of  improper 
management  of  the  plant,  especially  too  infrequent  cleanings,  which, 
as  has  already  been  stated,  have  thus  far  taken  place  but  once  a  month. 
It  may  be  that  the  lime  does  not  become  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
sewage,  for  the  reasons  mentioned  above,  in  which  case  imperfect  pre- 
cipitation might  be  expected.  In  this  connection  it  may  be  again 
stated  that  in  constructing  and  operating  sewage  purification  plants 
the  controlling  factor  is  the  degree  of  purification  desired.  This 
decided,  the  next  question  is  how  to  obtain  it  at  the  least  possible 
expense.*  The  large  and  apparently  inoffensive  pile  of  sludge  outside 
the  purification  building  at  White  Plains  witnesses  that  a  great 
amount  of  pollvition  has  been  excluded  from  the  Bronx  river  and  ren- 
dered harmless.  The  deposits  of  sewage  iu  the  river  gave  no  offence, 
even  when  stirred,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  chlorine  treatment  had 
to  a  large  extent  i-endered  the  deposits  unobjectionable  so  far  as  de- 
composition is  concerned.f 

Sheepshead  Bay. 

The  permanent  population  at  Sheepshead  Bay  is  probabl}'  less  than 
3,000,  but  its  floating  and  summer  population  is  much  larger.  Like 
Coney  Island  it  is  in  the  town  of  Gravesend  and  its  works  were  built 
under  the  same  board  of  health.  Horace  Loomis,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E., 
was  consulting  engineer  for  the  system.     The  following  condensed 

*  Throwing  out  of  consideration  the  degree  of  purification  effected,  the  following  approximate 
estimate  of  the  daily  expense  at  White  Plains  may  be  given  : 

I  carboy  of  perchloride  of  iron $4.75 

1  barrel  of  lime 75 

Coal     90 

Engint-er 2. 25 

Laborer  and  watchman,  each,  Jl..")© 3.00 

(Jominon  salt,  black  oxide  of  manganese  and  sulphuric  acid 50 

Oil  anfl  waste oO 

Miscellaneous .50 

$1~'.95 
Assuming  that  the  present  average  daily  quantity  of  sewage  treated  is  2.")0,000  gallons,  and  that 
the  daily  expense  of  treating  this  amount  is  $12,  the  cost  per  1,1)00, 000  gallons  would  be  $48.     Un- 
doubtedly when  the  town  is  fully  sewered  and  the  daily  flow  has  become  from  40(),000  to  500,000 
gallons,  the  cost  will  be  somewhat  less. 

+  Condensed  from  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  pp.  284-5  and  pp.  .314-15  (Sept.  22d  and  Oct.  0,  1892). 
In  Kng.  News  of  Oct.  0  may  Ije  found  an  account  of  the  theoretical  action  of  the  lime  and  per- 
chloride of  iron  upon  the  sewage,  extracted  from  a  pamphlet  entitled  Treatment  of  Sewage  by 
Chlorine,  Precipitation  and  Seiliinentatioii,  by  J.  H.  Raymond,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Physiology 
and  Sanitary  Science,  Long  Island  College  Hospital. 


382  SKWAGK    DISl'OSAI-    IN     IIII-;    UNITED    STATES. 

descriptiou,  in  counection  with  the  preceding  part  of  this  chapter,  will 
g-ive  a  fair  idea  of  the  purification  plant.* 

The  sewerag-e  sj^stem  was  begun  in  1891,  and  the  purification  plant 
was  put  in  operation  in  1892.  The  separate  system  is  used.  Water 
mains  were  laid  by  the  town  in  the  trenches  with  the  sewers,  there 
being-  about  13  miles  of  sewers  and  15  miles  of  water  mains. 

Although  the  same  process  is  used  at  Sheepshead  Bay  as  at  "White 
Plains,  the  details  of  construction  are  in  some  respects  quite  different, 
which  is  largely  caused  by  the  circular  plan  of  the  works  and  the  fact 
that  it  was  necessary  to  construct  it  on  a  pile  foundation.  The  village 
is  very  flat  and  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  near  the  water-line  of  the 
bay.  The  purification  plant  is  located  on  marsh  land  subject  to  the 
tide  flooding  near  an  inlet  or  creek. 

The  24-incli,  egg-shaped  cement  outlet  sew^er  from  the  village 
cuts  across  the  marsh,  turns  and  enters  the  building  from  the  water 
side  beneath  the  eflluent  pipe  to  the  creek.  The  low  levels  and  flat 
grades  necessitate  a  deep  receiving  well  from  which  the  sewage  is 
pumped  to  the  tanks. 

The  lime  is  discharged  into  the  sewage  while  the  latter  is  in  the 
pump  well,  after  which  the  sewage  is  pumped  into  the  tanks.  There 
are  no  final  settling  tanks.  The  perchloride  of  iron  is  discharged  into 
the  chamber,  from  which  the  sewage  is  siphoned  to  the  eflluent  cham- 
ber and  pipe. 

A  6-inch  centrifugal  pump,  driven  by  steam,  and  having  a  6-foot 
lift,  was  provided  for  handling  the  sludge,  but  it  is  not  used.  Sawdust 
is  now  mixed  with  sludge  as  an  absorbent,  after  which  it  is  shovelled 
into  buckets,  hoisted  from  the  tanks,  and  pushed  out  in  tram-cars  as  at 
White  Plains.  The  sludge  is  used  to  fill  in  about  the  building,  and  was 
wholly  inoffensive  when  the  writer  was  at  Sheepshead  Bay,  Sept.  12, 
1892,  as  was  everything  else  about  the  plant.  The  whole  building  is 
heated  by  steam  and  the  village  water  supph'  is  extended  to  the 
plant. 

The  effluent,  as  at  White  Plains,  was  slightly  clouded.  This  seems 
to  be  admissible  here,  as  does  the  omission  of  the  final  settling  tank, 
for  the  eflluent  goes  into  a  considerable  creek  of  salt  water.  It  is 
doubtful,  however,  whether  the  use  of  perchloride  of  iron  at  or  near 
the  time  of  siphoning  is  of  especial  advantage  without  the  final  set- 
tling tanks. 

*For  full  details  and  illustrations,  see  Eng.  News,  voL  xxviii.,  pp.  308-9  (Sept.  29,  1892). 


CHAPTEK  XXIV. 

CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION  AND  FILTRATION  AT  EAST  ORANGE,  NEW 

JERSEY. 

The  towu  of  East  Orang-e,  New  Jersey,  is  situated  immediately  to  the 
west  of  the  city  of  Newark,  and  further  bounded  by  the  towns  of 
South  Orange,  Orange,  and  Bloomliekl,  south,  west,  and  north,  respec- 
tively, as  is  shown  in  Fig.  45.  The  area  is  2,400  acres,  with  a  popula- 
tion in  1890  of  13,282.  The  topography  is  of  a  simple  character,  con- 
sisting of  a  nearly  level  plateau  in  the  southern  part,  from  which  near 
the  central  part  break  four  parallel  vallej's  with  drainage  trending  to 
the  north.  Within  the  limits  of  East  Orange  are  three  ridges,  or  low 
ranges  of  hills,  which  also  run  nearly  north  and  south,  and  separate 
the  valleys.  The  valleys  are  somewhat  undesirable  for  residence  by 
reason  of  greater  dampness  of  the  soil  than  is  found  on  the  ridges, 
which  are  generally  dry  and  underlaid  by  the  new  red  sandstone  for- 
mation ;  and  until  recently  the  bulk  of  the  building  in  the  northern  part 
was  on  the  ridges,  the  drainage  from  the  better  class  of  houses  mostly 
passing  into  cesspools  on  the  lower  lands.  Many  of  these  had  become 
very  offensive,  and  considerable  areas  of  soil  were  rapidly  approaching" 
complete  saturation. 

The  increase  of  this  unsatisfactory  condition  led  the  citizens  of  East 
Orange,  as  early  as  1881,  to  take  under  consideration  improved  meth- 
ods for  disposing  of  domestic  wastes,  but  it  was  not  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  year  1883  that  a  definite  project  was  formulated.  In 
that  year,  the  matter  of  sewerage  was  taken  actively  in  hand  by  the 
Town  Improvement  Society  of  East  Orange,  and  a  committee  on  sew- 
erage and  drainage,  consisting  of  Messrs.  J.  C  Bayles,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  M.E  ,  Alfred  P.  Boiler,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  and  E.  Fortmeyer, 
Esq.,  appointed.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Improvement  Society,  held 
(October  4,  1883,  the  committee  reported  that  as  a  preliminary  step 
toward  securing  a  system  of  sewerage  and  sewage  disi^osal  they  had 
re(piested  J.  J.  R.  Croes,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  to  prepare  a  plan  for  the 
complete  s(nverage  of  the  town,  with  an  apjiroxi unite  estimate  of  cost, 
together  with  suggestions  as  to  the  best  method  of  sewage  disposal. 

Mr.  Croes'  report  was  in  substance,  that  inasmuch  as  East  Orange  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  other  densely  poi)Mlat(>d  areas,  which  further 
cut  it  off  from  access  to  any  large  stream  or  to  tide-water,  if  the  waste 


384 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


products  were  to  be  disposed  of  or  puriiied  within  tlie  township  limits, 
it  wonhl  be  desirable  to  diminish  their  volume  as  much  as  practicable. 
Therefore  the  sewerage  system  should  be  chiefly  conflned  to  carrying- 
house  wastes.  If  in  any  case  it  were  to  be  deemed  desirable  to  carry 
roof  water  in  the  sewers  it  should  be  held  back  in  cisterns  and  only 
allowed  to  empty  gradually   into  the  sewers.     His  plans  provided. 


MONT-I 
ChAiR 


/5,100ac 

WEST     ^4^;P-^'000 

lO  RANGE 

7,600  oc. 
pp.  4,500 


NEWARK, 
WATER-WORKS 


'tJERSEYClTY 
s^    WATER- WORkiS 


50.0RAN6E  ! 
5.a00cic.  ' 
pop.  5,000, '-j^ 


Fig.  45.— Map  op  East  Orange,  New  Jersey,  and  Vicinity. 


therefore,  for  carrying  only  a  maximum  of  one-half  cubic  foot  per 
minute  for  every  100  feet  of  street  with  the  sewers  running  half  full. 
The  entire  system  would  comprise  40  miles  of  sewers,  26  miles  of  which 
were  to  be  of  six-inch  diameter  with  main  outfall  of  an  elliptical  sec- 
tion 28  by  42  inches,  computed  to  flow  two-thirds  full  at  the  time  of 
maximum  flow.  The  main  outfall  sewer  would  be  extended  to  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  town,  where  a  suitable  location  for  disposal 


PHKriPITA  riOX    AND    FILTRATIOX    AT    EAST    ORANGE.  385 

works  could  be  found,  near  a  tributary  of  the  Second  river,  a  stream 
emptying-  into  the  Passaic  at  the  northern  boundary  of  Newark. 

The  method  of  disposal  recommended  by  Mr,  Croes,  was  to  first 
iilter  the  sewage  through  a  Farquhar-Oldham  filter,  the  sewage  having 
been  treated  with  jDerchloride  of  iron  before  filtration ;  the  filtering- 
material,  consisting  of  sawdust,  was  to  be  used,  after  filtration*  as  fuel 
under  the  boilers  required  for  the  pumping  plant  which  would  force 
the  sewage  through  the  filter.  The  efliueut  from  the  filter  was  to  be 
further  purified  by  passing  through  soil  before  reaching  the  stream. 

The  plan  actually  submitted  provided  for  only  one  disposal  station, 
although  as  an  alternative  plan  the  question  was  considered  whether 
two  stations  on  opposite  sides  of  the  town  would  not  be  preferable, 
ihus  avoiding  a  long  and  expensive  deep  sewer,  M^hich  would  other- 
wise be  necessary  for  conveying  the  sewage  from  the  southern  district 
to  the  northern  disposal  ground.  The  cost  of  the  whole  system  was 
estimated  at  $330,000.  The  Town  Improvement  Society's  committee 
on  sewerage  and  di'ainage  indorsed  Mr.  Croes'  recommendation  as  to 
the  system  of  sewers,  but  advised,  in  their  report  of  April,  1884,  further 
deliberation  in  regard  to  the  method  of  disposal,  as  recent  legislation 
had  consideral^ly  enlarged  the  authority  of  the  New  Jersey  townships 
in  the  matter  of  acquiring  rights  to  drain  through  other  towns  and 
municipalities.  Under  an  act  passed  by  the  Legislature  a  short  time 
previously,  any  township  in  the  State  having  a  population  of  not  less 
than  2,000  to  the  square  mile,  and  a  public  water  supply,  may  con- 
struct a  system  of  sewerage  or  drainage,  or  both  ;  may  have  plans  and 
estimates  made  ;  may  build  sewers  in  any  part  of  any  township  ;  may, 
if  necessary,  appropriate  any  lands  required  by  due  process  of  con- 
demnation ;  may  build,  if  the  township  authorities  shall  deem  it  advis- 
able, a  main  outfall  sewer  to  tide-water,  and  for  this  purpose  may  pass 
through  territory  situated  within  the  bounds  of  any  other  municipal 
corporation ;  may  enter  into  contract  with  the  authorities  of  any  city 
whose  territory  adjoins  that  of  the  toAvnship,  for  the  privilege  of  con- 
necting the  sewers  of  the  township  with  those  of  the  municipality ; 
may  purchase  land  and  erect  suitable  buildings  for  the  purpose  of 
properly  deodorizing,  utilizing,  or  otherAvise  disposing  of  sewage; 
may  apply  to  the  circuit  court  of  the  county  in  which  the  town  is 
situated  for  an  appointment  of  commissioners  to  condemn  any  re- 
quired lands;  may  borrow  money,  from  time  to  time,  to  pay  for  public 
works,  and  secure  the  payment  of  the  same  by  issuing  bonds  at  a  rate 
not  exceeding  six  per  cent,  annual  interest,  and  to  an  amount  not 
exceeding  ten  per  cent,  of  the  assessed  valuation  of  the  i>roperty  of 
the  township,  the  legal  voters  at  their  annual  meeting  to  decide  the 
sum  to  be  expended  during  th(>  curnnit  year.  The  Act  also  provides  for 
the  payment  of  ]n-iiicipal  and  interest  of  the  bonds,  and  directs  the  town 


386  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

assessor  to  levy  assessments  each  year  while  the  debt  is  unpaid,  in  a 
sum  equal  to  the  principal  and  interest  which  will  fall  due  during 
that  year. 

In  September,  1884,  the  township  authorities  directed  Mr.  Croes  to 
prepare. j)lans  and  estimates  of  the  cost  of  conveying  the  town  sewage 
to  tide-water  in  Newark  bay,  below  the  city  of  Newark.  Later  on  he 
was  further  directed  to  prepare  additional  estimates  for  disjjosal  Avithin 
the  township  limits.  The  plans  and  estimates  submitted  by  Mr.  Croes, 
in  accordance  with  these  instructions,  showed  that  the  construction  of 
a  sewerage  system,  sufficient  for  immediate  purposes,  would  cost 
about  $77,000.  If  the  sewage  were  taken  to  Newark  bay,  the  necessary 
outfall  sewer,  shown  on  the  map,  Fig.  45,  would  cost  $154,000,  while 
if  chemical  treatment,  supplemented  by  filtration  through  land  within 
the  township  limits,  were  adopted,  the  cost  would  be  $76,000.  With 
disposal  to  Newark  bay  the  cost  of  completely  sewering  the  town,  in- 
cluding sewerage  system,  outfall  sewer,  etc.,  would  be  $462,345 ;  for 
local  treatment  within  the  township  limits  the  entire  cost  would  be 
$398,325. 

The  township  committee  on  sewerage  presented  a  report  in  Febru- 
ary, 1885,  favoring  tne  sewerage  system  recommended  by  Mr.  Croes,. 
but  inclining  to  the  opinion  that  the  sewage  should  be  delivered  into 
the  sewers  of  the  city  of  Newark,  which  lie  between  East  Orange  and 
the  Passaic  river,  provided  a  suitable  arrangement  could  be  made  with 
the  Newark  authorities.  The  committee  also  recommended  that  the 
question  of  proceeding  with  the  construction  be  submitted  to  popular 
vote  at  the  town  meeting  in  March. 

The  matter,  however,  remained  in  abe\''ance  until  the  spring  of  1886, 
when  Carroll  Ph.  Bassett,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  was  engaged  to  design 
the  details  of  a  plan  providing  for  purification  of  the  sewage  within 
the  township  limits.  The  disposal  works,  in  conjunction  with  a  sepa- 
rate system  of  sewers  embracing  26  miles  of  street  mains,  were  con- 
structed under  his  direction  during  that  and  the  following  year,  and 
placed  in  operation  in  June,  1888.  Eudolph  Hering,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E., 
reviewed  the  jjlans  as  consulting  engineer. 

In  designing  the  main  sewer,  it  appeared  advisable  to  Mr.  Bassett  to 
locate  the  disposal  works  as  far  awaj^  as  possible  from  the  northeast- 
ern district  of  the  township,  in  which  was  situated  the  water- works 
supplying  East  Orange  and  the  neighboring  town  of  Bloomfield. 
These  water  supplies  are  derived  from  shallow  wells  in  the  new  red 
sandstone.  In  accordance  Avith  this  view,  an  intercepting  sewer  was 
designed,  which  crossed  the  northern  district  from  east  to  west,  lead- 
ing finally  into  the  Second  river  valley.  This  sewer  would  intercept 
the  sewerage  of  five-sixths  of  the  total  area  of  the  township  without 
pumping  and  deliver  it  into  the  northwest  section  instead  of  the  north- 


■^'iH    •- 


•'4i-,*l.:SSl£?!t 


388  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

east.  Mr.  Bassett  considered  the  arg-umeuts  in  favor  of  the  point  of 
collection  wliicli  was  adopted  as  :  {a)  A  larger  percentage  of  tlie  area 
of  the  township  could  be  collected  to  this  point  by  gravity,  than  to 
any  other  ;  (i^)  the  sewage  would  be  united  at  the  best  point  for  ulti- 
mate gravity  extension  to  tide-water  or  combination  with  other  towns  if 
it  were  desired  ;  (c)  about  the  only  land  in  the  township  available  for 
sewage  treatment  was  there  reached  ;  (d)  the  stream,  ofl'ering  an  outlet 
for  the  effluent,  was  larger  than  any  other  in  the  district. 

In  the  chapter  on  Quantity  of  Sewage  and  Variations  in  the  Eate 
of  Flow,  at  page  132,  we  have  referred  to  the  large  amount  of  ground- 
water which  hnds  its  way  by  infiltration  into  the  sewers  of  the  East 
Orange  system.  Its  amount  has  been  as  high  as  about  50  per  cent,  of 
the  total  daily  flow,  and  it  has  undoubtedly  increased  somewhat  the 
cost  of  the  purification  treatment  bj'^  necessitating  the  use  of  more 
chemicals  than  would  be  required  provided  the  daily  flow  was  confined 
to  sewage  proper. 

The  disposal  works  designed  by  Mr.  Bassett  included  a  chemical 
treatment  with  lime  and  sulphate  of  alumina,  supplemented  by  filtra- 
tion through  a  coke  filter,  further  supplemented  by  intermittent  fil- 
tration through  land. 

The  following  is  Mr.  Bassett's  description  of  the  purification  works, 
with  slight  abbreviations,  as  presented  to  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers  : 

The  land  secured  for  the  works  was  siupfularly  unfavorable  for  sewage  purifica- 
tion. The  total  area  available  was  about  15  acres  ;  of  this  5  acres  were  covered  by 
Dodd's  mill-pond,  and  the  character  of  its  bottom  may  be  understood,  when  it  is 
remembered  that  repeated  complaint  of  its  deposits  had  been  made  by  residents  to 
the  Healtli  authorities.  The  drainage  and  transformation  of  the  pond  was  held 
out  to  hostile  residents  as  consolation  for  the  location  of  sewage  purification  works 
in  their  midst.  Reference  is  made  to  the  general  plan  of  the  works,  Fig.  48. 
This,  together  with  the  views.  Figs.  46  and  47,  will  show  the  residences  imme- 
diately adjoining. 

The  stream  indicated  on  the  j^lan  originally  fed  the  pond,  but  its  channel  has 
been  dee]>ened  and  straightened — a  rather  exi^ensive  piece  of  work,  some  of  the  ex- 
cavation being  made  in  quicksand.  It  is  a  tributary  of  the  Passaic,  called  Second 
river.  Its  volume  varies  froni  12  cubic  feet  per  second,  in  diy  weather,  to  775 
cubic  feet  per  second  flood  volume.  After  a  flow  of  about  4  miles  it  enters  the 
Passaic,  near  the  intakes  for  the  water  supply  of  Newark  and  Jersey  City.  Under 
these  conditions  it  was  necessary  to  secure  a  very  high  purity  in  any  sewage  effluent 
which  was  to  be  discharged  into  the  stieam,  and  the  w(jrks  must  be  operated  with- 
out local  nuisance.  No  reasonable  exjjense  was  s])ared  to  make  the  works  efficient 
and  attiactive  ;  the  buildings  constituting  the  works  are  shown  in  the  photographs, 
Figs.  46  and  47.  A  pleasing  architectural  efieet  is  secured.  The  masonry  is  of 
high  class  ;  deep  blue  trap-rock,  with  rock  face  and  worm  joints,  pointed  with  red 
mortar,  relieved  by  red  brick  trimmings  and  cut  stone  capitals  at  the  front  about 
the  doors  and  windows,  secure  a  permanent  and  attractive  ajipearance  to  the 
works. 

The  sewage  enters  the  works  in  a  2-feet  by  3-feet  new  form,  egg-shaped,  brick 
sewer  ;  discharges  into  a  conduit  of  rectangular  section,  having  lateral  projections 
extending  nearly  to  its  centre  on  alternate  sides  at  intervals  of  three  feet  along 
the  axis.     In  this  conduit,  chemicals  from  the  building  join  the  sewage  ;  the  lateral 


3y0  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IJN'    THE    UINITED    STATES. 

projections  of  the  carrier  give  a  wliirliug  motion  to  the  sewage,  which  causes  a 
complete  mixture  of  chemicals  with  it.  The  carrier  leads  the  sewage  to  the  pre- 
ciijitatiou  tanks. 

The  tanks  are  constructed  in  dujjlicate,  one  set  being  cleaned  or  lying  idle  while 
the  other  is  in  use ;  Fig.  50  gives  a  general  plan  of  the  building  and  tanks,  with 
longitudinal  and  cross  sections.  A  brick  wall  located  10  feet  in  front  of  the 
inlet  to  the  tanks,  checks  the  velocity  of  entrance  flow.  A  board  floating  on 
edge  in  vertical  guides,  intercepts  the  lighter  floating  matters,  and  insures  their 
saturation  before  passing  it.  The  cross-walls  in  each  tank  divide  it  into  three 
compartments,  and  the  flow  passes  over  these  with  a  depth  of  about  2  inches,  the 
heavy  matters  being  intercejjted  and  settling.  With  a  continuous  flow  of  low  ve- 
locity in  the  tanks,  the  surface  water  is  being  constantly  skimmed  oti'  into  the  car- 
rier. Drums  float  a  swivel  arm  in  each  compartment,  which  connects  with  a  low 
service  pipe  in  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  that  discharges  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 
at  a  low  level.  These  arms  draw  water  only  from  the  surface,  but  the  drums  fall- 
ing with  the  water  enable  any  arm  to  empty  the  compartment  in  which  it  is  located 
into  the  low  service  carrier,  leading  to  the  surface  of  the  grounds.  The  effluent 
from  the  precipitation  tanks,  after  entering  the  carriers  (Figs.  48  and  49),  is  dis- 
tributed over  the  surface  of  the  flltration  grounds  and  descends  to  the  under-drains, 
which  are  from  3  to  5  feet  deep  and  20  feet  apart  over  the  entire  14.7  acres  in  the 
works. 

The  sewage  effluent  is  aj^plied  to  the  land  on  the  principle  of  intermittent  down- 
ward filtration,  the  flow  being  applied  successively  to  different  areas.  Part  of  the 
land  is  laid  otf  in  beds,  4  feet  wide,  separated  by  shallow  furrows,  in  which  the 
water  flows  and  soaks  laterally  into  the  beds.  The  remainder  of  the  land  is  di- 
vided into  flat-  beds,  100  feet  long  by  50  to  100  in  width,  over  the  whole  of  which 
water  flows.  This  latter  method  is  preferable,  as  more  water  is  disposed  of,  and 
in  winter,  frost  is  more  easily  kept  out  of  the  ground.  Italian  rye-grass  has  given 
the  best  results  on  the  land,  and  is  now  grown  almost  exclusively.  Farmers  from 
the  neighborhood  cut  the  grass  and  remove  it  as  is  necessary,  but  up  to  the 
jjresent  time  the  town  authorities  have  not  been  able  to  secure  a  sati.sfactoiy  return 
on  its  sale. 

"Within  the  main  building  on  the  first  floor  are  chemical  mixing  vats,  fllter  pi'esses, 
sludge  pi-essing  machinery  (receivers,  air  compressors  and  pump),  boiler,  and  a 
small  office  for  records  and  tests  (Fig.  50).  On  the  second  floor  chemicals  and  ma- 
terials are  stored.  The  chemical  mixers  are  cylindrical  cast-iron  vats,  4  feet  in  di- 
ameter, with  inverted  cone-shaped  bottom  ovei  layed  with  a  perforated  plate.  The 
desired  amount  of  chemicals  is  jjlaced  on  the  plate,  water  is  let  into  the  tank,  and 
air  blown  up  through  the  bottom,  causing  violent  agitation  of  the  liquid  and  re- 
sulting in  the  rapid  solution  of  tlie  chemicals.  With  a  known  flow  of  sewage  at  a 
given  time,  it  is  determined  how  wide  to  open  a  slide-valve  in  the  bottom  of  the 
tank  after  solution  of  the  chemicals  is  secured,  in  order  to  add  the  desired  number 
of  grains  per  gallon  of  sewage. 

The  sewage  is  mainly  of  a  domestic  character  and  somewhat  constant  in  its  alka- 
linity. Not  more  than  3  grains  of  lime  and  2  grains  of  sulphate  of  alumina  are  now 
added  to  each  gallon  of  sewage  by  the  authorities,  although  when  the  works  were 
l^laced  in  operation,  the  author  recommended  the  use  of  8  grains  of  lime  and  10 
grains  of  sulphate  of  alumina  per  gallon  of  the  sewage.  The  present  result  is 
a  less  efficient  jirecipitation.  A  combination  of  chemical  precipitation  and  land 
filtration  in  the  works  makes  it  possible  to  increase  the  work  performed  by 
the  land  by  reducing  the  efficiency  of  chemical  treatment,  and  rice  versa.  The 
labor  of  purification  now  placed  upon  the  grounds  is  greater  than  its  equitable 
share  as  originally  intended.  Much  better  results  could  be  secured  by  calling  out 
the  full  efficiency  of  the  chemical  treatment.  To  relieve  the  filtration  grounds, 
which  have  rather  a  retentive  soil,  several  artificial  filter-beds  of  coke  and  gravel 
were  constructed  under  mv  direction,  and  have  been  of  material  service.  (See  Fig. 
48.) 

Returning  now  to  the  precipitated  matter  of  sludge  in  the  tanks  :  after  the  super- 
natant water  is  drawn  oS'  through  the  swivel-arm  into  the  low-service  carrier,  a  valve 
gate  is  opened  and  the  sludge  drawn  into  the  deeper  sludge-well  within  the  build- 


PRECIPITATION    AND    FILTRATION   AT   EAST    ORANGK 


391 


S92 


SEWAGE    DISrOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


^^^^^^iCffl 


PKKCIPITATION    AND    FILTKATIOX    AT    EAST   ORANGE. 


393 


ing.  By  forming  a  vacuum  in  a  cast-iron  receiver,  which  is  connected  bv  an  iron 
pipe  with  the  sludge-well,  the  sludge  is  drawn  up  into  the  receiver,  milk  of  lime 
being  drawn  in  at  the  same  time,  by  a  small  pipe  from  the  mixing  tank  in  the 
chemical  room.     This  lime  prepares  the  sludge  for  pressing,  cutting  the  slime  so 


that  the  water  separates  more  readily  from  the  solids.  A  pressure  of  100  pounds  per 
square  inch  is  sccnred  in  one  of  tlie  other  receivers,  and.  being  connected  with  the 
receiver  containing  the  sludge  by  an  air  transfer  main  and  the  ]no])er  valves 
opened,  the  sludge  is  forced  into  a  Johnson  filter-press  and  pressed  into  moist, 
hard,  portable  cakes. 


394  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

An  analysis  of  fresh  sludge  directly  from  the  press,  made  September  11th,  1889, 
by  Mr.  Charles  T.  Pomeroy,  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  gave  results  as  follows  : 

Nitrogen  from  organic  matter 326  i)er  cent. 

Total  phosphoric  acid 459         " 

Moisture 50.625 

Using  the  1889  trade  values  adopted  by  the  New  Jersey  experiment  station  we 
have  an  estimated  worth  of  $1.51  per  ton,  2,000  pounds.  This  sludge  quite  rai)idly 
lost  its  moisture  on  exposure  to  the  air,  until  it  contained  6.37  jicr  cent,  moisture. 
If  dried  at  100  degrees  C.  it  would  have  an  estimated  value  of  ijrS.OO  per  ton,  2,000 
pounds. 

The  machinery  used  in  manipulating  the  sludge  was  constructed  by  S.  H.  John- 
son &  Co.,  Stratford,  England,  who  have  erected  numerous  j^lauts  in  England. 
Their  machinery  is  the  subject  of  several  ^mtents,  and  no  similar  devices  are  manu- 
factured in  this  country.  Not  all  of  the  machinery  furnished  has  been  .satisfactory. 
The  combination  vacuum  and  compression  punqj  and  the  high-jjressure  water- 
pump  gave  considerable  trouble,  and  have  been  rej^laced  by  a  Clayton  compressor 

.     .      .     and  a  Worthington  duplex  pump 

The  method  of  maintaining  and  securing  the  pressure  in  the  hydro-pneumatic  re- 
ceivers to  press  the  sludge  is  worthy  of  biief  comment.  There  are  three  receivers 
in  the  system  (see  Fig.  51);  let  them  be  rejiresented  by  A,  B  and  C.  Air  passes  out 
at  the  top,  sludge  at  the  bottom,  water  enters  at  the  side  near  the  bottom  and  exits 
at  the  bottom.  All  the  receivers  are  emi)ty,  except  of  air.  Water  is  pumped  into  A 
and  IJ  and  the  air  transfer  mains  oi)ened  to  transfer  their  air  to  C,  raising  the  press- 
ure to  45  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  valve  on  the  air  main  fiom  Cis  closed. 
The  water  in  .4  and  JJ  is  drained  back  into  a  shallow  tank  in  the  floor  of  the  build- 
ing with  which  the  pump  suction  is  connected — air  taking  its  i)lace.  Water  is 
again  forced  into  A  and  B,  operating  jjroper  valves,  and  the  jiressure  in  C  is  raisf  d 
to  75  pounds  per  square  inch.  A  repetition  of  this  process  brings  the  pressure  in 
C  to  105  pounds  per  square  inch.  A  and  B  are  emptied  as  before  and  a  vacuum  in 
A  created,  the  sludge  suction  pipe  is  opened,  and  A  is  filled  with  sludge.  "Water 
is  now  pumped  into  B,  forcing  its  air  into  C  and  thence  into  A  ,  to  force  the  sludge 
into  the  press.  When  B  is  filled  with  water,  C  may  be  filled  with  air,  and  A  with 
sludge  and  air.  When  a  receiver  is  filled  with  water,  a  float  valve  at  the  top  closes 
the  outlet  to  the  air  transfer  main,  and  weighted  valves  on  the  force  main  lift  and 
relieve  the  pressure  on  the  pump. 

The  value  of  the  process  now  first  appears.  B  is  emptied  of  water  and  filled  with 
sludge,  while  at  the  same  time  water  is  being  forced  into  C,  and  by  connection  with 
A  forcing  the  remainder  of  its  sludge  into  the  press.  Compressed  air  is  thus  never 
allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere.  W'hen  Cis  filled  with  water,  it  is  ready  to 
be  filled  with  sludge,  while  at  the  same  time  water  is  forced  into  A  and  the  sludge 
of  B  forced  in  the  press. 

The  filter  press  shown  in  Fig.  52,  consists  of  thirty-six  cast-iron  cells,  .supported 
on  a  simi)le  frame,  with  a  central  feed-passage  into  which  the  sludge  is  forced  from 
the  receivers.  The  cells  are  separated  by  canvas  bags,  and  in  the  intercellular 
spaces  tlie  sludge  remains,  while  the  water  is  drained  out  through  the  canvas  bags 
into  a  trough  on  the  rear  of  the  press,  and  returns  to  the  tanks.  On  the  end  of  the 
press  is  a  capstan-screw  connected  with  a  thrust-block  which  i^resses  the  thirty-six 
cells  of  the  press  into  close  contact.  It  is  the  air  pressure  which  separates  the 
water  from  the  sludge. 

There  is  nothing  offensive  about  these  cakes  when  pressed  dry  ;  and  if  protected 
from  water  after  being  taken  from  the  press,  they  may  V)e  kej^t  in  bulk  for  weeks 
without  nuisance.  In  the  presence  of  heat  and  moisture  they  become  more  or  less 
objectionable.  The  manurial  value  of  the  sludge  cakes  is  slight.  The  small 
amount  of  precipitants  used  fails  to  retain  the  bulk  of  fertilizing  matters  in  the  sew- 
age. At  ]iresent  between  9,000  and  10,000  people  are  contril)uting  to  the  sewage, 
and  about  13  tons  of  sludge  are  taken  out  each  week.  Some  of  the  sludge  cake 
has  been  sold  at  fifty  cents  per  load  ;  but  more  has  been  given  away  among  neigh- 
boring farmers,  while  a  large  amount  has  been  carted  away  by  the  authorities  for 
burial  when  no  other  removal  offered. 


Wh''^*'' 


396 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNTJED    STATES. 


A  committee  of  the  "  Town  Improvement  Society  of  East  Orange  "...  deter- 
mined during  the  summer  and  fall  of  1890  to  investigate  the  operation  of  the  works 
and  their  results.  They  secured  and  submitted  to  Professor  A.  R.  Leeds  two 
samples  of  effluent  water  for  e.x.amination  and  report.  The  results  generally  are 
better  than  results  secured  for  the  author's  use  from  time  to  time.     .     .     . 


The  summary  of  Professor  Leeds'  analyses,  as  quoted  by  Mr.  Bas- 
sett  from  the  committee's  report,  and  such  of  Professor  Leeds'  com- 
ments as  are  necessary  by  way  of  exphination,  are  as  follows  : 

Analyses   op    East  Orange    Sewage    Effluents,   compared    with  Untreated 

Sewage. 

(Parts  per  100,000.) 


V     c 

■o 

■o 

a 

1 

E 

"3  gi^ 

4>        J3 

S 

o 

-a    . 

m 

^'1^ 

t^w 

"C 

ca 

E 

i^ 

a 

e3 

ffl 

g  1 

'C 

o 

3  ig 

5  c 

c. 

E 

"c 

c 

ota 
'S  S 

fe 

<J 

6     ° 

X 

iz; 

O 

y 

H 

5 

O 

Raw  sewage 

1.0  to  1.5 

.80  to  .TO 

5  to  10 

8tol2  40tol08  1Sto91 

7  to  22 

(1)  Effluent  from  coke  fil- 

ter *  

0.0b7 
0.0:2 

0.027 
0.003 

0.44 
0.40 

0.0   0.2(i 
0  0  0  as 

6.13 
4.(0 

IS.fiO  3.00    12.60 
2tj  (10  12  50     8  51) 

29.(10 
25.50 

23  50 
22.00 

610 

(2)  Final  effluent     ... 

3  50 

*  Sewage  passes  through  small  coke  filters  at  its  exit  from  tanks. 

Sample  No.  1.  Taken  from  the  flow  as  it  emerges  from  the  coke  filter  as  the 
sewage  leaves  the  tank. 

When  received— Sept.  8,  1890.  Color— Turbid  with  white  flocks.  Taste— Not 
tried.     Smell — Unpleasant,  musty. 

The  results  above  stated  indicate  the  presence  of  a  large  amount  of  unoxidized 
sewage.  I  slionld  also  susi:)ect  that  this  sample  represents  sewer  water  which  has 
received  the  addition  of  some  lime,  taken  at  a  i^oint  before  the  benefit  of  this  treat- 
ment has  been  obtained.  The  effect  of  the  addition  of  lime  is  to  increase  the  tem- 
porary hardness  (in  the  above  analysis  it  is  12  6  parts  per  100,000) ,  after  this  lime  has 
ojierated,  by  combining  with  the  large  amounts  of  carbonic  acid  contained  in  sew- 
age, and  the  carbonate  of  lime  resulting  from  this  combination  has  precipitated, 
carrying  with  it  much  of  the  organic  matter. 

Sample  No.  2.     From  the  final  effluent  into  the  brook. 

"When  received— September  8,  1890.  Color — "White,  clear.  Taste— Not  tasted. 
Smell — Not  pleasant,  slightly  musty. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  temporary  hardness  diminishes,  and  the  benefit  of  the 
treatment  becomes  apjjarent.  The  second  sample  is  strikingly  difterent  from  No.  1. 
It  shows  an  almost  entire  disappearance  of  the  nitrogenous  organic  matter,  the  free 
ammonia  being  only  ^'jith  and  the  allniminoid  ammonia  -,-^gth  of  the  amounts  present 
in  sample  No.  1.  Tliis  disapi)earance  is  evidently  due  to  oxidation,  since  the 
nitrates  (which  arise  from  the  absor))tion  of  oxygen  under  the  influence  of  nitrifying 
bacteria  in  the  ground)  are  strikingly  increased.  I  should  suspect  this  sample  to 
represent  aerated  sewage  water  which  has  jiassed  through  the  ground.  In  its 
passage  its  sewage  impurities  have  been  effectually  removed,  and  the  substances 
remaining  are  such  as  are  found  in  country  streams  in  their  natural  unpolluted  con- 
dition. 

I  should  certainly  feel  far  less  sense  of  danger  in  drinking  the  sewage  effluent,  as 
represented  by  the  samples  sent  from  the  East  Orange  Sewage  Disposal  AA'orks, 
than  in  drinking  the  water  of  the  Passaic  river,  as  pumped  at  Belleville  and  sup- 
plied to  the  inhabitants  of  Jersey  City.  Your  effluent  (September  8th,  1890)  con- 
tained 0.0017  grains  of   albuminoid  ammonia  per  gallon;    the  Passaic  river,  at 


PKPXII'ITATION    AND    FILTRATION    AT    EAST    ORANGE.  397 

Belleville,  on  the  date  of  my  last  analysis  (June  14tli,  1890)  contained  0.01  grain 
per  gallon.  In  other  words,  taking  the  albuminoid  ammonia  as  the  measure  of 
sewage  contamination,  the  Jersey  City  water  contains  six  times  more  sewage  than 
the  effluent  waters  from  your  works. 

As  chemist  for  the  Jersey  City  Board  of  Public  Works,  from  1881  to  1886,  I 
found  very  many  samples  of  the  Passaic  water  even  worse  than  the  above. 

I  regard  the  j^erformance  of  your  works  and  the  character  of  the  effluent  as  satis- 
factory from  both  the  practical  and  sanitary  standpoints. 

Mr.  Bassett  resumes  Ms  description  of  the  works  as  follows : 

The  total  cost  of  the  works  to  January  1,  1891  (including  about  4  miles  of  exten- 
sions constructed  since  my  connection  with  the  work),  is  given  as  follows : 

Chargeable  against  sewerage  system  (29  miles) 8322,020.64 

Disposal  works  plant 75,098.60 

Disposal  works  land  (including  4  acres  not  used) 20,749.20 

Total §417,868.44 

The  cost  of  operating  the  works  has  been — 

Julv,  1888,  to  March,   1889 S562.00  per  month. 

March,  1889,  to  March,  1890 746.00 

March,  1890,  to  January,  1891 881.00 

The  average  daily  flow  of  sewage  reaching  the  disposal  works  is  apjiroximately 
1,300,000  gallons,  or  an  average  of  about  90,000  gallons  per  acre.     The  need  of  the 
coke  filters  is  therefore  apjDarent.    This  daily  flow  may  be  approximately  divided  as 
follows : 

Groiind-water  from  25  miles,  constructed  under 

my  direction 550,000  gallons. 

Ground-water  from  4   miles,   constructed   since 

June,  1888 100,000        " 

Flush-tank  flow 30,000 

House  sewage  flow 620,000        " 

According-  to  a  statement  made  by  Mr.  Bassett  in  August,  1891,  at 
that  time  tlie  several  items  which  entered  into  the  expense  of  opera- 
tion, were  approximately  as  follows  : 

Engineer  and  laborers  at  building,  coal  and  water,  oil 

and  waste §300  per  month. 

Chemicals,  including  lime 200           " 

Manager  and  two  helpers  on  grounds 155           " 

Removal  of  sludge 70          " 

Total s^725 

About  15,000  people  are  stated  as  contributing-  sewage  at  the  time  of 
the  foregoing  statement.  The  annual  per  capita  cost  of  maintenance, 
therefore,  exclusive  of  interest  charges,  was  about  60  cents. 

Mr.  Bassett  states  that  this  per  capita  cost  will  probably  reduce  as 
experience  and  volume  of  sewage  increase. 

Later  information  regarding  tlH>  cost  of  treatment  and  other  feat- 


398  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATKS. 

ures  of  the  works  was  obtained  by  a  personal  visit  in  November,  1802, 
as  follows  : 

Mr.  J.  J.  O'Neill,  Township  Engineer  of  East  Orange  stated  that 
the  cost  of.  operating  the  works  for  the  nine  months  from  January  1  to 
October  1,  1892,  had  been  as  follows : 

Labor ^3,935 

Chemicals,  coal,  oil,  canvas,  rei^airs,  sundries 2, 146 

Total $6,081 

• 

This  is  at  the  rate  of  about  $675  per  month,  or  $8,100  per  year,  or 
about  56  cents  per  inhabitant  per  year,  on  a  basis  of  a  population  of 
14,500.  The  decreased  cost  of  operating  the  works  in  1892  is  said  to 
have  been  due  to  greater  efficiency  of  labor.  The  force  at  the  disposal 
works  in  November,  1892,  included  a  foreman,  engineer,  and  five 
laborers.  The  tanks  are  cleaned  three  times  a  week,  and  their  sides 
whitewashed  or  treated  with  some  other  disinfectant.  The  sludge  cakes 
are  generally  drawn  to  the  poor  farm  and  there  buried  or  disposed  of 
otherwise.* 

Lime  is  bought  of  a  local  dealer  at  95  cents  per  barrel,  delivered  at 
the  works.  Sulphate  of  alumina  costs  about  Ij  cents  per  pound  at 
the  works,  and  is  bought  by  the  carload  from  the  New  York  branch 
of  Harrison  Bros.  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

In  November,  1892,  there  were  in  use  about  33  miles  of  sewers  and 
1,685  house  connections.  Most  or  all  of  the  flush  tanks  were  not  in 
use  in  1892,  and  the  daily  flow  of  sewage  for  that  year  is  given  at 
1,200,000  gallons,  which  is  said  to  be  less  than  it  was  previously, 
owing  to  a  decrease  of  infiltration  of  ground-water  to  the  sewers.f 

*  July  15,  1803,  it  was  stated  at  the  disposal  works  that  the  sludge  was  being  drawn  away  by 
farmers,  without  compensation  on  either  side  ;  also,  that  to  that  date  two  crops  of  gi'ass  had  been 
cut  from  the  disposal  area. 

t  The  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  the  Sewage  Disposal  Works  at  East  Orange  are  : 

(1)  Mr.  Bassett's  paper,  Inland  Sewage  Disposal,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  East  Orange, 
N.  J.,  Works.     Tran.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  vol.  xxv.  (1891),  pp.  125-160. 

(2)  The  East  Orange,  N.  J.,  Sewerage  System.  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxi.  (Jan.  .5  and  19,  1889),  pp. 
42-43. 

(3)  Sewerage  of  East  Orange,  New  Jersey.  Eng.  and  Bldg.  Reed.,  vol.  viii.,  (1883)  p.  45;  also 
vol.  xi.  (1SS5),  p.  313  ;  also  vol.  xix.  (1889),  pp.  87-88  and  107-109. 

(4)  The  East  Orange  Sewage  Disposal  Works  as  Compared  with  Other  Alethods.  Abstract  of 
paper  read  before  N.  .J.  San.  Assoc,  Trenton,  Nov.  22.  1889.  By  Carroll  Ph.  Bassett,  13th 
An.  Rept.  N.  J.  St.  Bd.  Health  (1889),  pp.  73-82;  also  in  revised  form,  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxiii. 
(Feb.  1.5,  1890),  pp.  100-102. 

(5)  The  reports  of  Mr.  Croes  and  the  Committee  on  Sewerage,  etc.,  of  the  Town  Improvement 
Society. 

(6)  Sewage  Purification  in  America.  East  Orange,  N.  J.  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.  (Dec.  1, 
1892),  pp.  520-521. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

CHEMICAL  PKECIPITATION  AND  MECHANICAL  SEPAEATION  AT 
LONG   BRANCH,   NEW  JERSEY. 

In  tlie  fall  of  1884  the  local  Lealtli  authorities  of  Long  Branch,  New 
Jersey,  consulted  Carroll  Ph.  Bassett,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  in  regard  to 
the  introduction  of  sewerage  into  that  town. 

On  investigation  it  was  found  that,  while  urgent  need  existed  for  an 
efficient  removal  of  sewage,  the  limit  of  the  city's  bonded  indebtedness 
had  been  almost  reached.  An  increase  in  the  limit  could  only  be 
secured  by  a  popular  vote,  and  would  probably  have  been  defeated.* 
It  was  finally  decided  to  allow  a  company  to  build  works.  The  neces- 
sary legislation  was  obtained,  and  a  private  company,  incorporated 
under  the  State,  law,  introduced  a  system  of  sewerage.  A  number  of 
the  public-spirited  citizens  of  Long  Branch  were  interested  in  the 
control  of  the  sewerage  company,  and  it  was  considered  that  a  matter 
so  intimately  related  to  the  healtli  of  the  town  could  be  safely  intrusted 
to  their  hands.  Surveys  were  made  and  plans  perfected  in  the  winter 
of  1885-6,  and  in  the  following  spring  the  main  jDortion  of  the  sewer- 
age system  was  constructed. 

In  the  agreement  between  the  town  and  the  company  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  no  objectionable  matters  should  be  poured  into  the  adjacent 
waters;  hence  the  introduction  of  some  process  of  purification  was 
imperatively  necessary.  To  meet  the  requirements,  a  system  of  par- 
tial chemical  precipitation,  supplemented  by  filtration  through  coke, 
was  devised. 

The  system  has  Ijeen  described  by  the  engineer  as  follows  : 

The  topuf^rapliv  of  tlie  town  is  siin])l<\  A  lidge,  twonty  foot  above  moan  tide, 
rolls  u))  from  the  beaeli  and  falls  easily  back  to  a  jtarallel  valley,  500  to  600  yards 
from  th(!  beach,  whii-li  averages  nine  to  ten  feet  al)Ove  mean  tid(^  throngliont  the 
length  of  the  town.  'J'lie  west  slope  of  the  valley  rises  gradually  for  a  fi'action  of  a 
mile,  where  it  again  dips  to  form  a  secondary  valley.  This  second  ridge  is  inter- 
sected by  several  streams  and  depressions  It  would  have  been  a  simple  matter  to 
construct  sewers  ada])ted  to  the  needs  of  the  built-up  portion  of  the  town,  but  to 
design  a  comprehensive  system  capable  of  extension  and  development  to  meet  the 
needs  of  the  entire  adjacent  territory,  and  conditioned  on  the  location  of  the  work.s 

*  bi  regard  to  the  sanitary  condition  of  Long  Branch  previous  to  the  construction  of  the  sewer- 
age works,  see  (1)  A  Report  an  an  Inspection  of  Certain  Health  Resorts.  By  E.  W.  Bowditch, 
Han.  Eng.,  in  ll<i>t.  Nat.  Bd.  Health  for  yr.  end.  June  30,  188;3,  pp.  1.5:5-187;  Q2)  Tth  An.  Kept 
N.  J.  St.  Bd.  Health  (188:5). 


400 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


for  the  treatment  of  the  sewage,  was  a  complex  problem  of  considerable  magnitude, 
and  required  an  expense  in  construction  only  justified  by  the  demands  of  the  future, 
and  in  the  making  of  which  the  company  are  stated  to  have  demonstrated  their 
good  faith  and  determination  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  entire  community. 

The  system  constructed  is  the  "  separate  "  system.  The  sewage  is  collected  in 
vitrified  pipes  (eight-inch  being  the  minimum)  into  the  main,  which  flows  in  the 
principal  valley  (twenty-four-inch  being  the  maximum)  ;  passes  through  the  build- 


FiG.  53. — Plan    and  Sections  of  Purification  Works  at  Long   Branch,  Newt 
Jersey,  and  Sections  through  Tidat.  Chamber. 


ing,  where  it  undergoes  the  treatment ;  thence  to  the  tidal  chamber,  in  which  it  is 
controlled  by  automatic  valves  and  discharged  on  the  outgoing  tide  into  the  ocean 
through  a  w^rought-iron  pipe  supported  on  piles  and  extending  200  feet  from  shore. 

Man-holes  are  placed  along  the  lines  at  intervals  not  greater  than  300  feet,  and 
at  all  deviations  of  alignment  or  grade,  securing  control  and  location  of  troubles  in 
the  pipes.  The  covers  are  perforated  to  secure  ventilation,  and  buckets  are  to  be 
hung  just  beneath  the  covers  to  catch  dirt  and  sand  falling  through  the  holes. 

As  the  sewers  are  designed  to  accommodate  the  maximum  flow  of  the  crowded 
season,  the  main  does  not  receive  cleansing  flow  during  a  large  portion  of  the  year. 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AND    MECHANICAL   SEPARATION.      401 

Arraugements  are  made  for  liberal  flashing  along  the  lines,  and  in  some  locations 
the  brook  can  be  turned  into  the  sewers. 

lu  the  section  of  the  town  to  which  the  sewage  would  gravitate,  little  available 
land  for  treatment-works  could  be  obtained  ;  and  the  main  sewer  was  necessarily 
located  at  so  small  a  height  above  mean  tide  that  considerations  of  economy  de- 


pendent on  a  gravity  outlet  demanded  that  the  slinrtest  line  to  the  ocean  be  pro- 
vided. This  ])r(n-ented  any  lengthy  detour  of  the  main  sewer  to  treatment-works, 
and  virtually  determined  their  location.  A  small  ]ilot  of  ground,  100  x  100  feet, 
on  Long  Biancl)  avenue,  near  Second  avenue,  was  finally  pi'ocured  and  the  works 
erected  tliere.  The  l)uilding  is  surrounded,  close  on  every  side,  by  dwellings  and 
shops.  Cliemicals  (lime,  alum,  etc.)  are  mingled  with  the  sewage  at  its  entrance  to 
26 


402 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


the  works.  Together  they  flow  into  tlie  receiving  tanks,  which  are  constructed  in 
duplicate  of  concrete,  and  receive  the  sewage  alternately,  the  one  being  cleaned 
while  the  other  is  in  use.  The  course  of  tlie  sewage  in  the  tanks,  under  planks 
floating  on  edge,  over  walls,  through  submerged  arches,  as  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying sketch  (Fig.  53),  is  such  that  in  the  thiity-feet  flow  a  large  part  of  the 
matters  in  susijension  settles  with  the  chemicals  into  the  bottom  of  the  tank  ;  the 
sewage  then  enters  the  series  of  portable  coke  filters.  Provision  is  made  for  four 
deep,  narrow  wire  cages,  sliding  in  guides  and  holding  different  sizes  of  coke. 


Sec-t'onal    Ellevat-ion  A- E>. 


Fig.  55. — Details  of  Sludge  Compi.fssohs.  Long  Branch,  New  Jersey. 


"When  the  filters  are  clean  a  very  fair  purity  is  secured,  and  it  is  believed  that  the 
process  is  capable  of  considerable  development.  The  coke  when  taken  from  the 
frames  is  used  as  fuel ;  it  could  with  care  be  used  again  as  a  filter,  effecting- 
economy.  The  flow  in  the  tanks  is  continuous.  Considerable  loss  of  head  occurs 
in  the  flow  through  the  filters,  and  when  they  are  in  operation  the  sewage  has  to  be 
pumped  up  to  the  level  of  the  gravity  sewer.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  six-inch 
centrifugal  pump,  built  by  the  Weber  Machine  Company,  of  Lawrence,  Massachu- 
setts. When  the  filters  are  out  the  sewage  passes  through  the  worlcs  by  gravity. 
After  sufficient  deposit  is  secured  in  one  of  the  tanks  the  flow  is  divei'ted  to  the 
other,  and  the  water  is  drawn  down  in  the  first  tank  nearly  to  the  level  of  the 


CHEMICAL    PKECIPITATIOX    AXD    MECHANICAL    SEPAKATIOX.      403 

sludge  (or  deposit) ;  the  remaining  contents  of  the  tank  are  then  drawn  into  a 
wvought-iron  sludge-receiver  by  creating  in  it  a  vacuum  with  a  vacuum  engine. 
From  this  receiver  the  sludge  is  forced  by  compressed  air  into  Johnson's  tilter- 
press,  where  the  liquids  are  jiressed  from  the  sludge,  leaving  portable  cakes  to  be 
used  as  guano.  A  by-pass  is  arranged  on  the  main  sewer  near  the  building,  so  that 
sewage,  in  case  of  accident  or  emergency  and  during  the  winter  season,  can  be 
made  to  flow  by  gravity  directly  to  the  tidal  chamber,  avoiding  the  works.* 


Fk;.  no — Dktaii,s  of  Sluuge  Compuessoks,  Long  Branch,  New  Jersey. 

The  population  of  Long-  Branch  in  winter  does  not  exceed  7,000  ;  in 
summer  it  is  estimated  at  80,000. 

The  sewers  receive  some  roof-water  at  the  head  of  the  lines. 

On  a  visit  to  the  plant  Dec.  1,  1892,  the  following  additional  infor- 
mation was  secured  throug-h  the  courtesy  of  the  officials  of  the  com- 
pany : 

There  were  in  use  on  the  above  date  about  ten  miles  of  sewers  and 

*  Description  of  Long  Branch  Sewerage  System.  By  Carroll  Ph.  Bassett,  11th  An.  Rept.  N.  J. 
State  Bd.  Health  (1887),  pp.  88-91. 


404  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

400  liouse  conuections.  The  tidal  cliamber  provided  to  permit  of  dis- 
charging' the  sewage  at  high  tides  is  not  used,  difficult  construction 
and  economy  having  resulted  in  a  chamber  too  small  for  practical  use. 
During  heavy  rains  in  the  winter  season  no  attempt  at  jDurification  is 
made,  the  sewage  passing  around  the  station  directly  to  the  ocean. 

About  75  pounds  of  alum  a  day,  costing  1|  cents  per  pound  in  New 
York,  has  been  used  since  the  plant  was  put  in  operation.  Lime  is 
used  for  treating  the  sludge,  onl}^  a  small  quantity  of  the  latter,  it  ap- 
pears, being  secured.  The  sludge  is  given  to  one  of  the  directors  of 
the  companj' ,  who  uses  it  on  his  farm.  The  sewage  passes  through 
two  coke  filters,  and  the  coke  is  renewed  only  once  a  year  at  a  cost  of 
about  §2.  No  records  of  the  amount  of  sewage  treated,  or  of  the  daily 
flow,  are  kej)t.* 

*  See  Eng.  News,  vol  xxviii.  (Dec.  33,  1893),  pp.  580-583. 


CHAPTEK   XXVI. 

THE   MrSTIC  VALLEY  CHEMICAL  PRECIPITATION   WORKS. 

The  water  supply  of  the  Cliarlestowu  district  of  the  city  of  Boston, 
aud  of  the  towns  of  Chelsea,  Everett,  and  Somerville,  is  derived  from 
the  upper  Mystic  lake,  which  is  about  6^  miles  from  Charlestown,  in 
the  towns  of  Medford,  Arling'ton,  aud  Winchester.  Its  area  is  about 
200  acres  ;  drainage  area,  27f  square  miles  ;  and  mean  surface  elevation, 
about  7  feet  above  tide-water.  The  storage  capacity  is  about  380,000,- 
000  gallons. 

In  Winchester  and  Woburn,  near  the  head  of  the  upper  M3'stic  lake, 
are  about  a  dozen  tanneries,  the  drainage  from  which  formerly  passed 
directly  into  the  upper  lake.  A  considerable  amount  of  house-drain- 
age also  passed  into  the  Abbajona  river  (the  induent  stream  to  the 
Mystic  lake)  or  into  its  tributaries.  The  effect  of  this  drainage  was  to 
seriously  pollute  the  Mystic  lake.  After  the  acquirement  of  the  Mys- 
tic supply  by  the  city  of  Boston,  it  was  concluded  to  construct  a  server 
to  intercept  this  objectionable  drainage  and  convey  it  to  the  lower 
Mystic  lake,  which  is  subject  to  tidal  action.  An  Act  Avas  passed  b}' 
the  Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1875,  authorizing  the  construction 
of  such  a  sewer,  but  by  reason  of  defects  in  it  nothing  was  done  until 
after  the  passage  of  an  amendment  in  1877.  Immediately  thereafter 
an  order  of  the  City  Council  was  approved,  authorizing  the  construc- 
tion of  the  sewer  in  confcn-mity  with  the  provisions  of  the  original  Act 
and  the  amendment.  The  entire  work,  including  the  main  sewer  and 
its  branches,  was  completed  in  the  summer  of  1878. 

The  main  sewer,  11,857  feet  in  length,  extends  from  the  head  of  the 
lower  Mystic  lake  to  a  point  in  Woburn,  near  Moseley's  tannery.  It 
is  28  inches  hiizh  and  2(5  inches  wide,  except  at  the  outlet  and  along  a 
railroad  emljankment  near  the  upper  end,  where  cast-iron  pipes  24 
inches  in  diameti-r  were  used.  Branch  sewers,  to  the  amount  of  11,{)G4 
feet,  were  constructed  to  various  points,  where  the  tannery  and  other 
objectionable  drainage  was  to  be  intercepted  ;  G,150  feet  of  these  are  15 
inches  in  diameter,  2,000  feet  10  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  balance 
(')  inches  in  diameter. 

The  Mystic  valley  sewer  presents  some  interesting  phases  of  legis- 
lation in  reference  to  sewerage  and  sewage  dis]i(^sal.  Durinsi-  the  year 
1880  <'(»ni])];iints  were  niaihi  ])\-  the  towns  of  ^[(Mlford   ami  Arlington 


406  SEWAGK    DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

that  the  accumulation  of  sewag-e  in  the  lower  Mystic  lake  was  the 
cause  of  a  serious  effluvium  nuisance,  and  the  Legislature  was  ai3pealed 
to  for  its  abatement. 

The  result  of  this  action  was  the  enactment  of  a  law  ordering  the 
discontinuance  of  the  sewer,  unless  the  sewage  be  so  treated  as  to  ren- 
der it  free  from  polluting  substances.  The  peculiar  nature  of  the  tan- 
nery sewage,  which  consists  mainly  of  the  refuse  of  tanneries,  such  as 
spent  tan  bark  and  scrapings  of  hides,  appeared  to  render  it  a  very 
difficult  problem  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  Act,  and 
in  order  to  learn  authoritatively  what  could  be  accomplished  by 
chemical  treatment  of  this  particular  sewage,  the  Boston  Water  Board 
requested  Professor  Wm.  Ripley  Nichols  to  examine  a  sample  of  the 
sewage  and  rejDort  upon  the  same.  The  following  is  from  his  report, 
submitted  in  February,  1881 : 

The  sewage  was  received  by  me  late  in  the  afternoon  of  January  "iSth,  having 
been  taken  from  the  sewer  that  afternoon.  It  was  alkaline,  reddish  brown  in  color, 
and  containing  a  quantity  of  suspended  matter,  the  coarser  part  of  which  settled 
somewhat  readily.  The  odor,  when  the  sample  was  fresh,  was  not  very  considerable, 
but  was  sufficiently  marked  to  betray  its  origin.  On  standing  in  the  laboratoiy, 
the  organic  matter,  as  might  be  expected,  began  to  decompose  and  became  very 
much  more  offensive. 

The  specific  gravity  was  about  1,007,  water  being  1,000.  Analysis  showed  that 
every  100,000  parts  contained  about  330  parts  by  weight  of  suspended  matter  and 
1, 170  parts  of  matter  in  solution ;  or,  expressed  in  grains  to  the  United  States  gallon, 
one  gallon  contained  : 

Grains. 

In  suspension 192 

In  solution    683 

(Of  which  432  grains  were  common  salt.)  

Altogether 875 

I  have  made  a  number  of  calculations  and  experiments  with  reference  to  the 
chemical  treatment  of  the  sewage,  but  I  do  not  know  that  this  was  a  fair  sample  of 
the  entire  daily  discharge,  which  I  have  assumed  to  be  200,000  gallons,  or  say  in 
round  numbers,  1,700,000  pounds. 

Suhfiidence. — When  the  sewage  stands  quietly,  the  greater  portion  of  the  sus- 
pended matter  settles,  but  the  liquid  still  remains  turbid  and  highly  colored  and 
liable  to  decompose.  If  the  sewage  were  allowed  simply  to  settle  in  tanks  and  the 
somewhat  clarified  liquid  then  run  off  directly  or  through  coarse  filters,  the  sedi- 
ment could  be  removed  as  a  thin  mud. 

The  weight  oldry  sediment  for  the  day's  discharge  would  be  some  5,600  ]iounds, 
and  when  wet  (that  is,  in  the  form  of  sludge,  which  would  mn  .slowly  or  could  be 
pumped)  it  would  occupy  about  12,000  gallons. 

I  am,  of  course,  aware  that  at  the  present  time  settling  tanks  are  in  use  in  the 
tanneries,  and  that  thus  a  large  amount  of  solid  matter  is  prevented  from  entering 
the  sewer. 

Treatment  irilh  liine. — The  sewage,  as  I  received  it,  was  alkaline,  no  doubt  from 
the  excess  of  lime  used  in  the  tanneries,  and  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  lime 
had  no  effect  on  the  clarification  of  the  liquid.  Even  when  added  to  the  amount  of 
two  per  cent,  by  weight  (which  would  be  35,000  pounds  of  quicklime  for  the  day's 
run),  it  failed  to  produce  any  very  considerable  effect.  With  the  enormous  pro- 
portion of  g  by  weight  (290,000  pounds  of  quicklime  for  the  day's  run),  quite  an 
efficient  clarification  was  accomplished  by  the  subsiding  of  the  lime  ;  but  any  such 
projiortion  as  this  would  be  out  of  the  question  from  a  practical  point  of  view. 


Tin:    MYSTIC    VALLEY    CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATIOX    WORKS.      407 

Even  in  this  case,  however,  the  liquid  still  contaiueJ  organic  matter  in  too  large  a 
quantity  to  be  discharged  into  a  salt-water  basin  without  being  liable  to  cause 
offence. 

Treatment  loith  alum. — On  the  addition  of  alum  (or  sulphate  of  alumina)  in  suffi- 
cient amount,  there  separates  readily  from  the  sewage  a  rather  bulky  jjrecipitate 
containing  almost  all  the  coloring  matter,  even  in  solution,  and  leaving  the  liquid 
clear  and  nearly  colorless.  As  the  experiment  is  i^erformed  in  the  laboratory,  bet- 
ter results  are  obtained  by  this  method  than  by  any  other  ;  but  to  produce  the  best 
effect  it  is  necessary  to  add  as  much  alum  as  from  ^^  to  ^  of  one  per  cent,  of  the 
sewage.  To  treat  in  tliis  way  the  daily  discharge  of  sewage  would  require  from 
4,000  to  6,000  pounds  of  alum,  or  an  eipiivalent  amount  of  sulpliate  of  alumina. 
The  expense  of  the  chemical  jjuts  this  out  of  the  question,  and,  if  it  did  not,  we 
should  have  to  face  the  fact  that  the  sediment  formed  would,  after  tweutv-four 
hours'  .standing,  occupy  when  wet  the  space  of  60,000  gallons  ;  moreover,  with  the 
best  clarification  that  I  have  been  able  to  effect,  the  clear  liquid  still  contained,  in 
solution,  a  large  amount  of  organic  matter  ready  to  decompo.se. 

Treatment  with  day. — I  was  not  able  to  obtain  satisfactory  results  by  using  clay, 
although  when  a  considerable  quantity  was  added  to  the  sewage  and  thoroughly 
mixed  with  it,  a  certain  amount  of  organic  matter  was  dragged  down  as  the  clay 
settled.  Such  treatment,  if  applied  practically,  would  increase  very  much  the 
weight  of  .sludge  to  be  handled  ;  but  I  have  made  no  calculations  of  the  amount  of 
clay  required. 

Treatment  until  aiilphuric  add. — When  acid  is  added  to  the  sewage  in  just  suffi- 
cient quantity  to  neutralize  its  alkaline  character^ the  liquid  clears  itself  quite  well, 
most  of  the  coloring  matter  subsiding  as  a  flocculent  sediment.  The  liquid  still 
contains  a  large  quantity  of  organic  matter  ;  but  if,  after  treatment  with  acid,  it 
were  filtered  and  then  allowed  to  flow  over  fragments  of  limestone  or  marble  chips, 
to  neutralize  any  excess  of  acid,  it  would  no  doubt  give  less  offence  than  at  present. 
The  amount  of  acid  required  for  this  particular  sample  would  be  equivalent  to 
about  2,000  pounds  of  oil  of  vitriol  for  the  day's  discharge,  and  the  wet  sludge 
would  occupy  about  20,000  gallons. 

You  will  bear  in  mind  that  my  experiments  have  been  performed,  and  my  con- 
clusions are  based,  on  a  single  .sample  of  sewage  ;  I  have  no  means  of  knowing 
how  fairly  it  represents  the  average  character  of  the  entire  day's  run.  More  ex- 
tended acquaintance  with  the  stuff  might  lead  me  to  modify  somewhat  the  state- 
ments made.     With  this  caution  I  state  the  following 


CONCLUSTONS. 

No  practicable  chemical  treatment  will  purify  the  sewage  to  such  an  extent  that 
it  may  be  discharged  into  the  lower  Mystic  lake  with  a  reasonable  expectation  of 
freedom  from  offence. 

It  is  pnaxible  to  treat  the  sewage  so  that  if  it  were  discliargod  into  a  running 
stream,  or  into  a  tidal  basin  with  considerable  circulation,  the  risk  of  offence  would 
be  vei-ji  mnch  lenaened. 

Tiie  most  practical  way  of  treating  tlie  sewage  would  be  to  collect  in  tanks,  mix 
with  sulphuric  acid  (perhaps  with  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  sulphate  of  alu- 
mina), allow  to  settle,  filter  through  coke  or  other  material,  and  then  pass  the 
liquid  over  marble  chips  or  broken  limestone  to  the  point  of  discharge. 

The  act  of  1881,  ordering-  the  discontinuance  of  tlio  sewer  unless 
the  sewage  was  so  treated  us  to  render  it  ivw  from  ]iol]uting-  sub- 
stances, was  tlie  subject  of  a  larii'e  amount  of  controversy  between  the 
city  autliorities  of  lioston  and  th<^  authorities  of  tlie  towns  bordering 
on  the  hiwer  Mystic  hd<e.  Finally,  after  the  constitutionality  of  the 
Act  had  becni  affirmed  by  the  courts,  an  injunction  was  issued,  on  the 


40S  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

petition  of  the  town  of  Medford,  to  prevent  any  fvirtlier  discliarg-e  into 
the  lower  Mystic  lake. 

Thereupon  the  city  proposed  to  construct  works  by  which,  through 
the  operation  of  sedimentation  supplemented  by  partial  filtration 
through  natural  gravel  beds,  the  larger  portion  of  the  suspended  im- 
purities of  the  sewage  might  be  removed.  This  proposition  was 
agreed  to  by  the  town  of  Medford,  and  the  proposed  works  were  con- 
structed in  the  town  of  Winchester,  near  Bacon's  crossing,  upon  an 
area  of  about  5.5  acres.  At  this  point  a  dam  was  thrown  across  the 
sewer,  and  its  contents  lifted  by  a  pump  into  a  large  settling  tank,  in 
which  it  was  hoped  that  the  heavier  impurities  would  be  deposited  in 
such  manner  as  to  permit  of  their  removal  from  time  to  time.  The 
overflow  was  received  into  a  ditch,  1,230  feet  long,  after  flowing 
through  which  it  again  entered  the  sewer.  During  its  passage 
through  this  long  trench  about  one-third  of  the  partially  purified 
sewage  was  absorbed  into  the  porous,  gravelly  soil  in  which  the 
trench  was  dug.  An  additional  amount  of  suspended  impurities  was 
also  removed  by  means  of  bf ush  dams  placed  at  intervals  across  the 
trench. 

The  original  works  were  found  inadequate  to  the  proper  purifica- 
tion of  the  sewage,  and  in  1883  additional  settling  tanks  were  con- 
structed on  an  improved  pattern,  and  a  new  effluent  ditch,  about  1,400 
feet  in  length,  excavated  between  the  tanks  and  the  point  where  the 
sewage  was  returned  to  the  main  sewer. 

An  experiment  was  also  made  in  1884  with  a  Farquhar  mechanical 
filter,  which  proved  to  be  incapable  of  i^urifying  a  sewage  carrying  as 
large  an  amount  of  matter  in  susj)ension  as  this. 

These  various  sedimentation  and  partial  filtration  processes  having 
proven  unsatisfactory,  the  Boston  Water  Board  concluded  in  1887  to 
adopt  chemical  precipitation,  and  accordingly  detailed  AVilbur  F. 
Learned,  C.E.,  to  experiment  and  report  on  a  scheme  for  treating  the 
sewage  by  chemical  methods.  In  a  paper,  Some  Facts  about  the 
Chemical  Treatment  of  the  Mystic  Sew^age,  which  Mr.  Learned  read 
before  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  in  February,  1888,  it 
is  stated,  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  seAvage,  that  the  morning 
flow  is  very  much  diluted  with  ground-water,  but  between  10  and 
11  A.M.,  or  thereabouts,  the  sewage  gradually  grows  heavier,  reaching 
its  maximum  density  about  2  or  8  p.m.  Li  the  meantime  its  color  has 
changed  from  that  of  dirty  water  in  the  morning  to  a  brownish  black 
in  the  afternoon,  passing  through  the  various  shades  of  tan  to  very 
deep  red  and  thence  to  almost  black. 

The  total  dissolved  and  suspended  matter  is  stated  as  112  grains 
per  U.  S.  gallon  in  the  morning,  while  in  the  afternoon  a  maximum 
is  reached  of  540  grains   per  IT.  S.  gallon.     The  suspended  matter 


THE    MYSTIC    VALLEY    CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATIOlSr    WORKS.      409 

amoiiiits  to  16  graius  per  gallon  in  tlie  morning-  and  128  grains  in  the 
afternoon.  The  sewage  is  generally  neutral,  though  occasionally 
showing  a  slight  alkaline  reaction. 

In  regard  to  his  experiments  on  the  chemical  treatment  of  this  sew- 
age, Mr.  Learned  says  : 

The  I'liemical  reagent  used  for  piecipitationwas  crude  sulpliate  of  alumina  of  two 
grades,  called  S.  cake  and  B.  cake.  The  S.  cake  contains  3  per  cent,  free  sulphuric 
acid,  ly  per  cent,  free  alumina,  and  40  per  cent,  sulphate  of  alumina.  The  B.  cake 
contains  .00.3  free  sulphuric  acid,  18  per  cent,  free  alumina,  -i-i  per  cent,  sulphate 
of  alumina.  The  large  quantity  of  free  acid  in  the  S.  cake  soon  destroys  any  iron- 
work with  which  it  may  come  in  contact,  and  it  is  not  therefore  as  preferable  for  a 
precipitant  as  the  B.  cake.  The  amount  of  precipitant  used  in  the  forenoon  is 
always  less,  and  with  better  results,  than  in  the  afternoon.  For  instance,  a  jnecip- 
itant  applied  to  the  sewage  between  9  and  11  o'clock  a.m.,  at  the  rate  of  one-half 
ton  per  1,000,000  gallons  will  throw  down  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  matter  in  the 
sewage,  while  two  tons  per  1,000,000  gallons  a2:)plied  to  the  sewage  between  3  and 
4  o'clock  P.M.  will  not  precipitate  more  than  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  mattei'.  I 
have  seen  the  reagent  at  tlie  rate  of  one  ton  per  1,000,000  throw  down  31  per 
cent,  of  the  total  matter,  and  with  the  same  sewage  a  treatment  at  the  rate  of  two 
tons  per  1,000,000  gallons  throw  down  only  32  per  cent,  of  matter. 

Such  results  seem  to  show  that  beyond  certain  limits  the  chemicals  precipitate 
a  small  amount  of  matter. 

Tlie  coarse  suspended  matter  is  easily  precipitated  by  a  moderate  amoiint  of  the 
chemical  reagent,  and  some  of  the  finer  particles  arc  also  thrown  down,  whereby 
the  efflaeut  is  deprived  of  some  of  its  color,  and  a  corresponding  portion  of  the  of- 
fensive matter  removed  ;  besides  this,  there  is  dissolved  matter  which  seemingly 
undergoes  little  change  in  the  presence  of  the  chemical  reagent. 

Tlie  ipiantity  of  j^recipitant  rocommended  for  the  Mystic  sewage  is  1  75  tons  of 
crude  sulphate  of  alumina  per  1,000,000  gallons,  and  increasing  gradually  until  the 
amount  reaches  3  tons  i^er  1,000,000  between  2  and  4  o'clock  p.m.,  then  decreas- 
ing as  the  sewage  becomes  less  dense  to  the  rate  of  half  a  ton  per  1,000,000  at 
midnight.  With  this  quantity  for  a  precipitant,  it  is  believed  that  the  effluent  will 
be  clear  and  tolerably  free  of  color,  the  suspended  matter  all  thrown  down,  and  as 
much  of  the  dissolved  matter  as  may  be  consistent  with  a  single  reagent. 

Should,  however,  additional  purification  be  required,  an  increased  reagent  will 
not  give  better  results  ;  but  if  the  effluent,  having  all  the  suspended  matter  removed, 
and  in  a  state  of  comparative  purity,  be  run  on  to  land  of  a  gravelly  nature,  which 
will  act  as  a  clieniiaU  lilter,  a  still  further  state  of  purity  will  be  ol)tained. 

Vn'ocitif  of  freatiid  seit'df/e. — One  of  the  experiments  was  made  with  sewage  clari- 
fied by  subsidence  and  subsequently  treated,  thus  forming  a  large  quantity  of  tine 
flocculent  matter  which  required  a  long  time  for  precipitation. 

Tlu'  vtdocity  of  the  treated  sewage  in  the  precipitation  tanks  varied  from  0.33 
foot  per  miniite  to  0.70  foot  ])er  minute.  In  a  few  instances  definite  quantities  of 
sus|)entlt'd  matter  in  the  effluent  were  obtained,  wliile  in  other  cases  when  the 
velocitv  was  greater  no  results  were  obtained.  For  instance,  in  one  case,  when  the 
velocity  was  0.5(5  foot  per  minute.  23  grains  per  gallon  were  obtaiufMl,  and  in  an- 
other, when  the  velocity  was  0.37  foot  ])er  minute,  Ki  grains  per  gallon  wei-e  found, 
while  in  cases  when  the  velocity  was  0.70  foot  per  minute  no  results  wer(>  obtained. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  precipitation  tanks  were  inadetpiate  for  the 
purpose  of  precipitation. 

If  tliey  hail  been  twice  as  long,  in  order  to  give  the  flocculent  matter  ample  time 
to  precipitate,  I  have  no  doubt  that  a  velocity  of  0.50  foot  per  minute  would  have 
given  a  very  fine  effluent,  free  of  suspended  flocculent  matter. 

Tri'.ntmod  of  crmli'.  si'intqe  (ind  of  cUtrified  Hcii'iigc. — This  exi^eriment  consisted 
in  tn'ating  crude  and  claritied  sewage  with  equal  quantities  of  precipitant  at  dift'er- 
ent  hours  of  the  day. 

The  total  average  per  cent,  of  matter  precipitated  from  the  crude  sewage  was  20 
percent.,  and  the  anioiint  precii)itated  from  the  clarified  sewage  was  30  per  cent. 


410  SEWAGP]    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

This  small  diflference  might  have  been  increased  somewhat  by  a  greater  number 
of  trials,  but  the  difierence  will  always  be  small  when  the  amount  of  reagent  ap- 
plied to  the  crude  sewage  is  adequate,  because  it  requires  a  lai'ge  quantity  of  2)ie- 
cijiitant  to  throw  down  the  fine  particles  of  matter  in  the  clarified  sewage,  while  the 
same  quantity  applied  to  the  criide  sewage  will  give  very  nearly  as  good  results. 

Admitting  a  slight  advantage  by  treating  the  clarified  sewage  when  the  amount 
of  precipitate  alone  is  considered,  the  advantages  obtained  from  the  crude  sewage, 
such  as  compact  sludge,  active  precipitation,  etc.,  far  exceed  that  of  the  former 
method. 

The  benefit  of  having  a  compact  sludge  cannot  be  too  highly  spoken  of  ;  in  fact, 
lime  is  frequently  added  as  a  reagent  in  part  for  this  purjjose,  and  is  one  of  the  re- 
quirements in  case  the  sludge  is  to  be  pressed. 

As  the  result  of  his  experiiueiits,  Mr.  Learned  recommended  the  fol- 
lowing- for  the  Mj-stic  valley  sewag-e  : 

(1)  The  intermittent  treatment  of  the  sewage. 

(2)  The  construction  of  four  precipitation  tanks,  each  capable  of 
holding-  three  hours'  pumping-. 

(3)  A  sludge -well  into  which  the  sludge  may  be  drained. 

(4)  A  sludge-pump  for  raising  the  sludge  into  flumes,  by  which  it  may 
be  conveyed  to  shallow  basins  for  partial  desiccation  until  such  time 
as  pressing  the  sludge  may  become  a  necessity. 

(5)  A  branch  sewer  from  the  present  line  of  main  sewer  to  a  pump- 
well  on  the  city's  land. 

(6)  An  engine  and  pump  for  pumping  the  sewage  into  the  tanks. 

(7)  Tanks  and  machinery  to  aid  the  dissolving  of  the  crude  sulphate 
of  alumina. 

(8)  Buildings,  including  engine-house,  coal-shed,  etc.,  all  at  an  esti- 
mated cost  of  $11,000. 

In  accordance  with  this  recommendation  the  jDresent  works,  which 
are  illustrated  in  Figs,  57,  58,  and  59,  were  designed  and  constructed, 
ready  for  operation,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1888.  They  consist, 
in  detail,  of  a  pump-well  connected  with  the  main  sewer  by  a  branch 
sewer  of  brick,  a  sewage-pump  and  engine,  engine-house,  four  settling 
tanks,  a  sludge-well,  sludge-pump,  and  a  series  of  settling  basins  for 
receiving  the  sludge.  The  general  design  of  the  works  may  be  readily 
inferred  from  the  illustrations.  In  the  engine-house  are  three  vats 
(marked  chemical  tanks  on  the  plan),  so  arranged  that  the  precipitant 
is  fed  from  the  middle  vat,  which  is  placed  lower  than  the  other  two, 
in  which  the  precipitant  is  dissolved ;  these  vats  are  provided  with 
steam  coils  for  heating  the  water  used,  and  with  a  stirring  apparatus 
driven  by  the  engine. 

The  precipitant  is  fed  to  the  sewage  as  it  flows  from  the  branch 
sewer  into  the  pump-well ;  the  process  of  pumicing  thoroughly  incor- 
porates the  chemicals.  As  each  settling  tank  is  filled,  the  sewage  is 
allowed  to  remain  quiescent  for  about  three  hours,  after  which  time  it 
is  found  that  the  sedimentation   process  is  complete.     The  clarified 


412 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


THK    MYSTIC    VALLEY    CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    WOKKS.      413 


effluent  is  then  drawn  off  by  means  of  narrow  stop -planks,  wliicli  are 
removed  one  by  one.  During  the  winter  season  the  tanks  can  be 
filled  six  times  before  it  is 

necessary   to   remove    the  nTf';-.- 

sludge.  In  warm  weather 
the  sludge,  if  allowed  to 
remain  too  long,  is  liable 
to  become  otfensive,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  remove  it 
somewhat  oftener.  The  re- 
moval is  effected  through 
sluices  connecting  with 
the  sludge- well,  which  is 
placed  in  the  middle  space 
between  the  four  tanks,  as 
indicated  on  the  plan,  Fig. 
58.  From  the  sludge-well 
the  sludge  is  pumped  into 
a  flume,  which  conve3'S  it 
to  the  settling  basins.  A 
cross-section  through  the 
buildings,  on  the  line  C  D 
on  the  plan,  is  shown  by 
Fig.  59.  The  results  of  a 
number  of  measurements, 
made  since  the  plant  was 
put  in  operation,  show  that 
on  the  average  1  volume 
of  sludge  is  deposited  to 
every  30  volumes  of  sew- 
age treated.  After  the 
effluent  has  been  drawn 
down  as  low  as  it  can  be 
Avitliont  disturbing  the 
sludg(!,  the  latter  is  found 
to  contain  about  4  parts  of 
dry  solids  to  96  parts  of 
water;  a  large  portion  of 
the  water  disappears  in 
the  settling  basins,  leav- 
ing a  product  sufficiently 
dry  to  permit  of  handling,  and  containing  about  4  parts  of  solids  to 
12  parts  of  water.  The  volume  of  the  dry  product  is  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  10  cubic  yards  daily. 


414  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    L'jVITED    STATES. 

The  cost  of  tlie  present  works,  includiug-  the  preparation  of  the  set- 
tling basins,  was  $10,410. 

For  the  year  ending-  December  31,  1889,  the  total  amount  of  sewag-e 
pumped  and  treated  was  99,882,850  gallons,  or  324,000  gallons  per  day. 
exclusive  of  Sundays  and  legal  holidays,  when  the  jaumps  were  not 
run ;  404,270  pounds  of  sulphate  of  alumina  were  used  as  a  precijDitant. 
and  162  tons  of  coal  used  in  the  pumping. 

The  cost  of  pumping  and  treating  the  sewage,  exclusive  of  the  care 
of  the  main  sewer  and  its  branches,  is  given  as  $152.46  per  1,000,000 
gallons  treated. 

For  the  year  ending  December  31,  1890,  the  pumps  ran  335  days, 
working  5,147  hours,  and  the  amount  of  sewage  pumped  and  treated 
was  119,119,670  gallons,  making  an  average  of  355,500  gallons  per  day 
of  pumping.  The  total  amount  of  sulphate  of  alumina  used  during 
the  year  was  323,650  j)ounds.  The  coal  consumption  amounted  to  191 
tons.  The  quantity  of  sludge  removed  from  the  basins  was  2,611 
cubic  yards. 

The  rate  of  precipitant  used  for  the  year  1890  was  1  part  of  crude 
sulphate  of  alumina  to  3,067  parts  of  sewage,  or  1.36  net  tons  per 
1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage. 

For  the  13  months  ending  January  31,  1892,  the  total  quantity  of 
sewage  pumped  and  treated  was  133,102,028  gallons.  The  total 
amount  of  crude  sulphate  of  alumina  used  was  331,890  pounds;  the 
amount  of  coal,  210.66  tons. 

The  quantity  of  sludge  removed  from  the  basins  was  2,334  cubic 
yards,  the  most  of  which  was  carted  away  by  a  neighboring  farmer, 
and  used  as  a  fei-tilizer.  The  rate  of  application  of  precipitant  was 
one  part  to  3,354  parts  of  sewage,  or  1.24  net  tons  per  1,000,000  gallons 
of  sewage.* 

*  The  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  the  Mystic  Valley  Sewage  Disposal  Works  are  the  2d, 
5th,  6th,  8th.  12th,  loth,  14th,  1.5th,  and  16th  An.  Repts.  of  the.  Boston  Water  Board  ;  and  Mr. 
Learned's  paper.  Some  Facts  about  the  Chemical  Treatment  of  Mystic  Sewage,  in  the  Jour. 
Assoc,  of  Eng.  Socs.,  vol.  vii.,  No.  7  (June,  ISSS),  pp.  244-248.  Mr.  Learned's  paper  is  also  to  be 
found  in  Eng.  &  Bldg.  Reed.,  vol.  xix.  (1889),  p.  189. 


CHAPTEK  XX^T:I. 
CHEMICAL   PRECIPITATION   AT   WORCESTER,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Probably  the  sewage  disposal  of  the  city  of  Worcester,  Massachusetts, 
has  been  the  subject  of  more  discussion  than  that  of  any  other  Ameri- 
can city.  As  long-  ag-o  as  1872,  Phinehas  Ball,  C.E.,  presented  a  scheme 
for  the  utilization  of  the  Worcester  sewag^e  ;  and  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Health,  at  the  very  beginning  of  its  series  of  studies  of 
river  pollution,  selected  the  Blackstone  river,  which  receives  the  sewage 
of  Worcester,  as  one  of  the  streams  for  special  examination.  The  re- 
sults of  this  original  study  of  the  Blackstone  river  by  the  State  Board 
of  Health  are  to  be  found  in  its  Fourth  Annual  Report.  The  examina- 
tion of  the  waters  of  the  river,  which  was  thus  begun  in  1872,  was  con- 
tinued in  the  following  year,  and  the  additional  results  may  be  found 
in  the  Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Board.  In  the  Seventh  Annual 
Report  may  be  found  further  investigations,  and  a  statement  in  detail 
of  all  the  various  sources  of  pollution  which  existed  on  the  Blackstone 
river  at  that  time,  togetlier  with  anahses  of  the  water,  and  a  tabulation 
of  the  dry  weather  flow  in  relation  to  the  sources  of  pollution,  number 
of  the  same,  etc.,  per  square  mile.  From  the  sumnuay  it  appears  that 
there  were  at  that  time  44  woollen  mills,  emploj'ing  3,003  operatives  ; 
27  cotton  mills,  emi)loyiug  3,978  operatives  ;  12  iron  works,  employing 
1.224  o])eratives  ;  1  tannery,  employing  G ;  and  1  shamble,  employing  5 
<j]jeratives.  The  sewage  and  various  manufacturing  wastes  of  nearly 
all  those  establishments  passed  directly  into  the  river.  In  the  Fourth 
Annual  Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  also  given  an  extended 
series  of  analyses  of  samples  of  the  sewage  of  Worcester,  made  b^^  Pro- 
fessor Wm.  Ripley  Nichols,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  average  day 
sewage  of  Worcester  contained  at  that  time  25.35  parts  in  100,000  of 
total  dissolved  matters,  1.87G  parts  of  free  ammonia,  and  0,316  part  of 
albuminoid  ammonia.  The  average  night  sewage  contained  15.29  parts 
in  100,000  of  total  dissolved  matters,  0.745  part  of  free  ammonia,  and 
0.144  part  of  albuminoid  ammonia. 

In  order  to  understand  the  relation  of  the  City  of  Worcester  to  the 
Blackstone  river,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  river  is  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  Kettle  and  Mill  brooks,  in  the  southern  pai-t  of  the 
city  of  Worcester,  and  flows  thence  in  a  southeasterly  dir(H'tion  to  tide- 
water at  Pawtucket,  Rliodf  Island,  crossing  the  state  line  at  Black- 


416  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL  JN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

stone.  The  drainage  area  of  the  Bhickstone  in  Massachusetts,  not 
inchuling-  Mill  river,  which  unites  with  it  below  the  state  line,  is  260 
square  miles. 

The  valleys  of  the  two  streams,  which  unite  at  Worcester  to  form  the 
BJackstone  river,  contain  naturally  a  number  of  small  lakes  and  ponds. 
These  streams  are  rapid  flowing,  and,  as  on  the  other  tributaries  of  the 
Blackstone,  nearly  every  available  mill  site  in  the  valleys  has  been 
utilized  for  the  location  of  mills.  In  order  to  supply  water  power  dur- 
ing the  dry  season,  many  of  the  natural  bodies  of  water  have  been  con- 
vei-ted  into  storage  reservoirs  by  the  construction  of  dikes  and  embank- 
ments, and  in  addition  many  large  artificial  storage  reservoirs  have 
been  built.  From  this  complete  development  of  the  water  power  in 
the  vallej's  it  results  that  the  dry-weather  flow  of  the  streams  is  kept 
high  by  the  flow  of  the  large  amount  of  stored  water.  The  mills,  how- 
ever, discharge  into  the  stream,  as  already  stated,  much  of  their  sewage 
and  manufacturing  wastes,  which  are  nevertheless  more  thoroughly 
diluted  and  removed  than  they  otherwise  would  be,  by  reason  of  the 
large  dry-weather  flow  due  to  storage. 

The  city  of  A\'orcester  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  head  waters- 
of  the  Blackstone  river.  In  1892  the  sewerage  system  included  about 
80  miles  of  sewers  which  discharge  sewage  into  the  river,  chiefly 
through  Mill  brook,  one  of  the  confluent  tributaries.  An  Act  was 
passed  by  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  in  1867  allowing  Mill  brook 
to  be  used  as  a  common  sewer.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  walled  in 
and  arched  over  for  much  of  its  length  through  the  city,  so  that  it  has 
become,  substantially,  a  main  sewer  of  the  city. 

The  population  of  Worcester,  by  the  census  of  1890,  was  84,645,  and 
the  growth  during  the  previous  25  years  is  shown  by  the  following- 
figures : 

In  1865  the  population  was  30,047 ;  in  1870,  41,105  ;  in  1875,  49,317  ; 
in  1880,  58,291  ;  in  1885,  68,383. 

The  daily  consumption  of  water  is  stated  as  amounting  to  4,635,000 
gallons  in  1890.  In  1892  it  may  be  taken  at  about  5,000,000  gallons 
per  day,  giving  for  a  population  of  90,000  an  average  per  capita  of 
55.5  gallons  per  day. 

The  distance  by  river  from  Worcester  to  Blackstone,  at  the  state 
line,  is  26  miles,  and  the  fall  in  that  distance  is  220  feet,  and  through- 
out this  whole  distance  are  located  a  large  number  of  manufacturing 
establishments. 

The  Blackstone  river  is  not  used  at  any  point  for  a  public  water 
supply,  and  the  chief  reason  for  a  demand  on  the  pari;  of  the  rijiarian 
owners  below  Worcester  for  the  purification  of  the  sewage  of  that  city, 
was  the  production  of  a  nuisance  so  serious  as  not  only  to  unfit  the 
water  of  the  stream  for  use  in  manufactui'ing  operations,  but  also  be- 


CHEMICAL    PKK.CIPITATIOX    AT    WORCESTER,   MASS.  417 

cause  of  its  condition  being-  probably  dangerous  to  health.  The  phy- 
sicians practising-  in  the  towns  below  Worcester,  through  which  the 
river  flows,  for  a  number  of  years  considered  the  conditions  such  as  to 
produce  a  large  amount  of  sickness. 

In  regard  to  the  eliect  of  the  sewage  contamination  upon  the  use  of 
the  river  water  for  manufacturing  purposes,  it  was  claimed  that  light- 
colored  cloths  could  not  be  made  when  the  river  water  was  used,  and 
that  some  of  the  cotton  mills  were  obliged  to  give  up  the  making  of 
this  class  of  goods.  The  water  was  also  found  unlit  for  use  in  steam 
boilers,  causing  foaming  and  corrosion.  Statements  made  by  manu- 
facturers along  the  river  indicated  that  this  trouble  was  met  with  at  all 
the  mills  where  water  from  the  river  was  used  in  steam  boilers,  while 
those  using  the  water  of  tributary  streams  did  not  have  this  cause  for 
complaint.  The  reason  for  this  condition  of  the  river  water  was  prob- 
ably found  in  the  fact  that  a  number  of  the  manufacturing  establish- 
ments at  Worcester  discharged  a  large  amount  of  waste  acid  into  the 
stream.  This  was  particularly  the  case  with  the  sewage  from  the  wire 
works  which  are  located  there. 

As  regards  the  discharge  of  crude  sewage  into  the  Blackstone  river, 
the  effect  upon  the  city  of  Worcester  itself  has  not  been  at  any  time 
specially  unsatisfactory,  except  that  the  foul  smells  in  Mill  brook  have 
necessitated,  as  already  stated,  the  covering  of  that  stream  within  the 
city  limits.  The  nuisance,  however,  graduallj^  became  very  serious  to 
the  people  on  tke  banks  of  the  river  beloAv  Worcester,  and  was  espe- 
ciall}'  ofi'ensive  at  Millbury,  which  is  the  nearest  town  to  Worcester.* 

Having  indicated  in  the  foregoing  the  conditions  which  led  to  a  de- 
mand on  the  part  of  the  jieople  living  upon  the  banks  and  using  the 
waters  of  the  Blackstone  river  below  Worcester,  for  a  purification  of 
the  Worcester  sewage,  we  may,  before  describing  the  works  which 
have  been  actually  carried  out,  refer  to  the  several  projects  at  different 
times  proposed.  The  first  of  these,  as  already  noted,  is  Mr.  Ball's,  of 
1872.  Mr.  Ball's  report  is  given  in  the  Fourth  Annual  Report  of  the 
State  Boa  I'd  of  Health,  page  109  and  following,  and  the  map  accom- 
panying it  may  be  found  facing  page  406  in  the  Seventh  Annual  Re- 
port of  the  same  Board.  From  them  it  appears  that  Mr.  Ball  proposed 
in  1872  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  of  the  city  by  irrigation,  at  a  point 
nbout  three  miles  below  the  city  and  not  far  from  the  village  of  Mill- 
bury.  The  project  involved  the  delivery  of  the  sewage  to  this  area 
by  gravity. 

In  1881  the  town  of  Millbury  employed  Col.  George  E.  Waring,  Jr., 
**  to  suggest  some  practical )]<'>   ])lan   by  whicli  the  city  of  Worcester 

*  For  a  disciiBsion  of  the  process  of  Relf-purilication  as  exoniplitied  in  the  case  of  the  Black- 
atone  river,  see  Special  Report  of  the  Mass.  St.  Bd.  Health,  Part  I. ,  Examination  of  Water  Sup- 
plies, pp.  7'.»4-7'.tH. 
21 


418  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITP:D   STATES. 

may  withhold  from  the  Blackstone  river  the  waste  organic  matter  pro- 
duced by  the  population  and  its  industries,  and  now  jaoUuting-  that 
stream." 

The  plan  proposed  by  Col.  Waring  included  the  following  : 

I.  To  separate  the  dry-weather  sewage  of  the  city  and  the  early 
storm-washings  of  the  sewers  from  the  water  of  Mill  brook. 

II.  To  allow  the  earthy  matters  of  the  sewage  to  subside. 

III.  To  screen  out  the  coarser  objects. 

IV.  To  expose  the  screened  sewage  in  a  thin  sheet  to  the  air  during 
its  rapid  flow  for  a  distance  of  500  feet  at  a  sharp  fall. 

V.  To  carry  it  at  low  velocity  for  about  10  miles  through  ditches 
bordered  by  rank-growing  trees  or  bushes  ;  alternating  to  a  second 
set  of  ditches  as  often  as  necessary,  say  once  a  week,  so  as  to  give 
each  set  a  dry  week  for  the  aeration  of  the  subsided  matters. 

VI.  To  spread  the  resultant  effluent  over  126  acres  of  wooded  swamp 
land,  giving  each  area  two  days  out  of  three  for  aeration. 

The  area  selected  by  Col.  Waring  is  included  in  the  area  near  Mill- 
bury,  which  Mr.  Ball  proposed  to  utilize  in  1872.* 

The  Legislature  of  1881  directed  the  State  Board  of  Health  to  inves- 
tigate the  question  of  sewage  disposal  for  Worcester,  with  special 
reference  to  preventing  the  further  pollution  of  the  Blackstone  river 
and  its  tributaries,  and  recommend  a  definite  plan  for  preventing  such 
pollution.  The  Board  appointed,  as  experts,  C.  F.  Folsom,  M.D.,  and 
Joseph  P.  Davis,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  who,  acting  in  ct)njunction  with 
Dr.  Walcott,  Secretary  of  the  Board,  designed  a  system  of  disposal 
by  intermittent  filtration.  By  this  project  the  sewage  would  be  di- 
verted from  Mill  brook  and  conducted,  i^artly  by  gravity  and  partly 
by  pumping  from  a  low  area,  to  a  tract  of  land  midway  between 
Worcester  and  Millbury,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  locality  previously 
selected  by  Mr.  Ball  and  Col.  Waring,  but  at  a  somewhat  higher  eleva- 
tion. For  this  purpose  it  was  proposed  to  distribute  the  seAvage  at  a 
rate  not  exceeding  40,000  gallons  per  acre  per  day,  the  experts  express- 
ing the  opinion  that  this  daily  quantity  would  not  be  large  enough  to 
prevent  the  successful  raising  of  crops  on  the  filtration  area.  The 
estimated  cost  of  carrying  out  the  plan  of  intermittent  filtration  was 
$408,490.  The  necessary  pumping  was  estimated  at  $3,500  per  year.  The 
cost  of  construction  under  Col.  Waring's  plan  was  estimated  at  $206,500. 

Criticisms  of  Col.  Waring's  plan  are  submitted  by  the  experts  in 
their  report,  and  reasons  given  why,  in  their  opinion,  it  would  not 
provide  an  efficient  solution  of  the  sewage  disposal  problem  for 
Worcester.! 

*  Col.  Waring's  report  may  be  found  in  the  Sanitary  Appendix  to  the  8d  An.  Rept.  of  the 
Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy,  and  Charity,  for  the  year  1881. 

+  The  experts'  report  may  also  be  found  in  the  Sanitary  Appendix  to  the  3d  An.  Rept.  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy,  and  Charity. 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION"    AT   WORCESTER,   MASS.  419 

At  the  first  session  of  the  Legislature  following-  the  presentation  of 
this  report,  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  interests  of  the  residents 
along-  the  Blackstone  river  below  Worcester,  by  the  provisions  of 
which  the  city  of  Worcester  was  required  to  purify  its  sewage  before 
discharging  it  into  the  river,  within  four  months  from  its  passage,  and 
thereafter  to  cease  discharging  into  the  river  all  matter  ofi'ensive  or 
dangerous  to  public  health.  In  the  extended  hearing  which  was  given 
before  the  Joint  Standing  Legislative  Committee  on  Public  Health, 
the  riparian  owners  claimed  that  they  were  injured  in  health  and 
business  by  reason  of  the  presence  of  Worcester  sewage  in  the  stream. 
Testimony  was  given  on  the  part  of  the  petitioners  for  the  bill  to  the 
effect  that  only  a  few  years  before,  the  stream, was  pure  and  fit  for  all 
kinds  of  manufacturing  uses ;  wdiereas  now  the  stream  had  become 
offensive  to  sight  and  smell,  and  its  w^ater  rendered  entirely  unfit  for 
use  in  manufacturing.  The  city  authorities  denied  nearly  all  the 
statements  of  the  petitioners,  claiming  in  effect :  (1)  The  city  was  not 
creating  any  nuisance  ;  (2)  even  if  the  city  were  creating  a  nuisance,  it 
still  had  a  right  to  do  so  under  the  Law  of  1867,  by  wdiich  it  was  per- 
mitted to  discharge  crude  sewage  into  Mill  brook ;  (3)  the  proper 
remedy  for  the  petitioners  was  not  to  compel  Worcester  to  purify  its 
sewage,  but  to  remove  the  dams  built  l)y  the  petitioners,  thereby 
removing  obstructions  in  the  stream  which  prevented  the  sewage  from 
flowing  freely  and  purifying  itself.  The  expert  testimony  on  the  side 
of  the  city  was  prepared  by  AVm.  E.  Worthen,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  and 
the  city  engineer,  Charles  A.  Allen,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.  The  State's 
side  of  the  case  was  presented  by  Drs.  Folsom  and  AVolcott,  and  Joseph 
P.  Davis,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  who,  as  a  commission  of  experts,  had 
devised  the  project  of  disposal  by  intermittent  filtration,  already 
briefly  described.* 

The  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  city  to  the  compulsory  expendi- 
ture of  the  large  amount  of  money  which  was  required  to  effect  the 
]>urification,  was  sufficiently  strong  to  prevent  anything  being  done  at 
that  time,  and  the  Legislature  adjourned  Avithout  passing  the  Act. 
The  bill  was  again  introduced  at  the  session  of  1884,  and,  after  a 
spirited  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  city,  again  defeated,  for  reasons 
similar  to  those  which  had  been  previously  urged. 

In  his  report  to  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission  in  1885, 
Mr.  Clarke  further  considers  tln^  question  of  sewage  disposal  for  Wor- 
cester, and  reviews  the  several  reports  which  have  been  made  previous 
to  that  time.  His  conclusion  was  that  a  solution  of  tlie  problem  of 
sewage  disposal  at  Worcestc^r  had  already  been  devised  by  the  experts 

*  For  this  evi(len(!e  in  detail,  see  The  Sewa^^e  fif  Worcester  in  its  Relation  to  the  Blackstone 
River.  Hearin<;  before  the  .Joint  Coniniittee  on  Piil)lic  Health,  in  tiie  matter  of  restraininij  tlie 
city  of  Worcester  from  polluting  the  Blackstone  river.  Feb.  and  March,  1882,  Pamphlet, 
164  pages. 


420  SE^YAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

of  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1881,  and  he  therefore  investigated 
the  conditions  at  Worcester  no  further  than  was  necessary  to  verify 
the  essential  features  of  their  plans.  Mr.  Clarke  states  that  an  exam- 
ination of  the  territory  below  Worcester  showed  that  the  tract  of  land 
which  had  been  selected  as  a  filtration  area  was  most  accessible  and 
suitable  for  the  purpose.  Borings  and  test-pits  also  proved  the  adapt- 
ability of  the  soil  for  filtration. 

The  estimates  prepared  by  the  experts  were  verified  by  Mr.  Clarke, 
with  the  result  that  if  they  were  in  error  at  all  they  were  larger  than 
necessary.  Mr.  Clarke  closes  the  portion  of  his  report  treating  of 
Worcester  sewage  disposal  with  the  suggestion  that  the  Drainage 
Commission  could,  wit^Ji  ijropriety  and  safety,  recommend  that  Wor- 
cester be  required  to  purify  its  sewage  in  some  way  ;  but  that  a  choice 
of  method  and  its  details  be  determined  by  the  city  itself. 

During  the  period  of  discussion  the  pollution  increased  from  year 
to  year,  and  in  1883  the  City  Council  of  Worcester  directed  the  city 
engineer,  Charles  A.  Allen,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  to  proceed  to  Europe 
in  order  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  sewage  disposal  as  prac- 
tised there,  with  special  reference  to  the  conditions  obtaining  at  Wor- 
cester. Mr.  Allen  accordingly  visited  England,  France,  and  Germany, 
examining  the  methods  of  sewage  disposal  in  use  at  Croydon,  Don- 
caster,  Burnlej',  Bradford,  Leeds,  Barnsley,  Wigan,  Leyton,  Birming- 
ham, and  Atherton  in  England,  Paris  in  France,  and  Berlin  and 
Dantzic  in  Germany. 

Finally,  in  1886  the  Legislature  passed  an  Act  directing  that  the 
city  of  A\'orcester  should,  without  being  limited  to  any  particular 
system,  within  four  years  after  its  passage,  remove  from  its  sewage, 
before  its  discharge  into  the  Blackstoue  river,  "  the  ofi^ensive  and 
polluting  properties  and  substances  therein,  so  that  after  its  discharge 
into  said  river,  either  directly  or  through  its  tributaries,  it  shall  not 
create  a  nuisance  which  might  endanger  the  public  health." 

The  city  was  also  authorized  by  the  Act  to  acquire  rights  of  way  or 
easements  wherever  needed  for  the  construction  of  the  necessary  sew- 
erage and  sewage  disposal  works,  and  for  the  payment  of  all  damages 
sustained  by  any  person  or  corporation  by  reason  of  such  erection  or 
construction ;  also  to  raise  and  appropriate  such  sums  of  money  as 
might  be  required  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  Act. 

September  20,  1886,  the  City  Council  ordered  that  the  city  engineer 
make  such  investigations,  examinations,  surveys,  plans,  and  estimates, 
and  take  the  opinions  of  such  experts  as  he  deemed  necessary  to 
ascertain  the  best  and  most  approved  system  of  sewage  disposal  to  be 
obtained  for  the  cit}^  of  Worcester  in  compliance  with  the  law.  The 
city  engineer  was  also  directed  to  report  his  plans  as  soon  as  possible. 
In  his  reiDort,  submitted  in  accordance  with  this  order,  Mr.  Allen  first 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATIOX    AT    WORCESTER,  MASS. 


421 


gives  an  account  of  the  several  foreig-n  sewage  disposal  works  visited 
by  bim  in  1883. 

In  regard  to  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  Worcester  by  irrigation, 
Mr.  Allen  says  : 

Now  the  conditions,  climatic  and  other,  that  exist  at  Worcester  are  not  as  favor- 
able to  the  proper  treatment  of  sewage  bv  irrigation  or  by  filtration  as  in  England 
and  France,  or  even  in  Germany,  at  Berlin  and  Dautzic. 

It  has  been  stated,  both  in  rejjorts  made  upon  the  subject  of  sewage  treatment 
and  in  evidence  taken  in  support  of  the  claim  that  the  city  of  Worcester  should 
purify  its  sewage,  that  the  climate  at  Berlin  and  Dautzic,  where  broad  irrigation  is 
resorted  to,  is  substantially  the  same  as  at  Worces.er,  and  that  therefore  it  will  be 
easy  to  purify  the  sewage  of  the  city  by  irrigation  throughout  the  entire  year. 

I  think,  however,  that  there  is  a  reasonable  doubt  about  this.  The  following 
statements  of  the  diflereuce  in  temperatures  will  show  a  decided  ditierence  iu 
climatic  conditions  during  the  winter  months.  The  temperatures  at  Dautzic  were 
obtained  from  Mr.  Aird,  the  manager  of  the  farm  at  that  place,  and  are  official; 
while  the  temperatures  at  Worcester  are  taken  from  the  city  records. 

The  following  table  gives  the  differences  in  temi^erature  for  five  winters,  begin- 
ning with  December  1,  1877,  and  ending  March  31,  1883  : 


y^     .  .  Average  monthly 

^•"'"'  temperature. 

December,  1878 31°  Fahr. 

Janiiarv,  1879 28°      " 

Februarv,  "      32'      " 

March,  "    "     33°      " 


Average  by  months  .  . .    31.75'^  Fahr. 

December,  1879 27°  Fahr. 

January,  1880 29°      " 

Februarv,  "     31°      " 

March,  "     "     36"      " 


Average  by  months  . , 


December,  1880 34° 

Januarv,  1881 23° 

Februarv,  "      28° 

March,  '     "      31° 


30.75°  Fahr. 
Fahr. 


Worcester.  Av-era-e  monthly 

temperature. 

December,  1878 25°  Fahr. 

January,   1879 20°      " 

Februarv,  '•     20°      " 

March,  '     "     30°      " 


Average  by  months 


December,  1S79. 
January,  1880  . . . 
Februarv,  "  .  . . 
March,  "     «'     ... 


Average  by  months 

December,  1880 

January,  1881 

February,  "     

March,  "     "     


23.75°  Fahr. 

28° 

Fahr. 

30° 

(( 

27° 

" 

29° 

i< 

28.5°  Fahr. 

20° 

Fahr. 

16° 

" 

23° 

(< 

32° 

" 

Average  by  months  . .  .   29.5°  Fahr. 

December,  1881 31°  Fahr. 

Januarv,  1882 37°      " 

Feln-uary,  "     38°      " 

March,        "     14°      " 


Average  bv  months 


December,  1881 
January,  1882  . . 
February,  "  . . 
March,       "     . . 


Average  by  months. . .   38.25°  Fahr. 

December,  1882 26°  Fahr. 

Januarv,  1883 27^      " 

Februiiiy,  "      30°      " 

March,  "    "     26°      " 


22.75°  Fahr. 

33°  Fahr. 
21°      " 
25°      " 
32°      " 


Average  bv  months 


29.75°  Fahr. 


Average  by  months 

December,   1882 

January,  1883 

February,  *'     

March,       "     


27.75°  Fahr. 

23° 

Fahr. 

18° 

i< 

22° 

(( 

23° 

<( 

Average  by  months  . .  .  21.5°  Fahr. 


It  will  1)0  noticed  that,  witli  tlie  exception  of  tlie  winter  of  bS79-80,  the  mercury 
ranged  much  lower  at  Worcester  tiian  at  Dantzic,  a  difference  of  from  7°  to  8°  Fahr. 


422  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

for  the  entire  season  being  the  general  amount.  This,  of  course,  makes  a  great 
difference  in  frost  penetration,  and  adds  to  the  liability  of  the  ground  remaining 
frozen. 

An  examination  of  the  tables  of  daily  temperature  .  .  .  shows  that,  in  the 
five  years  covered  by  the  tables  given  above,  at  Dantzic  there  were  only  three  days 
during  that  period  that  the  tliermometer  registered  below  zero,  the  extreme  being 
4°  degrees  below  ;  while  at  Worcester,  during  the  same  period,  there  were  forty 
days  below  zero,  with  an  extreme  of  IS"  below. 

At  Dantzic  there  were  thirty-eight  days  in  which  the  temperature  was  between 
10°  and  'iO"  above  zero,  while  at  \\'orcester  there  were  164  days. 

While  there  were  364  days  at  Dantzic  in  which  the  thermometer  registered  be- 
tween .20°  and  32°  degrees  above,  at  Worcester  there  were  221  days. 

The  total  number  of  days  covered  by  the  observations  in  the  five  years  was  606. 
Of  this  number  Dantzic  had  460  below  the  freezing  point,  or  about  75.9  per  cent., 
while  Worcester  had  542  days,  or  89.4  per  cent. 

While  Dantzic  had  only  114  days  below  20",  or  18.8  percent.,  Worcester  had 
328,  or  54.1  per  cent.* 

As  has  been  stated  in  the  description  of  the  woilis  at  Berlin,  the  sewage  is  stored 
in  large  reservoirs  during  the  severest  ])ortion  of  the  winter,  no  attempt  being 
made  to  purify  by  irrigation  ;  while  at  Dantzic  it  is  constantly  applied  to  the  land 
without  regard  to  the  weather,  the  manager  stating  that  while  the  action  of  the 
frost  interfered  somewhat  with  the  oi)eration  of  the  works,  still  the  periods  of  ex- 
treme cold  were  of  so  short  duration  that  no  serious  difficulty  was  exi^erienced. 

A  glance  at  the  tal)le  of  temperature  will  illustrate  this  fact.  For  instance,  from 
the  25th  to  the  28th  inclusive  of  January,  1881,  was  the  coldest  weather  indicated 
for  any  four  consecutive  days  in  the  five  years.  For  the  following  twenty  days  the 
temperature  averaged  33°,  one  degree  above  the  freezing  point,  so  that  whatever 
frost  had  penetrated  the  ground  during  the  .short  cold  period  would  undoubtedly 
be  removed  long  before  the  twenty  days  had  expired.  In  fact,  there  could  have 
been  very  little  severe  frost  after  this  time,  for  the  average  temperatuie  of  the 
month  of  Februarv  following  was  28°  Fahr. ,  while  March  hud  an  average  of  34° 
Fahr. 

It  is  true  that  here  in  New-  England  extremes  of  cold  are  followed  frequently  by 
warmer  i^eriods — that  is,  the  weather  is  not  excessively  cold  for  long  periods  of 
time  ;  but  the  reaction  is  not  generally  great,  and  it  is  almost  too  well  known  a  fact 
to  be  commented  upon,  that  after  the  frost  once  enters  the  ground  here,  it  stays 
with  almost  constantly  increasing  depth  until  spring  fairly  opens. 

That  this  difference  in  climatic  conditions  is  likely  to  prove  a  troublesome  mat- 
ter, if  any  method  of  land  treatment  is  exclu.sively  relied  upon,  there  would  seem 
to  be  but  little  doubt. 

In  Mr.  Allen's  opinion  the  climatic  difficulty  at  Worcester  was  likely 
to  be  a  serious  one,  and  he  accordingly  deemed  it  desirable  to  take 
the  opinion  of  some  of  the  ablest  English  sanitary  engineers  upon 
this  point.  In  response  to  a  request  from  him,  Mr.  B.  S.  Brundell, 
M.  Inst.  C.E.,  who  has  constructed  many  sewage  farms,  among  them 
the  farm  at  Doncaster,  England,  which  is  one  of  the  most  successful 
(from  a  sanitarj^  point  of  view),  wrote  as  follows  : 

Sewage  if  properly  applied  to  land  may  be  purified ;  but  the  ojieration  is  not 
l^rofitable.  That  is  to  say,  sewage  farming  cannot,  save  in  excejjtional  instances, 
be  made  to  pay.  Given  a  sufficient  and  suitable  area  of  land,  and  if  the  sewage  is 
passed  either  over  or  through  it  you  can  have  an  effluent  water  fit  to  pass  into  any 

*  For  complete  table  of  comparative  dally  temperatures  at  Worcester  and  Dantzic  for  the  five 
winters,  187S-79  to  1882-83  inclusive,  see  either  the  Appendix  to  Mr.  Allen's  original  report,  or 
his  paper  on  Sewage  Disposal,  in  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  CE. ,  vol.  xviii.,  pp.  16-17. 

Also  refer  to  table  on  page  306  for  mean  temperature  of  winter  months  at  Dantzic  for  81  years. 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT    WORCESTER,   MASS.  423 

stream  without  polluting  that  stream.  Wlietber  what  is  known  as  sewage  farming 
could  be  made  to  succeed  in  your  climate  it  is  almost  impossible  to  sav. 

With  a  winter  of  extreme  severity  extending,  as  you  say,  from  early  in  November 
to  April,  and  with  the  ground  frozen  from  three  to  five  feet  deep  for  a  good  part  of 
that  time,  the  apidicatiun  of  sewage  would  be  extremely  difficult. 

Our  winters  here,  although  adding  to  the  trouble  of  sewage  irrigation,  do  not 
make  it  impossible.  The  temperature  of  the  sewage  when  it  reaches  the  laud  is 
sufficiently  high  to  keep  the  otitfulla  open  ;  but  of  course  when  it  spreads  upon  the 
land  it  soon  becomes  frozen,  and  reniains  a  glazed  surface  until  the  thaw  sets  in, 
when  it  is  gradually  absorl>ed  by  the  land. 

I  do  not  feel  able  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  how  far  this  process  would  be  limited 
by  the  degree  of  cold  to  which  you  are  liable,  but  I  foresee  very  considerable  dif- 
ficulty in  the  matter. 

Mr.  James  Mansergb,  M.  Inst,  C.E.,  in  ansAver  to  a  similar  inquiry 
addressed  to  him,  A^rrote  as  follows  : 

I  have  carefully  considered,  in  the  light  of  my  experience  in  England,  whether 
under  such  conditions  as  these,  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  way  of  broad  irrigation 
and  downward  intermittent  filtration  may  be  counted  on  as  a  reliable  and  satis- 
factory mode  of  treatment. 

My  experience  on  this  matter  dates  from  the  year  1860,  when,  in  conjunction 
with  my  then  partner,  Mr.  Hugh  U.  McKie,  C.E.,  City  Surveyor  of  Carlisle,  I  laid 
out  the  first  sewage  farm  ever  made  in  England,  to  Mr.  McKie  being  due  the  credit 
of  its  suggestion  and  initiation. 

Since  that  time,  I  have  laid  out  the  following  sewage  farms  :— Bedford,  Tun- 
bridge  Wells — with  two  farms,  Colney  Hatch,  Leavesden,  and  Caterham  Metro- 
politan Lunatic  Asylum,  Lincoln  County  Asylum,  Ormskirk,  Reading.  Grantham, 
Southborongh,  Lincoln,  St.  Albans,  Chesham,  Bethesda,  and  Burton-upnn-Trent 
(now  in  hand),  and  I  have  advised  upon  Ashford,  Hildenborough,  Eotherham, 
Birmingham,  Hereford.  Staines,  Waltham,  etc.,  etc. 

I  believe  my  practice  in  this  branch  of  engineering  is  not  second  to  that  of  any 
man  in  England. 

During  my  connection  with  those  works,  and  on  my  visits  to  other  sewage  farms, 
I  made  myself  acquainted  with  the  circumstances  of  the  application  of  sewage  to 
land  daring  our  English  winters,  and  since  my  interviews  with  yourself  I  have 
made  special  and  i)articular  inquiries  at  several  of  the  farms  above  mentioned. 

Tlie  general  experience  in  England  undoubtedly  is  that  with  ordinary  care  no 
real  ilifficulty  is  experienced  in  getting  rid  of  sewage  during  frosty  weather. 

This,  I  think,  may  be  accepted  as  a  fact.  At  the  same  time,  I  have  myself  .seen  ice 
six  or  eight  inches  thick  on  a  .sewage  farm  with  a  clay  subsoil,  and  the  sewage  con- 
tinuing to  freeze  on  the  surface;  and  I  have  heard  tliat,  in  the  severe  winters  we 
have  had  here  since  1878,  it  has  been  with  some  difficulty  that  trouble  has  been 
avoided  on  more  than  one  farm. 

It  is  palpable  that  the  risks  are  greater  where  sewage  is  put  upon  clay  lands  than 
where  the  subsoil  is  an  open  or  loamy  gravel. 

If  the  land  can  be  kept  unfrozen  on  the  surface  by  the  continuous  application  of 
the  relatively  warm  sewage,  all  goes  well. 

A  thin  coating  of  ice  may  be  formed  during  the  nights,  but  the  sewage  can,  as  a 
rule,  be  readily  distributed  under  this  film. 

In  this  country  we  rarely  have  long  spells  of  hard  frost  itnbroken  by  short  inter- 
vals of  hei<,'htened  temperature. 

Under  the  conditions  you  have  described  to  me,  I  should  have  very  great  hesita- 
tion in  recommending  the  process  of  broad  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration  as 
reliable  modes  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  and  preventing  the  jiollution  of  the  river. 

I  should  fear  that  during  such  frosts  as  you  tell  me  not  unfrequently  prevail, 
the  ground  would  get  fio/.en  so  hard  as  to  render  it  impervious  to  the  sewage, 
which  would  then  simply  flow  over  the  sui'face  into  the  river  or  its  tributaries  in  a 
crude  condition. 

In  order  to  acquaint   myself  more  i)arfifnlarly  with  the  relative  temperatures  at 


424  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Worcester,  U.  S.,  and  England,  I  have  olitained  certain   statistics  from  Mr.  G.  W. 
Symonds,  F.R.S.,  which  I  have  embodied  in  the  accomi^anying  diagram.* 

In  addition  to  Worcester  and  London,  all  the  facts  are  given  with  accuracy  ia 
respect  of  Vienna  and  so  far  as  concerns  the  "  mean  "  in  resj^ect  of  Berlin,  but  "the 
"  minimum  "  of  Berlin  is  merely  the  best  approximation  I  can  just  now  i^rocure. 

From  this  diagram  I  learn  that,  speaking  broadly,  the  "  mean  "  temjierature  of 
the  months  from  November  to  March  in  Worcester  and  London  compare  as  follows : 
November,  Worcester     3°  Fahr.  lower  than  London. 
December,  "         12°        "         "  "  " 

Januarv,  "         15° 

February,  ♦'         15°       " 

March,  '«  D"       "         "  "  " 

The  lowest  recorded  temperatures  compare  as  follows  : 

November,  Worcester  10°  Fahr.  lower  than  Loudon. 
December,  "         10° 

January,  "         21°       " 

February,  "         34°       "  "  "  ♦• 

March,  "  "         21°       '• 

Making  the  comparison  between  the  mean  monthly  temperatures  of  Worcester 
and  Berlin  (the  sewage  works  of  which  city  you  have  seen)  the  figures  come  out  as 
follows : 

November,  Worcester     1°  Fahr.  lower  than  Berlin. 
December,  "  8°       «' 

January,  "  4°       "         "  "  " 

February,  "  6°       "         "  "  " 

March,  "  5°       "         "  "  " 

I  find  from  the  diagram  that  the  mean  temperatures  of  Worcester  are  as  follows : 
November,     7°  Fahr.  above  freezing  point. 
December,     5°      "       below         "  " 

Januarv,  8°  " 
Februarv,       7°       « 

March,  "         1°       "       above        "  " 

and  the  minimum  temperatures  are  as  follows : 

October,         6°  Fahr.  below  freezing  point. 
November,  20°       " 

December,  35°       "  "  "  " 

January,  46°  " 
FebruaW,  51°  " 
March,  '  32°  " 
April,  10        " 

All  these  figures  confirm  mo  in  my  opinion  that  it  would  not  be  prudent  to  trust 
to  getting  rid  of  sewage  satisfactorily  at  Worcester  by  tlie  irrigation  process.f 

Contiuuing-  the  discussion  of  objections  to  broad  irrig-ation  and  in- 
termittent filtration,  in  their  application  to  the  conditions  obtaining*  at 
Worcester,  Mr.  Allen  says : 

The  great  difference  in  the  amount  of  annual  rainfall  is  also  an  important  factor 
to  be  considered.  The  greatest  rainfall  given  at  any  place  visited  was  at  Wigan, 
where  the  average  is  about  forty  inches  per  annum,  while  the  smallest  amount  was 
at  Barnsley,  where  the  average  was  given  as  28-ftr  inches  j^er  annum.  The  average 
of  all  places  visited  was  34  inches  per  annum. 

At  Worcester  the  average  is  about  48  inches  per  annum,  the  lowest  recorded 
amount  for  one  year  being  .34.5  inches  (or  about  the  snme  as  the  average  amount  at 
the  places  where  inquiry  was  made),  while  the  greatest  recorded  rainfall  for  one 
year  at  Worcester  is  G1.48  inches. 

Now  it  is  generally  the  experience  abroad  that  during  storms  the  sewage  has  to 

*  The  diagram  is  not  given  in  Mv.  Allen's  report. 

t  For  further  definition  of  the  limitations  of  irrigation  in  winter,  see  Chapter  XVII. 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT   WORCESTER,  MASS.  425 

be  disposed  of  in  some  other  way  than  by  irrigation,  the  ground  being  frequently 
surcharged  with  water,  rendering  it  incapable  of  purifying  the  sewage  at  all.  "With 
the  large  rainfall  here,  this  difficulty  would  be  very  much  increased. 

Aside  from  the  difficulties  caused  by  climatic  difl'erences,  there  is  still  another 
objection  to  irrigation  that  in  the  case  of  the  city  of  Worcester  should,  it  seems  to 
me,  jiave  great  weight.  I  refer  to  the  loss  of  water  by  this  means  of  sewage  dis- 
posal. Just  what  the  amount  would  be  that  the  vegetation  would  absorb,  and  that 
would  evaporate,  can  only  be  determined  by  actual  trial. 

At  Berlin,  the  experiments  show  that  at  least  '60  per  cent,  is  retained,  while  at 
Doncaster  most  of  the  water  is  lost  in  this  way,  the  reason  being  that  only  a  small 
qiiantity  of  sewage  is  applied  to  any  one  piece  of  land,  the  intention  being  not  to 
apply  more  than  would  come  in  an  ordinary  rainfall.  That  the  loss  of  water  would 
be  considerable  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

For  this,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  the  city  would  have  to  pay,  as  it  is  situated 
at  the  head  of  a  manufacturing  stream,  where  great  value  is  jolaced  upon  every 
drop  of  water  retained  by  any  means,  judging  from  the  suits  that  have  been 
brought  against  tlie  city  for  water  taken  for  domestic  and  general  water  supply 
purposes. 

That  this  claim  will  be  made,  the  following  quotation  will  show.  It  is  taken 
from  the  "  Keport  of  Millbury,"  dated  Dec.  15th,  1881,  and  printed  in  connection 
with  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  Lunacy,  and  Charity,  1882  : 

"  At  this  time,  permit  us  to  refer  to  a  matter  which  we  think  ought  not  to  be 
lost  sight  of  in  this  connection.  Whatever  plan  may  eventually  be  adopted,  there 
will  necessarily  result  a  greater  or  less  loss  of  water,  which,  in  the  dry  season  of 
the  year,  when  evaporation  takes  place  rapidly,  may  amount  to  so  much  as  to  be  a 
serious  matter  to  the  mills  using  the  stream  for  water  jjower.  Even  now  the  loss 
to  manufacturers  is  noticeable.  But  it  is  claimed  that  whatever  water  is  taken  for 
the  Worcester  water  sui)ply  is  returned  to  the  river  through  the  sewers.  This  can, 
of  course,  be  true  only  to  a  certain  extent.  With  the  sewer  water  used  for  irriga- 
tion and  restrained  for  jjurposes  of  purification,  the  loss  will  bo  niueli  greater. 

"  We  should  urge  the  necf^ssity  of  i)roviding  some  means  to  make  good  this  loss. 
And  we  respectfully  ask  th-.it,  should  your  Board  report  to  the  Legislature  a  ])lan  to 
prevent  the  pollution  of  the  river,  they  will  also  rei)ort  that,  by  means  of  additional 
storage  basins  to  be  used  for  this  purpose,  the  city  should  make  good  the  conse- 
quent loss  of  water." 

This  report  was  signed  by  George  A.  Flagg,  C.  D.  Morse,  and  Osgo(^d  H.  Waters, 
Committee  of  the  Town  of  Millbury. 

While  they  do  not  ask  to  be  paid  for  water  lost,  they  do  ask  that  compensating 
reservoirs  may  be  constrricted,  which  amounts  to  about  tlie  same  thing. 

The  above  are  the  principal  objections  to  irrigation  so  far  as  the  city  of  Worces- 
ter is  concerned.  While  they  are  more  or  less  local  in  their  character,  there  is 
danger  that  l)y  the  adoption  of  irrigation,  especially  when  a  large  quantity  of  sew- 
age is  to  be  treated,  the  irrigation  fields  will  become  a  greater  nuisance  than 
the  one  which  is  to  be  abated.  In  other  words,  it  takes  the  most  careful  manage- 
ment to  prevent  a  sewage  farm  from  becoming  offensive. 


What  has  been  said  in  relation  to  the  adoption  of  a  scheme  for  treating  the  sew- 
age of  Worcester  by  irrigation,  applies  also  to  intermittent  downward  filtration,  so 
far  as  the  effect  of  the  climatic  and  other  conditions  are  concerned  ;  in  some  re- 
spects, however,  not  to  so  great  an  extent.  For  instance,  the  amount  of  water  lost 
by  evaporation  and  absorjition  would  not  be  as  great.  The  effect  of  severe  frosts 
would  probably  be  about  the  same,  as  in  order  to  obtain  an  effluent  that  is  at  all 
satisfactory,  the  application  (as  the  name  of  the  system  inii)lies)  vms/  be  intermit- 
tent. It  will  not  do  to  simply  turn  tlie  sewage  constantly  over  a  single  area  of  un- 
derdrained  land,  and  exjjcct  that  a  clear  effluent  will  be  obtained  :  the  haul  ?uust 
have  rest.  "  Tlie  intenuittency  is  a  sine  f/i«i  xon,  (>ven  in  suitably  constituted  .soils, 
whenever  complete  success  is  aimed  at."  The  danger  would  be  that  after  one  fil- 
tration area  has  received  all  tlie  sewage  that  can  be  ap])lied  at  one  time,  and  before 
the  relatively  warm   sewage  can  be  again  ai>plied    (generally   after  three   or  four 


426  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

days),  the  ground  would  be  frozen  to  such  an  extent  that  filtration  would  not  take 
place. 

The  temperature  of  the  sewage  has  therefore  much  to  do  with  the  length  of  time 
that  the  ground  can  be  kept  open,  and  also  with  the  extent  of  the  area  upon  which 
sewage  can  be  applied  in  cold  weather.  There  were  only  two  places  that  I  visited 
where  a  record  had  been  kept  of  the  temi^erature  of  the  sewage,  viz.,  at  Berlin  and 
Paris.  At  the  former  place  the  lowest  tempeiature  reached  in  winter  was  45°  F., 
while  at  the  latter  place  the  minimum  was  41°  F. 

At  \Yorcester  the  sewers  have  all  been  constructed  to  receive  drainage  of  every 
nature.  All  surface  water  is  conducted  to  them,  and  in  consequence  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  sewage  is  at  times  very  low.  The  record  shows  that  in  the  main  lateral 
sewers  as  low  as  38°  F.  is  readied.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  sewage  taken 
from  them  and  applied  to  the  I'md  would  freeze  quickly,  and  could  not  bedei^ended 
upon  to  keep  the  ground  free  from  fi'ost. 

The  advantage  that  intermittent  tiltration  would  have  over  broad  irrigation  is 
that  a  much  smaller  area  of  land  would  be  required,  and  the  raising  of  crops  would 
have  to  be  made  of  secondary  importance.  In  fact,  it  would  be  much  better  not  to 
attempt  to  ya\>e  crops  at  all,  as  the  income  derived  therefrom  would  be  small,  and 
the  tendency  would  probably  be  to  neglect  the  purification  of  the  sewage  in  order 
to  derive  as  large  an  income  as  possible  from  the  land. 

It  must  be  understood  that  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  effluent,  especially  when 
the  area  of  land  is  limited,  some  means  of  separating  the  sludge  from  the  sewage 
is  almost  absolutely  necessary  to  j^revent  the  ground  from  clogging.  This  fact  is 
recognized  by  English  authorities  and,  as  before  shown,  this  method  of  sewage 
treatment  is  rarely  used  except  as  an  auxiliary  to  irrigation  or  precipitation. 

Chemical  precipitation  would  not  be  subject  to  the  objections  spoken  of  above, 
and  where  the  sewage  has  to  be  treated  constantly,  through  the  entire  year,  would 
seem  to  be  the  most  favorable  method  for  adoption  at  Worcester. 

On  account  of  the  peculiar  quality  of  the  Worcester  sewag^e,  due  to 
the  character  of  the  manufacturing-  wastes,  it  was  considered  desirable, 
before  actually  deciding-  to  use  the  method  of  chemical  purification,  to 
obtain  some  idea  of  the  probable  amount  of  chemicals  which  would  be 
required  irf^order  to  produce  a  satisfactory  effluent.  Professor  L.  P. 
Kinnicutt,  of  the  Worcester  Free  Institute,  was  requested  to  make  a 
series  of  analyses,  and  give  an  opinion  as  to  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  precipitating-  reagent  best  suited  to  the  conditions.  The  following" 
is  from  his  report : 

As  to  the  chemical  character  of  Worcester  sewage  a  few  words  are  necessary. 
Worcester  sewage,  in  consequence  of  the  nature  and  character  of  its  manufacturing 
interests,  contains,  as  may  be  seen  from  tables  given  below,  a  very  large  amount  of 
soluble  sulphates.  It  is  well  known  that  sea  water  cannot  be  used  for  flu.shing 
sewers,  nor  can  sewage  be  run  into  the  sea  near  the  shore  without  a  dreadful  stink 
resulting.  The  cause  of  this  stink  is  that  the  organic  matter  reduces  the  suljihates 
contained  in  the  sea  water  to  the  state  of  sul])hides,  which  are  then  acted  ujjon  by 
the  carbonic  acid,  aiid  su]]ihuretted  hydrogen  is  set  free.  That  these  reactions 
would  take  place  if  Worcester  sewage  was  treated  according  to  either  of  the  first 
two  methods  mentioned,  seems  to  me  more  than  ])robable.  The  suli:)hates  in  the 
sewage  would  be  reduced  to  sulphides,  and  not  only  carbonic  acid  but  the  free  acid 
in  the  sewage  would  immediately  decompose  these  sulphides,  and  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, with  its  disgusting  odor,  would  he  continually  given  off. 

The  amount  of  iron  sni/s  contained  in  Worcester  sewage  is  also  large.  Salts  of 
iron  are  decomposed  by  alkaline  substances,  an  insoluble  hydrate  of  iron  being 
formed,  which  attracts  to  itself  the  suspended  matter  in  the  sewage   and  carries  it 


CHEMICAL    PKECIPITATION    AT    WORCESTER,   MASS.  427 

to  the  bottom.  In  purification  of  sewage  by  precipitation,  iron  salts  are  commonly- 
added  after  the  sewage  has  been  made  decidedly  alkaline  by  the  addition  of  lime. 
The  presence  of  these  iron  salts,  therefore,  would  be  an  advantage  in  any  precipi- 
tation process,  while  they  would  be  more  or  less  detrimental  in  an  irrigation  or 
intermittent  filtration  process. 


The  second  part  of  your  question.  What  chemicals  and  what  amount  of  chemicals 
are  necessary  to  add  to  Worcester  sewage,  so  as  to  produce  an  effluent  which  would 
be  harmless  when  emptied  into  the  Blackstone  river  ?  I  find  difficult  to  answer 
fully  at  this  time.  Tlie  answer  to  the  question  depends  on  the  character  of  the 
sewage  ;  what  substances  and  what  amount  of  these  substances  are  contained  in  the 
sewage.  To  determine  this  a  series  of  careful  analyses  made  on  samples  collected 
at  lialf-liour  intervals  during  a  number  of  days  is  necessary,  the  sewage  being  at 
the  time  of  collection  the  normal  dry-weather  sewage.  The  last  part  of  the  above 
condition  could  not  be  fulfilled,  as  the  flow  of  Mill  brook  at  Cambridge  street  for 
twenty-four  hours  is  at  jjresent  about  seventeen  million  gallons,  which  would  not 
be  tiie  case  if  its  flow  depended  entirely  on  the  sewage  received  from  the  city. 

Such  being  tiie  case,  I  have  not  thought  it  best  to  make  a  long  series  of  analyses, 
as  I  should  like  to  have  done,  and  have  only  made  four  analyses,  two  of  day  and 
two  of  night  sewage.  Each  day  and  night  sample  was  obtained  by  uniting  half- 
hour  sam])les  taken  throughout  the  twelve  hours  from  Mill  brook  at  Cambridge 
street.     Table  No.  1  gives  the  results  of  the  analyses  in  parts  per  100,000. 

Table  No.  2  gives  the  number  of  jjarts  per  100,000  if  the  total  amount  of  solid 
matter  in  the  sewage  remained  the  same,  while  the  flow,  instead  of  being  17,370,000 
gallons,  was  reduced  to  the  normal  dry-weather  flow  of  about  3,500,000  gallons  ; 
and  also  gives,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  the  mean  of  181  analyses  of  London 
sewage,  as  given  by  Mr.  Diliden  in  the  Rejiort  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Metro- 
politan Sewage  Discharge,  Vol.  2,  Page  158. 

Table  No.  3.  columns  1,  2,  and  3,  give  the  total  number  of  poiands  of  the  variou.s 
ingredients  contained  in  twenty-foiir  hours'  flow  of  Mill  brook  at  Cambridge  street ; 
and  column  -4  gives  the  calculated  number  of  jjounds  that  would  be  found  in  twen- 
ty-four hours  in  1,000,000  gallons  if  the  total  amount  of  solids  remained  the  same, 
while  the  flow,  instead  of  i)eing  17,370,000,  was  3,500,000,  or,  in  other  words,  gives 
an  appro.\imate  idea  of  the  amount  of  the  various  ingredients  in  1,000,000  gallons 
of  Worcester's  dry- weather  sewage. 

Table  No.  1. — Analyses  of  Worcester  Sewage.     Parts  per  100,000. 
January  14th  and  15th. 

6  A.M.  to  6  P.M.  ti  P.M.  to  6  A.M.  Average. 

Total  solids 43.42  43.42          29.45  29.45          36.43     36.43 

Volatile 14.72  7.82  11.27 

Inorganic 28.70  21.63  25.16 

Snsi)ended 9.92  6.15                          8.03 

Soluble 33.50  33.50           23  30  23.30           28.40     28.40 

Volatile 9.50  3.90  6.70 

Inorganic  24.00  19.40  21.70 

CliloriiH! 4.375  2.58  3.477 

Sulphur  trioxide 8.104  6.07  7.086 

Nitric  acid   trace  trace  trace 

Ferrous  oxide 3.130  2.783  2.956 

Free  ammonia ...     0.554  0.377  0.465 

Albuminoid  ammonia 0.178  0.105  0.141 

Free  acid,  in  terms  of  sul- 
phuric acid 3.611  3.680  3.645 


428  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

January  18th  and  19tli. 

9  A.M.  to  9  P.M.                9  P.M.  to  9  A.M.  Average. 

Total  solids 48.40      48.40          21.60      21.60  35.00    35.00 

Volatile    20.77                            6.10  13.43 

Inorganic 27.63                          15.50  21.57 

Suspended  16.00                          4.10  10.05 

Soluble 32.40      32.40          17.50       17.50  24.95     24.95 

Volatile 10.40                            3.50  6.95 

Inorganic 22.00                          14.00  18.00 

Chlorine 4.017                          2.25  3.133 

Sulphur  trioxide 8.113                          3.917  6.015 

Nitric  acid trace                          trace  trace 

Ferrous  oxide 3.121                          2.018  2.571 

Free  ammonia 0.780                          0.274  0.527 

Albuminoid  ammonia 0.266                          0.066  0.166 

Free  acid,  in  terms  of  sul- 
phuric acid 5.091                         2.74  3.91 

Table  No.  2. 

Column  1.  Parts  per  100,000,  mean  value  of  four  analyses  if  total  amount  of 
solid  matter  in  the  sewage  remained  the  same,  while  flow  was  reduced  to  3,500,000 
gallons.     Column  2.  Mean  of  181  analyses  of  London  sewage. 

No.  1.  No.  2. 

Total  solids 177.2         177.2  123.83       123.83 

Volatile 61.3  45.50 

Inorganic 115.9  78.33 

Suspended 44.8  39.13 

Soluble 1,32.4        132.4  84.70        84.70 

Volatile 33.86  27.6 

Inorganic 98.49  57. 1 

Chlorine 16.40  15.0 

Sulphur  trioxide 32.50 

Ferrous  oxide : 13.71 

Free  ammonia 2  461  4.51 

Albuminoid  ammonia 0  759  0.547 

Free  acid,  in  terms  of  suljihuric  acid 18.745 

Table  No.  3. 

Columns  1,  2,  and  3.  Total  number  of  pounds  contained  in  twenty-four  hours' 
flow  of  Mill  brook  at  Cambridge  street.  Column  4.  Total  number  of  pounds  in 
1,000,000  gallons  if  the  flow  was  3,500,000  instead  of  17,370,000  gallons,  the  total 
amount  of  solid  matter  remaining  the  .same. 

No.  1,  Jan.  14.  No.  2,  .Ifin.  18. 

Total  solids 52,057     52,057  51,586     51,586 

Volatile 16,100  19,786 

Inorganic 35,957  31,800 

Suspended 11,457  14,814 

Soluble 40,600    40,600  36,757    36,757 

Volatile 9,570  10,230 

Inorganic 31,030  26,527 

Chlorine 4,970  4,617 

Sulphur  trioxide 10, 127  8,953 

Ferrous  oxide 4,224  3,793 

Free  ammonia 664  777 

Albuminoid  ammonia 201  245 

Free  acid,  in  terms  of  sulphuric  acid.    ...      5,210  5,733 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT    WORCESTER,  MASS.  429 

No.  3,  mean  of  No.  4.  amount  in 

1  and  -2.  l.C'00,OOU  gallons. 

Total  solids 51,821  51,821                 14,806     1-1,806 

Volatile 17,913  5,127 

Inorganic 33,878  9,678 

Suspended 18,142  3,754 

Soluble 38,679  38,679                11,051     11,051 

Volatile 9,900  2,829 

Inorganic 28,779  8,222 

Chlorine 4,790  1,368 

Sulphur  trioxide 9,540  2,726 

Ferrous  oxide 4,008  1,145 

Free  ammonia 720  206 

Albuminoid  ammonia 223  63 

Free  acid,  in  terms  of  sulphuric  acid 5,477  1,565 

Tlie  above  tables,  on  account  of  the  verv  large  flow  of  Mill  brook  at  the  present 
time,  do  not  pretend  to  any  very  great  degree  of  accuracy  ;  but  they  show  the  gen- 
eral characteristics  of  Worcester  sewage  and  give  a  basis  from  which  deductions  can 
be  drawn. 

They  indicate,  first,  that  Worcester  sewage,  taking  the  free  ammonia  as  an  index, 
contains  about  one-half  as  much  organic  matter  in  solution  as  the  average  English 
sewage,  of  which  London  sewage  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  example. 

That  Worcester  sewage  contains  a  very  large  amount  of  inorganic  salts. 

That  the  amount  of  soluble  sulphates  and  salts  of  iron  in  the  sewage  is  very 
large. 

That  the  sewage  has  a  decidedly  acid  character,  while  sewage  as  a  rule  is  of  an 
alkaline  nature. 

These  characteristics,  which  can  easily  be  explained  by  noting  the  character  of 
Worcester's  chief  industries,  make  it  difHcult  to  draw  an  analogy  from  any  of  the 
careful  experiments  made  in  England  ;  and  without  practical  experiments  with  our 
own  sewage,  my  opinion  as  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  chemicals  that  are  best  to  use 
can  only  be  considered  approximately  correct. 

In  dealing  with  this  question  the  two  most  important  facts  to  be  considered  are, 
the  acid  character  of  the  sewage,  and  the  large  amount  of  soluble  sulphates  and  iron 
salts  which  it  contains. 

In  all  processes  of  chemical  precipitation  an  alkaline  sewage  is  necessary.  To 
change  the  acid  character  of  Worcester  sewage  to  an  alkaline  character  would  be  the 
first  stej),  no  matter  what  chemicals  are  afterwards  to  be  used.  This  could,  I  think, 
be  best  accomplished  by  the  addition  of  lime.  The  amount  of  quicklime  necessary 
to  add  to  1,()00,()()0  gallons  of  Worcester  dry-weather  sewage  (taking  Table  3,  column 
4,  as  the  basis  for  calculation)  would  be  about  900  poiinds. 

By  the  addition  of  this  amount  of  lime  the  sewage  would  not  only  be  made  alka- 
line, but  a  part  of  the  process  of  chemical  ]ii-ecipitation  would  be  accomplished. 

Calcium  suli)hate,  a  heavy,  fairly  insoluble  substance,  would  be  formed,  and  a  por- 
tion of  the  iron  salts  would  tend  to  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid,  carrying  a  part 
of  the  STispended  organic  matter. 

Tlie  sewage  would  not  be  in  a  condition  where  a  chemical  precipitation  process 
could  be  ap]»lied. 

Tlie  various  processes  of  chemical  ]>recipitation  only  differ  from  each  other  in  the 
kind  of  chemicals  used  and  tlie  manner  in  which  they  are  applied.  For  Worcester 
sewage  I  belii^ve  that  the  simplest  of  all  processes,  the  addition  of  lime,  would  give 
an  elHuent  that  would  be  harmless  when  emptied  into  the  Blackstone  river,  es- 
pecially if,  in  very  hot,  dry  weather,  the  effluent  was  ri;n  on  to  a  small  filtering  bed. 
If  not  practicable  to  have  a  small  filtering  area,  which  I  should  consider  desirable, 
th(;  further  ])urification  in  very  hot  weather,  if  found  necessary,  might  be  accom- 
plished by  the  addition  of  a  small  amount  of  permanganate  of  potassium  and  sul- 
phuric acid  to  the  effluent. 

I  believe  that  the  addition  of  lime  ahme  would  be  sufflcient.  on  account  of  the 
large  amount  of  iron  salts  already  in  th»^  sewage  ;  the  amount  in  1,000,000  gallons 
equalling  about  2,417  pounds  of  anliydrous  iron  sulphate,  or  15  grains  per  gallon. 


430  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITKI)    STATES, 

Tliere  is  possibly  a  question  whether  the  iron,  being  in  the  sewage  before  the 
addition  of  the  lime,  would  bring  about  the  same  result  as  though  added  after  the 
lime,  as  little  differences  like  this  often  affect  the  results  of  a  chemical  process. 

My  opinion,  though  not  based  on  experiments,  is  that  the  addition  of  sulphate 
of  alumina,  or  the  further  addition  of  sulphate  of  iron,  would  be  unnecessary  when 
the  sewage  contained  the  amount  of  iron  given  above. 

The  exact  amount  of  lime  necessary  to  add  is  also  a  question  that  can  only  be 
answered  after  numerous  experiments.  I  believe,  however,  that  15  grains  of  quick- 
lime per  gallon,  or  2,150  pounds,  added  in  the  form  of  milk  of  lime,  would  be 
amply  sufficient.  If  the  quicklime  before  addition  was  dissolved  in  water,  for  which 
purpose  sewage  water  could  be  used,  probably  only  one-half  of  the  above  amount 
of  quicklime  would  be  necessary. 

The  precipitate  thus  produced,  technically  known  as  sludge,  after  being  sub- 
jected to  mechanical  pressure  by  use  of  a  Johnson  filter  press,  would  amount  to 
about  6  tons  for  every  million  gallons  of  sewage,  and  might  possibly  be  disposed 
of  as  a  fertilizer,  or  could  be  used  for  the  filling  up  of  low  land,  or,  if  necessary,  could 
be  burnt  in  a  Hoffman  f  iirnace,  without  causing  any  nuisance  and  probably  without 
the  use  of  any  extra  fuel. 

It  lias  already  been  stated  that  the  sewage  of  Worcester  is  all  dis- 
charged into  Mill  brook,  one  of  the  confluent  tributaries  which  unite 
in  the  south  part  of  the  city  to  form  the  Blackstone.  This  brook  has 
a  known  minimum  flow  of  2,000,000  gallons  in  24  hours,  and  an  esti- 
mated maximum  flow  of  about  50,000,000  gallons  in  24  hours.  In 
designing  sewage  disposal  works  for  Worcester,  it  appeared  necessary 
to  separate  the  sewage  from  the  normal  water  flow  of  Mill  brook.  To 
effect  this  Mr.  Allen  proposes  the  construction  of  intercepting  sewers, 
running  as  nearly  parallel  to  Mill  brook  as  possible,  and  so  designed 
as  to  take  all  the  dry- weather  flow  of  the  lateral  sewers,  only  allowing 
the  storm-water  to  overflow  into  the  brook  by  storm  overflows. 

For  this  purpose  intercepting  sewers  are  proposed  for  each  side  of 
the  brook,  which  are  to  extend  through  the  entire  length  of  the  city 
and  unite  in  the  southern  portion,  at  the  junction  of  Cambridge  and 
Millbury  streets,  from  which  point  a  single  conduit  36  inches  in  diam- 
eter, which  it  is  proj^osed  to  lay  in  the  bottom  of  the  invert  of  the 
large  sewer  in  Millbury  street,  will  extend  to  a  point  near  the  junction  of 
Millbury  and  Vernon  streets.  From  this  point  the  outfall  sewer  is  to 
diverge  from  the  present  sewer,  and  after  crossing  under  the  bed  of 
the  river,  follow  through  Millbury  street  to  Greenwood  street,  along 
Greenwood  street  a  distance  of  about  1,000  feet,  and  from  thence 
nearly  parallel  with  the  Providence  and  Worcester  railroad  to  the 
location  of  the  purification  works,  a  short  distance  further  south.  This 
section  is  to  be  of  brick,  42  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  grade  of  1  in 
2,000.  Its  estimated  capacity  is  15,000,000  gallons  in  24  hours.  This 
capacity  has  in  view  a  considerable  growth  of  the  city.  Alternative 
plans  for  intercepting  sewers  are  also  suggested  in  the  report,  but  in- 
asmuch as  they  do  not  especially  modify  the  method  of  purification 
which  has  been  adopted,  we  need  not  separately  refer  to  them  here. 
The  detail  of  the  proposed  scheme  for  chemical  precipitation  is  suf- 


CHEMICAL    P11P:CIPITATI0N    at    WORCESTER,   MASS.  431 

ficientlj^  exhibited  for  present  purposes  by  the  following-  estimates  as 
condensed  from  the  report : 


Estimate  No.  1.     CHEjncAL  Precipitation  ■vstth  Intercepting  Sewers. 

East  side  intercepting  sewer,  from  Lincoln  square  to  Pond  street,    with 

changes  in  present  system ^51,900  00 

West-side  intercepting  sewer,  from  Lincoln  square  to  Pond  street,  with 

changes  in  present  system 62,300  00 

Intercepting  pipe,  from  Pond  street  to  outfall  sewer -41,250  00 

Outfall  sewer,  from  Mill  brook  to  precipitation  works 54,775  00 

Building,  Tanks,  and  Machinery 60,000  00 

§270,225  00 
Add  15  per  cent  for  Engineering  and  contingencies 40,583  75 

§310,758  75 
Land  and  land  damages 12,000  00 

Total ;  . . . .   8322,758  75 


Estimate  No.  2.     Intermittent  Filtration  with  Intercepting  Sewers. 

East  and  West-side  intercepting  sewers,  intercepting  pipe  from  Pond 
street  to  outfall  sewer,  and  outfall  sewer  from  Mill  brook  to  loca- 
tion of  precipitation  works  as  per  ])re%-ious  estimate §210,225  00 

Outfall  sewer  extended  from  location  of  precipitation  works  to  filtration 

area 45,135  00 

Preparing  80  acres  of  land  for  filtration  purposes 80,000  00 

Subsiding  tanks 10,000  00 

8345,360  00 
Add  15  per  cent,  for  Engineering  and  contingencies 51,804  00 

8397,164:  00 
Land  and  land  damages 42,000  00 

Total 8435,164  00 

In  rog-ard  to  tliei)ossibility  of  combining-,  at  some  time  in  the  future, 
chemical  treatment  with  intermittent  liltration,  it  is  stated  that  the 
additional  expense,  above  the  cost  of  the  precipitation  scheme  alone, 
would  1)0  either  §197.40.5.25  or  S-214,800.00,  the  difference  depending- 
upon  which  of  two  available  filtration  areas  mig-ht  be  selected. 

In  regard  to  the  cost  of  operation,  it  is  stated  tli;it  the  estimates  of 
annual  expense  are  based  upon  a  cost  of  45  cents  p(>r  p(n'son  per  year. 
Assuming-  that  the  sewag-e  of  50,000  people,  amounting-  to  .•{,000,000 
g-allons  per  day,  now  enters  the  sewers,  the  annual  cost  upon  this 
basis  is  found  to  be  S22,500  per  year.  The  annual  cost  of  operating- 
intermittent  filtration  for  3,000,000  g-allons  i)er  day,  constantly  treated, 
was  estimated  at  $11,200  ]>er  year.  But  these  estimates  of  cost  do  not, 
in  either  case,  include  either  interest  on  the  cost  of  the  plant  or  the 


432 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


annual  sum  to  be  set  aside  for  renewals  and  depreciation  ;  tliey  mere- 
ly include  the  actual  running  expense  per  year. 

In  concluding  his  elaborate  report,  Mr.  Allen  states  that  his  reasons 


ff^/'/ivfly  7it/i'ng\  ' 


4£"Cinu/<ir  Se'rer  1.' 

fete 


for  preferring  the  method  of  purification  by  chemical  treatment  at 
Worcester  are  as  follows  : 

1.  That  the  effluent  obtained  will  without  doubt  conform  to  the  requirements  of 
the  law. 

2.  That  the  cost  of  establishing  a  plant  will  be  less  than  by  either  irrigation  or 
downward  intermittent  filtration. 

3.  That  chemical  precipitation  will  not  be  affected  by  climatic  conditions. 

4.  There  will  be  no  loss  of  water,  and  consequently  no  water  damages  to  pay. 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATIOX    AT    WORCESTER,   MASS. 


483 


5.  If  this  method  of  disposal  is  adopted  by  the  city  of  Worcester,  it  will  be  in  a 
position  to  take  advantage,  without  material  change  in  plant,  of  improvements  that 
will  undoubtedly  be  made  in  the  methods  of  sewage  disposal. 


6  Tliat  iirccipitation  will  l)o  a  valiial)lo  auxiliary  to  irrigation  or  intermittent  fil- 
tration, if  it  should  over  be  thongiit  d.'siralde  to  add  either  of  these  methods  of 
disposal  to  the  system. 


28 


4:i-i: 


SEWAGE    DISI'(JSAI,    IN     1  1 1  h    T  N  11  Kl)    STATES. 


Following'  Mr.  Allen's  report  of  1887,  from  which  we  have  quoted  at 
length,  on  May  14,  1888,  the  City  Council  adopted  an  order  for  the 
construction  of  the  outfall  sewer  from  the  main  channel  of  Mill  brook 
to  the  proposed  location  of  the  precipitation  works.  This  section  of 
the  sewer  was  built  at  an  actual  cost  of  about  $69,000. 


Fig.  62. — View  of  Central  Channei-,  Worcestek  Precipitating  Tanks. 

On  July  8, 1889,  the  City  Council  ordered  the  construction  of  the  pre- 
cipitation works,  and  work  began  as  soon  thereafter  as  the  detailed 
plans  could  be  sufficiently  matured.  The  g-eneral  plan  of  the  precipi- 
tating works  is  shown  by  Fig.  60 ;  two  views  by  Figs.  61  and  62 ;  and 
the  details  are  illustrated  by  Plate  IV.,  w^hicli  shows,  Fig-.  1,  a  section 
of  the  outfall  sewers  leading  to  the  purification  works,  where  it  passes 
under  the  river  ;  Fig.  3,  a  section  of  the  central  channel  and  the  pipe 
arch  ;  Fig.  4,  the  effluent  pipe  and  sludge  drains  in  place.  The  main 
sludge  drain  is  connected  with  the  sludge  well  located  in  the  basement 
of  the  machinery  building  at  point  A,  Fig.  60.  Fig.  5  is  a  self- 
explanatory  section  of  the  side  and  middle  walls.  The  overflow  steps 
and  effluent  drain  are  shown  by  Figs.  6,  7,  and  8,  also  on  Plate  IV. 

In  regard  to  the  method  of  treatment  which  has  been  finally 
adopted,  Mr.  Allen  in  his  report  for  the  year  ending-  November  30, 
1890,  says  : 

The  treatment  -nliicli  we  liave  finally  adopted  is  the  "  continnons  process."  The 
sewage,  after  leaving  the  outfall  sewer,  enters  the  receiving  chamber  in  the  gate  or 


PLATE   IV.  DETAILS  OF  WORCESTER   PRECIPITATION  TANKS. 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT    WORCESTEU,   MASS. 


435 


screen  house.  It  then  passes  thi-ovigh  the  screens,  where  all  matter  that  would  tend 
to  clog  the  sludge-pump  are  screened  out,  such  as  paper  and  sticks  of  wood.  It 
then  passes  through  the  outlet  chamber  into  the  mixing  channel.  The  chemicals 
are  introduced  at  the  upper  end  of  this  channel,  being  discharged  through  i^ipes 
connected  with  the  vats  inside  the  building.  After  the  introduction  of  the  chemi- 
cals the  sewage  flows  through  the  mixing  channel,  the  chemicals  being  thoroughly 
mixed  with  it  by  the  agitation  produced  by  the  baffle-plates.  From  this  channel 
the  sewage  passes  through  the  first  weir  into  tank  No.  1.  Here  there  is  a  fall  of 
one  foot,  which  tends  to  more  thoroughly  mix  together  the  sewage  and  chemicals. 
It  then  passes  very  slowly  through  tank  1,  out  of  this  tank  through  the  second  weir 
into  the  main  channel,  then  through  the  third  weir  into  tank  2,  through  tank  2  into 
tank  3,  and  thence  through  tanks  i,  5,  and  6,  until  it  is  discharged  finally  tlnoiigh 
the  last  weir  and  over  the  overflow  steps  into  the  effluent  drain,  and  from  thence 
into  the  river  ;  it  takes  about  six  hours  for  it  to  pass  through  all  the  tanks.  The 
position  of  the  weirs  and  the  general  arrangement  of  the  tanks  is  shown  by  Fig.  60. 

Wiien  it  becomes  necessary  to  clean  a  tank,  the  flash-boards  are  placed  in  the 
weirs  connected  with  this  tank,  and  the  sewage  is  passed  around  into  the  next  tank 
through  the  main  channel.     Tank  No.  2,  in  Fig.  60,  is  reju'esented  as  being  cut  out. 

The  sewage  in  the  tank  to  be  cleaned  is  then  allowed  to  rest  from  three  to  six 
hours,  so  that  thorough  precipitation  will  take  place  before  the  water  is  drawn  off. 

In  front  of  eacli  effluent  jiipe,  and  projecting  into  the  tank,  is  a  flume  of  wood. 
This  flume  is  so  constructed  that  the  water  can  be  drawn  from  the  surface  by  means 
of  flush-boards  6  inches  deei?.  When  the  time  has  arrived  for  drawing  the  water, 
the  first  flash-board  is  removed  and  the  gate  at  the  mouth  of  the  effluent  pipe  is 
Oldened.  The  water  flows  over  the  top  of  the  second  flash-board,  through  the  gate 
and  effluent  pipe  into  the  effluent  drain,  and  then  into  tlie  river.  This  method  is  re- 
peated until  all  the  boards  have  been  removed,  and  tlie  water  drawn  down  to  the 


.°'°'?;'~.*.»'  •  J  '.•  0.'.'" .^'  ■o'-i  '.-'■'  f^'J- ■.'.',<> •■'Vj'.i^c l-.'rO'-t'j'fi.'^-'.' 


Fig.  63. — New  Chemical  Agitatou,  Wokcksteh,  Massaciidsetts, 


level  of  the  sludge.  The  gate  at  tlie  mouth  of  the  sludge-drain  is  then  o]ioned,  and 
the  sludge  flows  througli  tlie  sludgo-drains  to  the  slndge-W(>ll  under  tlie  building. 
It  is  j)umpod  from  this  well  into  a  pipe  carrier,  and  flows  by  gravity  to  the  .sludge- 
beds,  located  on  land  owned  by  the  city,  situated  on  the  easterly  side  of  the  Provi- 
dence &  Worcester  Railroad,  and  entirely  removed  from  the  works.  This  land 
(about  16.5  acres)  was  .selected  for  this  i)ur))o.se  owing  to  its  very  favorable  location. 
It  is  situated  l)etween  tlu'  r.iilroad  and  tlie  river,  is  entirely  isolated,  there  being  no 
way  to  reaclj  it  except  through  land  owned  by  the  city.  The  liability  of  coiii])laint 
being  made  by  reason  of  its  near  j)r()ximity  to  buildings  is  thus  reduced  to  the 


436  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

minimum.  A  little  over  one-lialf  of  the  area  is  low,  swami^y  land  ;  the  remainder  is 
covered  with  knolls  of  gravel. 

At  ijreseut  11  sludge-beds  are  in  use,  all  being  located  on  the  low  land.  They 
are  formed  by  removing  the  turf  from  the  surface  and  constructing  dikes  with  the 
soil  removed.  The  beds  are  rectangular  in  shape,  and  are  about  100  feet  sqiaare. 
One  day's  shidge  is  pumped  into  each  bed.  It  is  then  allowed  to  rest  for  11  days, 
the  second  bed  receiving  the  sludge  the  next  day,  and  so  on  through  the  series. 
This  is  done  to  avoid  any  possible  chance  of  a  nuisance  arising  from  any  one  bed 
being  overcharged.  Occasionally  a  layer  of  gravel  is  spread  over  the  accumulated 
sludge.  In  this  way  it  is  intended  to  grade  the  surface  of  the  entire  area,  after 
which  it  is  intended  to  erect  a  destructor  upon  the  land  and  burn  the  sludge — which, 
from  experiments  that  have  been  made,  I  am  convinced  can  be  easily  done.  These 
beds  have  been  in  almost  constant  use  since  the  works  were  put  in  operation,  and 
there  has  never  been  the  least  trace  of  bad  odor  arising  from  them  even  during  the 
hot  summer  months.  This  is,  without  doubt,  due  not  only  to  the  care  that  has  been 
used  in  not  allowing  them  to  be  overcharged,  but  also  to  the  character  of  the  sew- 
age, and  therefore  to  the  character  of  the  sludge,  it  being  heavily  charged  with  iron 
salts  and  lime.  Everything  that  would  tend  to  create  a  nuisance  seems  to  be  en- 
tirely killed  out. 

The  precipitation  takes  place  i^rincii^ally  in  the  first  three  tanks.  The  sludge 
hfts  to  be  removed  from  tanks  Nos.  1  and  2  about  once  in  36  hours  in  warm  weather, 
but  during  cold  weather  we  have  been  able  to  go  four  days  without  cleaning,  with- 
out perceptibly  affecting  the  character  of  the  effluent.  Tank  No.  3  is  cleaned 
evei-y  two  or  three  days  in  warm  weather,  and  once  in  7  or  8  days  in  cold  weather. 
Tanks  4,  5,  and  6  accumulate  very  little  sludge  ;  but  they  are  cleaned  as  often  as  is 
necessary — about  once  a  week  in  the  hottest  weather,  and  once  in  three  weeks  dui'ing 
the  colder  period.  In  the  first  two  tanks  during  warm  weather,  or  when  the  sludge 
is  removed  once  in  36  hours,  the  accumulation  is  aboiat  10  inches  deep  over  the  en- 
tire bottom  surface.  No.  3,  when  cleaned  once  in  three  days,  has  a  depth  of  sludge 
of  about  8  inches.  Nos.  4,  5,  and  6,  when  cleaned  once  a  week,  have  an  accumula- 
tion of  about  6  inches.  The  sludge  is  aboiit  95  per  cent,  water,  and  after  it  has 
been  spread  upon  the  sludge-beds  for  about  9  days  this  almost  entirely  disaj^i^ears. 
The  precii)itant  principally  used  at  the  works  is  Vermont  lime.  This  has  jiroved 
to  be  much  better  for  our  use  than  either  Eastern  or  ^Yestern  lime.  It  costs,  de- 
livered at  the  works,  about  87.00  per  ton.  The  sulphate  of  alumina,  which  is  used 
in  limited  quantities,  costs  about  §25.00  per  ton  delivered. 

The  sewage  is  extremely  acid,  owing  to  the  fact  that  large  quantities  of  sulphuric 
and  muriatic  acids  are  discharged  into  the  seweis  from  iron  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments. This  acid  does  not  api^ear  at  the  works  in  uniform  quantities,  but  is 
extremely  intermittent.  It  generally  makes  its  appearance  once  in  about  6  hours, 
although  there  is  always  acid  jjresent  in  the  sewage.  The  heavy  flow  of  acid  sew- 
age generally  lasts  about  one  and  one-half  hours. 

In  order  to  get  perfect  precipitation  and  a  good  effluent,  we  have  found  that  it  is 
necessary  to  neutralize  this  acid,  or,  in  other  woids,  to  make  the  sewage  alkaline. 
This  is  done  by  introducing  a  sufficient  quantity  of  lime  to  accomplish  the  object. 
It  is  therefore  necessary  to  test  the  sewage  at  vei-y  frequent  intervals  during  the  24 
hours.  Samples  of  the  sewage  are  taken  in  glass  beakers  after  the  chemicals  are 
introduced,  and  the  test  is  made  in  the  laboratory.  As  a  test  for  alkalinity,  jihenol- 
phthalein  is  used.  A  very  small  quantity  is  droi:)ped  into  the  beaker  of  sewage, 
and  if  the  liquid  turns  red'  the  sewage  has  been  made  alkaline  by  the  lime  ;  if  the 
color  remains  unchanged  more  lime  must  be  introduced. 

The  sulphate  of  alumina  is  used  with  the  lime  on  r  ccasions  when  there  is  not 
sufficient  iron  salts  in  the  sewage  to  act  with  the  lime  in  producing  a  good  effluent, 
geneially  Sundays  and  Mondays.  The  quantity  of  lime  used  varies  with  the  vary- 
ing character  of  the  sewage.  We  have  found  by  exi^erience  that  there  is  no  fixed 
lule  that  can  be  followed.  The  number  of  grains  per  gallon  varies  from  1  to 
200  of  lime,  and  from  1  to  40  of  alimiina.  The  larger  amounts  are  for  short 
intervals  of  time,  so  that  the  average  for  24  hours  rarely  exceeds  8  grains  of  lime 
and  4  of  alumina  jier  gallon. 

When  operations  were  first  begun  the  tanks  were  used  intermittently,  and  a  fixed 


CHEMICAL    PR?:CIPITATIOX    AT    WORCESTEH.   MASS.  487 

amount  of  lime  per  gallon  was  used  ;  that  is,  15  giains,  say,  of  lime  per  gallon  was 
used  without  regard  to  the  character  of  the  sewage,  as  is  the  practice  in  many  of 
the  Euroj^ean  works.  It  was  soon  found  out  that  while  at  times  the  effluent  would 
be  very  fine,  at  other  times  it  would  be  very  poor,  and  we  soon  found  that,  in 
order  to  obtain  a  uniformly  good  effluent,  the  quantities  of  lime  or  alumina  had  to 
be  increased  or  diminished  as  the  character  of  the  sewage  varied  ;  so  the  series  of 
tests  previously  si^oken  of  were  resorted  to,  and  have  been  constantly  adhered  to 
since,  with  the  result  of  obtaining  an  effluent  of  remarkably  uniform  character. 

After  we  were  satisfied  that  we  had  discovered  the  correct  iM-incii)le  of  applying 
and  mixing  the  chemicals,  the  tanks  were  used  continuously — i.e.,  the  sewage  was 
allowed  to  run  through  the  entire  series,  as  at  present — and  this  plan  has  been  fol- 
lowed ever  since. 

At  first,  there  were  days  at  a  time  when  as  high  as  4  tons  of  lime  was  used,  and 
very  much  larger  quantities  of  alumina  than  at  present.  Expeiiments  without 
number  were  made  to  see  if  this  excessive  use  of  chemicals  could  not  be  reduced, 
and  finally  the  following  plan,  which  has  been  extremely  satisfactory,  was  hit  upon. 

The  arrival  of  the  acid  sewage  at  the  works  is  anticipated,  and  preparations  are 
made  so  that  when  it  arrives  it  is  thoroughly  treated  with  lime,  making  it  alkaline. 
As  tliis  flow  generally  lasts  an  hour  and  a  half  at  a  time,  tanks  1  and  2  become 
heavily  charged  with  it.  After  this  extremely  acid  sewage  has  passed  into  the 
tanks,  the  machinery  is  stopped,  and  no  more  chemicals  are  added  until  the  arrival 
of  the  next  dose  of  acid  in  large  quantities — generally  from  four  to  five  hours. 

During  this  interval  of  time,  the  sewage  that  passes  by  the  works  and  into  the 
tanks  is  so  thoroughly  treated  by  the  iron  salts  and  lime  present  in  the  extremely 
acid  sewage  that  has  just  jn-eceded  it,  that  the  effluent  is  as  good,  if  not  better, 
than  it  would  be  if  chemicals  were  ajiplied  as  it  passed  the  works.  In  other  words, 
there  is  an  excess  of  chemical  matter  in  the  acid  sewage  after  the  lime  is  added, 
which  is  utilized  as  a  i^recipitant  by  passing  crude  sewage  through  the  tanks 
heavily  charged  with  it.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that  crude  sewage  passed 
through  tanks  1  and  2,  i^reviously  filled  with  the  acid  sewage,  will  become  mixed 
with  it,  and  that  this  can  be  relied  upon  to  do  its  work  thoroughly  for  intervals 
of  from  4  to  5  liours.  This  has  resulted  in  the  saving  of  large  qiiantities  of  lime, 
the  amount  now  used  i^er  day  being  about  one-half  the  amount  used  for  some  time 
after  the  works  were  \)\\t  in  operation. 

All  the  lime  and  alumina  used  is  weighed  in  the  chemical  room  before  it  is 
turned  into  the  vats.     In  tliis  way  the  number  of  grains  per  gallon  is  determined. 

I  have  already  described  the  manner  in  which  the  sewage  is  tested,  the  object 
being  to  have  it  alkaline  when  it  enters  tlie  tanks.  If  it  is  necessary  to  increase 
or  diminisli  the  quantity  of  chemicals  used,  the  person  making  the  tests  gives  the 
order  through  a  speaking  tube  connecting  the  laboratory  with  the  chemical  room. 
All  orders  are  given  in  grains  per  gallon.  For  instance,  if  it  is  desired  to  use  10 
grains  of  lime  per  gallon,  12  lbs.  of  lime  is  poured  into  the  vats  once  in  4  minutes. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  increase  to  20  grains  per  gallon,  23.75  lbs.  is  used  every  4 
minutes;  thirty  grains  calls  for  26.75  lbs.  every  3  minutes  ;  fifty  grains  calls  for 
44.75  lbs.  every  3  minutes  ;  100  grains.  89  lbs.  every  3  minutes  ;  150  grains,  89  lbs. 
every  2  minutes;  200  grains,  119  lbs.  every  two  minutes;  300  grains,  89  lbs.  once 
a  minute.  The  above  is  on  a  basis  of  3,000,000  gallons  in  24  hours.  Tallies  have 
been  prepared,  and  are  kept  in  the  chemical  room  in  a  conspicuous  ]ilace,  so  that 
the  oi)erative  there  can  tell  at  a  glance  the  number  of  pounds  of  lime  or  ah;mina  he 
is  to  put  into  the  vats  in  response  to  the  order  from  tlie  laljoratory. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  in  this  report  to  give  the  result  of  analyses  made  of  the 
effluent.  We  have  not  sufflcient  data  at  hand  to  give  a  correct  idea  of  its  true  char- 
a(!t('r.  The  analyses  should  extend  pver  a  long  ]>eriod  of  time  before  a  result  that 
can  be  relied  upon  can  be  obtained.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  we  know  all  the 
suspended  matter  is  removed,  that  the  organic  matter  carried  in  solution  is  very 
largely  reduced,  and  that  the  free  and  albuminoid  ammonias  are  also  largely  re- 
duced. 

As  a  ))ractical  illnstj-ation  of  what  is  accomplished,  samples  of  the  sewage  and  of 
the  eflhicnt  taken  at  the  same  time  have  been  saved.  Sewage  five  months  old  is 
the  color  of  ink,  and  the  odor  from  it  is  so  foul  that  it  is  sickening  ;  while   the 


438  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

effluent  of  the  same  age  is  clear,  colorless,  and  entirely  without  odor.  I  am  per- 
fectly satisfied  that  no  decomposition  takes  place  in  the  effluent,  and  that  so  far  as 
the  Blackstone  river  is  concerned,  it  is  as  unobjectionable  as  spring  water  would 
be.  I  do  not  claim  that  drinking  water  is  manufactured  at  the  disposal  works  : 
what  I  believe  is,  that  the  method  of  treatment  is  such  that  when  the  whole  sew- 
age of  the  city  is  dealt  with  at  the  works,  the  Blackstone  river  will  be  entirely  re- 
lieved of  any  further  pollution  by  the  city  of  Worcester. 

As  to  the  cost  of  treatment,  Mr.  Allen  states  that  it  is  constantly 
being-  reduced,  and  at  the  time  of  making  his  report  is  well  within 
his  estimate  of  1887,  namely  $22,500  for  3,000,000  gallons  per  day, 
constantly  treated. 

On  June  17,  1892,  Mr.  Baker  visited  the  works  and  obtained  the 
additional  and  later  information  given  below. 

For  some  time  after  the  plant  was  put  in  operation  3,000,000  gallons 
of  sewage  were  treated  daily.  This  amount  was  afterward  increased, 
and  on  June  19,  1891,  the  daily  treatment  of  6,000,000  gallons  Avas 
begun,  it  being  considered  better  to  partially  treat  this  amount  than 
to  treat  a  smaller  amount  thoroughly.  In  1892  the  construction  of 
10  new  tanks  was  begun,  making  IG  in  all.  The  information  secured 
regarding  the  more  recent  operation  of  the  plant  and  the  extensions 
is  as  follows  :* 

Originally  the  lime  was  ground  at  the  works,  but  now  it  is  slaked  in 
a  vat,  a  ton  at  a  time.  In  this  way  about  23  per  cent,  of  lime  and  30 
horse-power  are  saved,  which  is  partially  offset  by  the  fact  that  the 
lime  must  be  slaked  by  hand.  Either  sewage  or  water  ma^^  be  used 
for  slaking. 

The  agitators  formerly  used  to  mix  the  chemicals  are  still  used,  but 
this  is  because  there  is  no  other  means  of  getting  the  lime  through 
the  pipes  to  the  sewage  below. 

During  the  year  ending  Nov.  30,  1891,  there  were  treated  1,399,000,- 
000  gallons  of  sewage,  or  about  3,830,000  gallons  daily,  from  which 
22,042,000  gallons  of  sludge  was  precipitated,  the  sludge  having  been 
pumped  to  sludge-pits.  The  solids  in  the  sludge  aggregated  1,230 
tons,  or  about  3g  tons  a  day,  all  of  which  was  diverted  from  the  river. 

The  amount  of  lime  used  during  the  year  was  757.8  tons,  and  of 
alumina  64.65  tons.  These  chemicals  were  used  in  varying  quantities, 
and  often  the  alumina  was  not  used  at  all ;  still,  giving  the  averages 
for  what  they  are  worth,  we  find  that  for  the  whole  year  the  av- 
erage amount  of  lime  used  per  gallon  was  7.6  grains,  and  of  alumina 
0.65  grains. 

The  disposal  of  the  sludge,  the  solid  part  of  which  amounted  in 
1891  to  3|  tons  per  day,  has  been  a  serious  problem  from  the  start. 
At  first  the  sludge  was  put  in  heaps  and  covered  up,  but  this  did  not 
give  satisfaction.     Three  different  sludge-furnaces  were  tried,  but  the 

*  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.  (July  28,  1892),  pp.  77-8. 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT    WORCESTER,   MASS.  439 

labor  involved  \vas  too  great,  althougli  the  sludsre  formed  its  own 
fuel  after  once  kindled.  In  one  of  these  furnaces  sludge  containing 
50  per  cent,  water  burned  quite  rapidly,  while  some  containing  72  per 
cent,  of  water  burned  at  the  rate  of  2.225  tons  in  nine  hours,  unaided 
by  other  fuel.  In  the  spring  of  1892,  the  sludge  which  had  accumu- 
lated since  September,  1891,  was  carted  away  at  the  expense  of  the 
city  and  put  on  to  farm  land. 

As  late  as  the  spring  of  1892  there  were  only  eleven  sludge-beds, 
covering  an  area  of  about  three  acres.  These  had  been  overworked 
until  they  were  almost  useless.  When  the  sludge  on  the  beds  did  not 
exceed  a  few  inches  in  depth  it  was  found  that  it  dried  qiiite  rapidly. 
An  area  of  5.7  acres  was  therefore  added  to  the  sludge-beds.  The 
first  beds  were  not  underdrained,  but  the  later  ones  have  been.  The 
sludge  passes  to  the  beds  through  wooden  troughs. 

The  new  tanks  will  have  the  same  capacity  each  as  the  old  ones,  but 
will  be  of  a  different  shape,  their  dimensions  being  40  x  166|  feet,  5 
feet  deep  from  the  top  of  the  weir.  Sewage  will  discharge  about  18 
inches  deep  over  the  weir.  The  old  tanks  were  663  x  100  feet,  5  feet 
deep.  There  will  be  ten  of  these  tanks,  increasing  the  capacity  of  the 
plant  to  15,000,000  gallons  per  day  and  providing  for  the  treatment  of 
the  entire  dry-weather  flow  of  sewage,  which  in  April,  1893,  was  re- 
ported as  varying  from  11,000,000  to  15,000,000  gallons  per  day. 

On  June  15,  1893,  Mr.  Baker  visited  the  works  for  the  second  time, 
and  found  some  interesting  features  being  introduced  in  connection 
with  the  extension  of  the  tank  system.  A  new  form  of  lime  agitator 
is  to  l)e  used,  as  shown  in  cross-section  in  Fig.  63  (page  435).  In  the 
new  agitators  the  lime  will  be  mixed  and  kept  from  settling  by  means 
of  compressed  air.  Two  masonry  tanks,  each  8  l)y  16  feet,  will  be  used 
for  the  lime.  The  bottoms  of  the  tanks  will  have  an  undulating  sur- 
face, as  shown  in  Fig.  63,  and  in  each  of  throe  longitudinal  depressions 
there  will  be  a  l|-in.  wrought  iron  pipe,  perforated  every  28  ins.  with 
|-in.  holes,  the  holes  in  each  pipe  alternating  with  those  in  the  other. 

The  air  will  be  furnished  by  a  Rand  air  compressor,  with  12  x  16-in. 
double  cylinders,  there  being  ample  boiler  power  available  to  drive  it. 
Tlie  air  will  keep  the  lime  continually  agitated,  and  it  is  ])roposed  to 
8lak(?  it  in  lots  of  2i  tons. 

As  practised  in  1892  and  the  first  half  of  1893,  the  lime  was  slaked 
and  kept  stirred  by  means  of  a  hose,  two  men  sometimes  being  re- 
quired for  the  work. 

An  8-in.  pipe  will  connect  with  the  new  lime  tanks  and  convey  the 
lime  to  the  inlet  channel  at  a  point  nearly  100  feet  above  the  old  lime 
inlet,  which  was  just  below  the  scr(!ens,  at  the  throat  of  the  salmon  way 
or  batUe-plates. 

The  practice  of  i)utting  the  sludgt^  upon  sludge-beds  will  hv  con- 


440  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

tinned,  bnt  the  slndg'e  from  tlie  new  settling  tanks  will  pass  to  an  ojien 
channel  and  thence  to  a  Shone  ejector,  the  air  for  wdiich  will  be  com- 
pressed by  power  from  a  21-in.  Holyoke  turbine  driven  by  the  effluent 
from  the  top  of  the  tanks,  which  will  give  a  head  of  about  7  feet  on  the 
turbine.     The  ejector  will  have  a  capacity  of  35,000  gallons  per  hour. 

In  1892  the  city  hauled  the  sludge  to  the  land  of  some  farmers,  and 
gave  it  to  them  in  order  to  introduce  it.  In  1893  the  farmers  have 
hauled  the  sludge  themselves,  but  have  not  paid  the  city  for  it.  The 
shidge  has  been  found  to  give  good  results  with  many  different  crops, 
and  especially  with  corn,  potatoes,  and  rye.* 

*  The  chief  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  the  sewage  disposal  works  at  Worcester  as  ac- 
tually carried  out  (in  addition  to  the  references  already  given)  are  : 

(1)  Rept.  of  the  City  Eng.  to  the  City  Coun.,  in  re.  Disposal  of  the  Sewage,  etc.,  1887. 

(2)  An.  Repts.  of  the  Com.  of  Sewers,  the  Supt.  of  Sewers,  and  the  City  Eng.,  etc.,  for  yr.  end. 
Nov.  30, 1890. 

Also  see  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxiv.,  p.  432  (Nov.  15,  1890). 


CHAPTER  XXYIII. 

DISCHAEGE  INTO  TIDE-WATER  AND  PROPOSED  CHEMICAL  PRECIPI- 
TATIOX  AT  PROVIDENCE,  RHODE  ISLAND. 

The  city  of  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  situated  at  the  head  of  Nar- 
ragimsett  Bay,  is  the  second  city  in  New  England.  The  population  in 
1850  was  41,513  ;  1860,  50,666  ;  1870,  68,904  ;  1880,  104,857 ;  1890,  132,146. 

The  city  is  intersected  by  the  AVoonasquatucket  and  Mashassuck 
rivers,  which,  uniting-  to  form  the  Providence  river,  divide  it  naturally 
into  three  sections.  The  Seekonk  river  is  on  the  eastern  boundary. 
The  eastern  section  is  high,  its  extreme  elevation  being  over  200  feet, 
and  falling  away  abruptly  to  the  west  toward  the  Mashassuck  river, 
and  also  inclining  gradually  toward  the  south  to  the  harbor.  On  its 
easterly  border  are  the  cliffs  of  the  Seekonk  river,  from  20  to  50  feet 
in  height.  A  large  portion  of  the  southwestern  section  is  from  60  to 
70  feet  above  tide-water.  The  northwestern  section  generally  rises  in 
a  northwesterly  direction,  with  a  large  portion  above  an  elevation  of 
90  feet,  while  much  of  it  ranges  from  150  to  190  feet,  with  the  highest 
point  in  the  neighborhood  of  200  feet.  The  surface  of  this  portion  is 
diversified  by  hills  and  dales.  The  topographical  features  of  nearly 
the  whole  city  are,  therefore,  generally  such  as  to  give  unusual  advan- 
tages in  respect  to  sewerage  and  drainage. 

Previous  to  1871  no  systematic  system  of  sewerage  existed  at  Prov- 
idence. In  that  year  a  comprehensive  plan  was  prepared,  and  the 
construction  of  sewers  begun  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of 
Water  Commissioners,  with  J.  Herbert  Sliedd,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  as 
chief  engineer.  At  that  time  there  existed  about  8.5  miles  of  old 
stone  sewers  and  drains,  which  were  used  to  a  considerable  extent  for 
h()us3  drainage.  None  of  the  original  sewers  were  incorporated  into 
the  present  system,  although  some  are  still  used  as  surface-water 
conduits  only. 

The  original  sewers,  as  well  as  those  designed  in  1871,  discharge 
into  the  intersecting  rivers  and  the  harbor  at  the  most  convenient 
points.  The  fact  was  fully  recognized  in  the  formal  design,  that  in  the 
end  the  pollution  of  the  streams  and  the  harbor  would  become  such 
as  to  necessitate  some  other  arrangement ;  and  accordingly  Mr.  Shedd's 
plans  included  the  ultimate  construction  of  a  series  of  intercepting 


442  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

sewers,  by  wliicli  the  entire  flow  of  sewage  would  be  convej'ed  to 
Field's  Point,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  harbor,  and  there  dis- 
charged with  the  ebb  of  the  tide  into  deep  water.  The  mean  range  of 
the  tide  at  Providence  is  about  4.7  feet. 

In  1874  Mr.  Sliedd,  in  response  to  a  resolution  of  the  Board  of  Alder- 
men of  November  26,  1873,  asking  for  information  in  regard  to  the 
general  plans  on  which  the  sewers  had  been  constructed  to  that  date, 
submitted  an  elaborate  report,  in  which  is  discussed  nearly  every 
question  of  interest  in  connection  with  the  design  of  the  Providence 
sewerage  system.  The  report  is  of  special  interest  and  value,  by 
reason  of  containing  the  first  thorough  analysis  of  the  relation  of 
maximum  rainfall  to  size  of  sewers  to  be  found  in  American  sanitary 
literature.  In  this  particular,  Mr.  Shedd's  report  of  1874  is  an  engi- 
neering classic,  and  has  been  the  model  upon  which  nearly  all  the 
American  sewerage  reports  since  made  have  lieen  based. 

Considerable  opposition,  however,  was  developed  among  the  citizens 
of  Providence  to  the  plans  for  sewerage  which  Mr.  Shedd  had  pre- 
pared, and  in  order  to  get  an  authoritative  expression  of  opinion  from 
a  disinterested  source,  the  Mayor  of  Providence  requested  the  Board 
of  Directors  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  to  designate 
three  members  of  that  Society  to  make  an  examination  of  the  sewer- 
age system  adopted  by  the  advice  of  Mr.  Sliedd,  and  report  as  to  the 
sufficiency  of  size,  kind  of  material,  division  of  districts,  etc.;  and  also 
to  recommend  any  changes  which  they  might  deem  requisite.  Gen. 
Geo.  S.  Greene,  Col.  Julius  W.  Adams,  and  E.  S.  Cliesbrough  were 
designated  as  such  Commission.  Their  report  approving  the  system 
designed  by  Mr.  Shedd  was  presented  under  date  of  August  7,  1876. 

In  regard  to  the  final  delivery  of  all  the  sewage  at  Field's  point, 
Messrs.  Greene,  Adams,  and  Chesbrough  say : 

The  project  of  ultimately  carrying  all  the  sewage  into  the  deep-water  current  at 
Field's  point  is  judicious  and  jDroper,  and  should  be  constantly  kept  in  view  in  all 
constructions  of  mai'ginal  or  outlet  sewers,  and  in  plans  for  right-of-way  for  sewers 
leading  toward  that  point.  It  is  j^robable  that,  to  preserve  the  sanitary  condition 
of  the  waters  of  the  Providence  and  Seekonk  rivers,  it  will  be  necessary  to  dis- 
chaige  the  sewage  ordinarily  at  ebb-tide,  and  to  have  a  reservoir  near  the  outlet  to 
enable  this  to  be  done.  The  property  of  the  city  on  Field's  point  contains  a  proper 
site  for  such  works. 

Should  the  sewage  ever  be  of  sufficient  value  to  justify  the  use  of  it  for  irrigation, 
this  point  will  be  the  position  from  which  it  can  be  most  easily  carried  to  the  dry 
plains  on  either  side  of  the  Pawtuxet  river,  by  i^umping  it  to  a  sufficient  height 
for  distribution. 

The  considerable  increase  in  population,  together  with  a  corre- 
sponding extension  of  the  manufacturing  industries  of  Providence,  had 
led  to  such  relatively  rapid  increase  in  the  pollution  of  the  Providence 
river  and  its  tributaries,  as  to  force  upon  the  city  authorities  the  ques- 


PlIOPOSED    CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT   PROVIDENCE,   R.  I.       448 

tion  of  some  disposal  of  the  sewage  other  thau  by  allowing-  it  to  pass 
directly  into  the  several  streams.  In  September,  1882,  the  City  Coun- 
cil directed  Samuel  M.  Gray,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  who  was  then  city 
engineer,  to  report  plans  of  main  intercepting-  sewers,  and  of  any 
other  work  necessary  for  collecting-,  conducting-,  and  disposing-  of  the 
sewage  of  the  city,  in  accordance  with  the  best  approved  methods,  at 
such  a  point  and  in  such  a  manner  as  would  be  the  least  injurious  to 
the  public  health,  together  with  the  estimated  cost  thereof. 

Subsequently,  on  February  23,  1884,  the  City  Council  directed  Mr. 
Gray  and  his  assistant,  Chas.  H.  Swan,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  to  proceed 
to  Europe  to  investigate  the  various  jjlans  in  practical  operation  for 
the  disposal  and  utilization  of  sewage,  together  with  all  matters  relat- 
ing thereto,  and  to  report  the  result  of  such  investigations,  with  such 
recommendations  w4th  reference  to  the  sewage  of  the  citj^  as  might 
be  deemed  expedient. 

In  accordance  with  these  instructions,  Messrs.  Gray  and  Swan  pro- 
ceeded to  Europe  and  inspected  the  sewerage  systems  and  methods  of 
sewage  disposal  at  the  following  places  : 

The  pail  system  at  Birmingham  and  Manchester. 

The  Liernur  pneumatic  system  at  Amsterdam. 

The  Berlier  system  at  Paris. 

The  Shone  system  at  Wrexham. 

Tlie  combined  system  at  London,  Berlin,  Paris,  and  Frankfort-on-the 
Main. 

The  separate  system  at  Oxford,  and  also  at  Paris,  where  it  was  in  ex- 
perimental operation  to  a  limited  extent. 

Irrigation  farms  at  Bedford,  Berlin,  Breslau,  Croydon,  Dantzic,  Don- 
caster,  Edinburgh,  Leamington,  Milan,  Oxford,  Paris,  Warwick,  Wim- 
bledon, and  Wrexham. 

Precipitation  works  at  Aylesbury,  Birmingham,  Bradford,  Burnley, 
Coventry,  Hertford,  Leeds,  and  Leyton.  Precipitation  works  in  pro- 
cess of  construction  were  also  inspected  at  Frankfort  on-the-Main. 

As  the  result  of  his  investigations,  Mr.  Gray  recommended  : 

(1)  That  a  system  of  intercepting  sewers  be  completed. 

(2)  Tliat  the  system  of  intercepting  sewers  be  so  designed  as  to  convey  the 
8ewap;t>  of  tlie  city  to  Field's  point. 

(3)  Tliat  the  sewage  be  treated  at  Field's  point  by  chemicals  in  such  manner  as  to 
precii)itate  the  matters  in  suspension  and  to  clarify  the  sewage. 

(4)  That  the  clarified  effluent  be  emptied  into  deep  water  at  Field's  point. 

In  regard  to  precipitation,  Mr.  Gray  says  : 

My  r(>asoji  for  recommending  precipitation  is  that  I  am  confident  that  the  sewage 
can  be  sf)  clarified  that  the  effluent  will  be  entirely  harmless  when  emptied  into  the 
river  at  Field's  ])oiiit,  and  the  ))unfication  can  be  accom))lished  at  less  ex]iense  than 
by  irrigation.     Altlioiigh  sewage  is  more  fully  purified  by  irrigation   than  by  i)re- 


444  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

cipitation,  I  have  not  felt  justified  in  recommending  its  adojition,  for,  from  careful 
and  extended  surveys,  I  am  convinced  that  the  large  amount  of  suitable  land  re- 
quired for  irrigation  cann6t  be  obtained  at  any  reasonable  cost  within  reasonable 
distance  of  the  city. 

.  .  .  It  is  proposed  to  erect  pumping  works.  The  sewage  from  a  ])art  of  the 
eighth  ward  and  from  most  of  the  ninth  will  not  require  inimping.  The  sewage 
from  the  remainder  of  the  city  will  be  lifted  about  tw-enty-eight  feet  into  a  conduit, 
tlirough  which  this  sewage,  together  with  that  from  the  eighth  and  ninth  wards, 
already  referred  to,  will  flow  to  the  precipitation  works.  .... 

At  this  ijoiut  .  .  .  it  is  jjroposed  to  construct  tanks  and  erect  suitable  build- 
ings and  works  for  the  mixing  of  chemicals  with  the  sewage,  and  for  the  handling 
of  the  sludge,  etc.  The  sewage,  after  receiving  the  mixture  of  chemicals,  will  flow 
into  precipitation  tanks,  where  it  will  remain  for  a  short  time  to  cause  the  de2)osit 
of  sludge;  the  clarified  tffluent  will  flow  oft'  into  deep  water  at  the  point  as  shown 
on  the  i^lan. 

The  sludge  left  in  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  will  then  pass  into  receivers,  from 
which  it  will  be  forced  by  compressed  air  into  filter  presses. 

.  .  .  By  these  presses  the  sludge  is  easily  compressed  into  a  portable  form. 
That  this  sludge  possesses  some  value  as  a  fertilizer  there  is  no  doubt  ;  it  remains 
to  be  proved  wliether  there  will  be  any  sale  for  it  in  this  vicinity.  Therefore,  for 
the  purposes  of  this  report,  I  assume  that  there  will  be  no  immediate  income  from 
its  sale  as  a  fertilizer. 

Before  deciding-  the  questiou  of  discharge  of  crude  sewage  at  Field's 
point  versus  precipitation  before  discharge,  extensive  experiments 
were  made  with  floats,  in  order  to  ascertain  what  probable  action  the 
tide  and  currents  would  have  on  the  sewage.  In  regard  to  the  results, 
Mr..  Gray  says : 

From  a  careful  study  of  these  experiments,  and  from  a  long  and  close  observation 
of  the  causes  of  the  present  pollution  of  the  cove,  the  Providence  river,  and  its 
tributaries,  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  if  the  crude  sewage  of  the  city  be  emptied  into 
the  river  at  Field's  ])oint  it  will  inevitably  cause  a  nuisance,  to  the  injury  not  only 
of  the  dwellers  within  the  city,  but  to  the  occujiants  of  many  of  the  shore  resorts 
and  residences  bordering  on  the  Providence  river  and  Narragansett  bay,  and  will 
seriously  damage,  if  not  destroy,  many  of  the  valuable  oyster  beds  which  now  line 
the  shores.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  . 

.  .  A  very  important  factor  in  the  pollution  of  the  cove,  as  well  as  the  Prov- 
idence river  and  its  tributaries,  is  the  liquid  wastes  of  manufactories  emptied  into 
the  rivers.  There  are,  as  near  as  I  can  estimate  from  the  best  obtainable  data,  ujj- 
ward  of  2,735,000  gallons  of  filthy  liquid  wastes  emptied  daily  (Sundays  excepted) 
into  the  Mashassuck  and  West  rivers,  and  upwards  of  2,088,000  gallons  into  the 
Woonasquatucket  river,  making  a  total  of  4,823,000  gallons  of  filthy  liquids,  aside 
from  town  sewage,  emptied  into  the  several  rivers  during  twelve  or  fourteen  hours  out 
of  the  twenty-four.  I  wish  to  call  your  attention  emphatically  to  the  fact  that  how- 
ever thoroughly  the  town  sewage  may  be  kej^t  from  the  rivers,  if  these  foul  liquids 
from  manufactoi'ies  are  allowed  to  enter  the  streams,  as  at  present,  the  cove,  to- 
gether with  the  Providence  river  and  its  tributaries,  will  continue  to  present  about 
the  same  filthy  appearance  that  they  do  to-day.  It  is  only  by  keeping  all  sewage 
and  filthy  liquids  out  of  these  waters,  or  by  clarifying  them  before  tliey  are  per- 
mitted to  enter,  and  by  thoroughly  clearing  tlie  river  beds  from  all  deposits  of  filth, 
that  we  may  look  for  improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  Providence  river  and  its 
tributaries.  I  am  convinced  from  observations  abroad  that  in  some  cases  the  quan- 
tity of  liquid  wastes  now  emptied  into  the  rivers  from  manufactories  might  be  ma- 
terially reduced,  and  that  the  remainder  could  be  so  clarified  by  the  proprietors  as 
to  prevent  polluting  the  river,  and  possibly  result  in  some  instances  in  a  source  of 
income  to  them. 

In  designing  the  sizes  of  the  intercepting  sewers,  I  have  thought  best  to  make 


PROPOSED    CHEMICAL    PKECIPITATIOX    AT   PROVIDEXCE,   K.  I.       445 

provisions  for  receiving  the  liquid  wastes  of  these  manufactories.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant question  for  vour  consideration  on  what  conditions  it  may  be  advisable  to  admit 
these  liquid  wastes  into  the  sewers. 

The  estimated  daily  dry-weather  flow  of  town  sewage  in  Providence  at  the  pres- 
ent time  (1884)  is  about  3,000,000  gallons.  This  is  based  on  careful  and  extensive 
gaugings,  made  at  different  times,  of  the  amount  of  sewage  flowing  in  the  several 
sewers.  .  .  .  ....... 

.  .  .  It  will  be  seen  by  table  of  gaugings  that  the  sewers  laid  in  wet  localities 
furnish  a  much  greater  quantity  of  sewage  per  inhabitant  connected,  than  do  the 
sewers  laid  in  drier  parts  of  the  city.  This  larger  quantity  of  sewage  is  due  in 
most  localities  to  spring  or  ground  water,  which  tinds  its  way  into  the  sewer.  The 
great  value  to  the  general  health  of  the  community  of  thus  draining  the  ground  is 
too  ajiparent  to  need  comment. 

In  designing  the  intercepting  sewers,  liberal  provision  has  been  made  for  a  popu- 
lation of  300,000  inhabitants  wuthin  the  present  city  limits,  together  with  small 
districts  lying  outside  the  present  limits,  whose  only  outlet  will  be  through  the  city. 

The  Providence  sewers  are  entirely  constructed  on  the  combined 
system. 

In  his  original  design  of  1871,  Mr.  Shedd  based  the  sizes  of  sewers 
upon  an  estimated  maximum  amount  of  30^  cubic  feet  of  rainfall  per 
minute  per  acre  reaching  them.  The  reasons  for  adopting  this  figure 
are  presented  in  detail  in  Mr.  Shedd's  report  of  1874. 

Mr.  Gray  states  in  his  report  of  1884  that  the  intercepting  sewers 
(excepting  the  main  sewers  of  the  ninth  ward)  are  designed  to  carry 
y^^  inch  of  water  per  hour  from  the  area  drained,  together  with  the 
manufacturing  wastes  and  60  gallons  of  sewage  per  inhabitant,  in- 
cluding ground-water.  The  manufacturing  waste  is  estimated  as  flow- 
ing off  in  ten  hours,  while  one-half  of  the  domestic  sewage  is  estimated 
to  flow  off  in  seven  hours.  The  balance  of  the  flow  fi-om  the  rainfall, 
when  in  excess  of  the  foregoing  alloAvances,  is  to  be  disposed  of 
through  storm  overflows,  which  will  discharge  the  excess  directly  into 
the  streams. 

In  the  ninth  ward  the  flatness  of  the  territory,  the  long  valleys,  and 
the  absence  of  streams  to  receive  the  overflow,  render  it  desirable  to 
provide  for  more  surface-water  than  in  other  parts  of  the  city,  where 
overfloAVs  can  be  easily  and  safely  made.  In  this  district,  therefore, 
provision  was  made  for  two  inches  of  rainfall  per  hour,  in  addition  to 
the  sewage. 

An  overflow  is  to  l)e  provided  for  the  ninth-ward  sewer  into  the 
cove,  near  the  proposed  pumping  station. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  whole  work  recommended  by  Mr.  Gray 
was  $3,699,504. 

In  regard  to  tlie  various  suggestions  for  disposing  of  the  sewage  of 
Providence  by  irrigation  and  otherwise,  Mr.  Gray  says : 

Experience  indicates  that  the  amount  of  land  required  for  the  disposal  of  sewage 
by  irrigation  is  about  one  acre  to  one  liuiidrod  inhabitants.  Tlio  jiopulation  pro- 
vided for  in  tlie  proposed  system  of  interco})ting  sewers  is  300,000.     The  amount  of 


446  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

land  necessary  to  properly  dispose  of  the  sewage  of  that  population  would  be  about 
8,000. 

It  has  been  suggested  to  take  the  sewage  to  Seekonk  plains  for  irrigation.  Tlie 
great  expense  of  conveying  the  sewage  across  the  Seekonk  river  and  to  this  laud, 
together  with  the  fact  that  the  available  area  is  less  than  one  thousand  acres, 
forbids  a  consideration  of  this  scheme. 

It  has  also  been  suggested  that  the  sewage  be  taken  to  Warwick  plains  and  there 
used  for  irrigation.  From  extensive  surveys  of  this  territory,  I  am  satisfied  that 
there  is  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  suitable  land  in  that  locality  for  the  future  needs 
of  the  city.  The  estimated  cost  for  construction  in  accordance  with  this  suggested 
scheme,  including  only  sufficient  quantity  of  land  for  the  present  needs,  is  $1,146,- 
000  more  than  for  the  plan  of  precipitation  herein  recommended.  The  annual  cost 
of  pumping  the  sewage  to  Warwick  plains  would  be  double  the  cost  of  the  pumic- 
ing required  in  the  plan  recommended.  Considering  the  additional  cost,  and  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  there  is  not  a  sufficient  quantity  of  land  at  Warwick  plains  for  fu- 
ture needs,  I  deem  it  unnecessary  to  further  consider  this  scheme. 

By  combining  precipitation  with  irrigation  a  much  smaller  area  of  land  is  requi- 
site, and  should  it  hereafter  be  deemed  advisable  to  adopt  some  system  of  irrigation, 
the  proposed  precipitation  works  will  form  a  most  useful  auxiliary. 

Another  suggestion  has  been  made,  which  is  to  take  the  sewage  down  the  river  to 
Conimicut  point,  and  there,  in  its  crude  state,  discharge  it  into  the  bay.  I  esti- 
timate  that  the  carrying  out  of  this  scheme  would  cost  §1,194,000  more  than  the 
plan  I  have  recommended.  The  annual  cost  of  pumping  to  Conimicut  point  would 
be  nearly  double  the  cost  of  pumping  in  accordance  with  the  plan  recommended. 
Moreover,  the  experiments  made  at  this  point  with  floats  show  that  there  are  strong 
reasons  for  fearing  that  crude  sewage  emptied  into  the  bay  at  this  point  would 
create  a  nuisance  in  the  not  distant  future. 

Considerable  opposition  having  developed  among-  the  citizens  of 
Providence  to  the  plan  of  intercepting-  sewers  and  sewage  disposal,  as 
suggested  by  Mr.  Gray  in  his  report,  the  City  Council  again  requested 
the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  to  appoint  three  members  of 
the  society,  skilled  in  sanitary  engineering,  to  visit  Providence  and 
examine  Mr.  Gray's  plan  for  a  sewerage  system  and  for  sewage  dis- 
posal works,  and  to  report  to  the  City  Council  their  opinion  as  to 
whether  the  said  plans  were  the  best  and  most  economical  which  could 
be  adopted  for  the  collection  and  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  the  city ;  and, 
if  not,  to  recommend  any  changes  Avhicli  they  might  deem  advisable. 

In  accordance  with  this  resolution,  the  President  of  the  American  So- 
ciety of  Civil  Engineers  appointed  Messrs,  Joseph  P.  Davis,  Kudolph 
Hering  and  Pvobt.  Moore,  Members  of  the  Society,  as  a  Commission 
for  this  purpose.  These  gentlemen  visited  Providence,  examined  Mr. 
Gray's  plans,  profiles,  estimates,  and  computations,  and  submitted  their 
report  under  date  of  December  21,  1886. 

After  defining  the  various  practicable  methods  of  sewage  disposal, 

the  Commissioners  say : 

We  mav  now  ])roceed  to  a  consideration  of  the  several  plans  which  have  been 
proposed  "for  dealing  with  the  sewage  of  the  city  of  Providence.     These  are  : 

1.  Disposal  at  Seekonk  plains  ; 

2.  Crnde  disposal  at  Field's  point ; 

3.  Disposal  at  Warwick  plains  ; 

4.  Precipitation  at  Field's  point ; 

each  of  which  we  will  consider  in  the  order  named. 


PROPOSED    CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATIOlSr    AT   PROVIDENCE,   R.  I.      447 


I.       DISPOSAL    AT    SEEKONK   PliAINS. 

In  considering  the  scheme  for  disposing  of  the  sewage  at  Seekonk  plains,  for 
which  Mr.  Gray,  in  his  report  of  Febrnai-v  2,  1886,  has  submitted  an  estimate,  the 
fact  at  once  appears  that  if  broad  irrigation  be  adopted,  the  amount  of  land  avail- 
able for  this  purpose  (being  less  than  1,200  acres)  is  barely  sufficient  for  present 
requirements,  and  leaves  no  margin  whatever  for  the  future  needs  of  the  city.  In- 
termittent filtration,  for  which  the  land  is  fairly  suitable,  is  the  only  method  of  dis- 
posal which  should  be  seriously  considered  at  this  point.  We  find,  however,  that 
much  cheaper  land,  of  equally  good  or  better  quality  for  this  purpose,  exists  at 
Warwick  ])laius,  a  point  more  remote  from  the  centre  of  population,  and  where,  be- 
cause of  this  remoteness  from  habitation,  carelessness  in  the  management  of  the 
process  will  cause  much  less  annoyance  than  at  Seekonk  plains.  These  and  other 
considerations  of  minor  importance  make  it  evident  that  the  advantages  for  dispo- 
sal of  the  sewage  on  the  land  are  much  greater  at  Warwick  plains  than  at  Seekonk 
plains  ;  and  we  think  it  is,  therefore,  useless  to  enter  into  any  detailed  discussion 
of  plans  for  the  latter  place. 


n.      CRUDE   DISPOSAL    AT    FIELDS   POINT. 

The  discharge  of  the  sewage  in  its  crude  state  at  Field's  point,  although  involv- 
ing works  of  somewhat  greater  first  cost  than  are  required  for  precipitation,  is  yet, 
on  account  of  its  smaller  current  expenses,  by  far  the  cheapest  of  all  the  modes 
which  have  been  proposetl  for  disposing  of  the  sewage  of  the  city.  We  understand, 
however,  that  the  sentiment  of  the  citizens  of  Providence  is  much  opposed  to  this 
metliod  of  disposal.  Nor  is  this  surprising.  The  shores  in  this  vicinity  are  used 
for  summer  residences  and  as  pleasure  resorts  ;  bathing  beaches  ai'e  near  at  hand, 
and  during  the  summer  and  fall  months  these  watei's  are  much  frequented  by  ex- 
cui'sion  parties,  attracted  by  the  cool  breezes  of  the  bay  and  the  beauty  of  its 
shores.  Extensive  oyster  beds  exist  in  this  vicinity,  and  the  fishing  interests  are 
said  to  be  of  some  importance.  The  float  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Gray  show  that 
the  strong  and  well-defined  outward  tidal  ciirrent,  which  is  found  opposite  Field's 
point  shortly  after  the  ebb  tide  sets  in,  begins  below  this  point  to  diminish  in 
force  and  become  diffused.  The  direction  of  the  surface  currents  is  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  the  wind,  but,  as  a  rule,  matter  discharged  at  the  Point  during  the 
hour  and  a  half  after  high  tido,  would  meet  the  incoming  tide  before  reaching 
Gas])ee  point,  and  would  be  carried  backward  a  considerable  distance  toward  its 
place  of  starting,  unless  sooner  grounded  on  one  of  the  shores.  With  a  we.sterly 
wind,  the  tendency  is  to  strand  on  the  east  shore,  and  probably  the  bathing  beaches 
on  that  shore,  between  Squantum  and  Sabine's  point,  and  even  below,  would  be 
much  injured. 

Considering  all  the  interests  at  stake  in  preserving  the  bay  and  its  shores  from 
even  the  apprehension  of  nuisance — interests  of  a  kind  which  relate  to  the  health 
and  pleasure  of  the  people,  and  cannot,  tlierefore,  be  measured  in  money  values — 
we  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  plan  of  ciude  dis])osal  at  Field's  point,  by  which 
these  interests  might  be  jeopardized,  is  inadmissible. 


m.       DISPOSAL    AT    WAIJWICK    PL.4INS. 

At  Warwick  ]^lains  are  found  about  2,200  acres  of  land  availal)le  for  irrigation. 
The  soil  is  of  good  character  for  this  jmrpose,  and  the  situation  is  in  many  re- 
spects favorable.  But  looking  to  the  future,  when  the  city  of  Providence  shall  have 
a  population  of  )U)0,000,  this  is  not  sufficient  land  to  dispose  of  tlie  sewage  in  a 
satisfactory  manner  by  broad  irrigation.  On  this  account,  and  also  because  we  find 
disposal  by  intermiti;ent  filtration  to  be  the  cheaper  and,  all  things  considered,  the 
better  method,  we  liave  made  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  a  scheme  for  this  method 
of  disposal,  and  shall  use  it,  rather  than  the  estimate  for  broad  irrigation  given  in 


448  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Mr.  Gray's  report,  for  purposes  of  com})arison  with  the  scheme  of  precipitation  at 
Field's  point. 

In  making  this  estimate,  we  have  assumed  that  1,000  acres  of  land  will  be  pur- 
chased at  once,  not  only  to  allow  for  the  future  needs  of  the  city,  when  the  land 
may  be  much  more  difficult  to  acquire,  but  also  to  aftbrd  in  the  first  instance 
greater  latitute  in  the  management  of  the  farm.  Filter  beds  are  well  adapted  to  a 
variety  of  crojis,  particularly  to  those  of  market-gardening.  But,  to  admit  of  tlie 
greatest  possible  use  from  such  cultivation,  it  is  advantageous  to  o})erate  in  connec- 
tion therewith  a  stock  or  dairy  farm.  The  crops  from  the  filter  beds  may,  by  this 
means,  be  j^artially  utilized  upon  the  farm  with  better  results  than  from  direct  sale& 
in  the  market.  This  suri)lus  land  may  be  fertilized  by  broad  irrigation  if  found 
advisable,  but  in  our  estimates  we  have  made  no  allowance  for  preparing  it  for  this 
purpose,  either  by  underdrainage  or  by  grading  the  surface. 

Mr.  Gray's  estimates,  both  for  piecipitation  and  for  irrigation,  are  based  upon 
caring  for  a  dry-weather  flow  of  9,000,000  gallons  of  sewage  daily,  including  about 
3,000,000  gallons  of  manufacturing  waste  ;  that  is  to  say,  while  the  interce^jting- 
sewers  and  other  parts  of  the  work,  whicli  cannot  be  enlarged  except  at  great  cost 
and  inconvenience,  are  made  of  capacity  sufficient  for  a  population  of  300,000,  or  a 
dry-weather  flow  of  sewage  of,  say,  24,000,000  gallons  daily,  those  jjarts  of  the 
works  which  are  intended  for  the  treatment  of  the  sewage,  and  which  can  easily  be 
extended  from  time  to  time  as  required,  are  proportioned  to  a  dry-weather  flow  of 
9,000,000  gallons. 

In  our  estimate  of  the  cost  of  filtration,  we  have  assumed  the  same  basis  of  sew- 
age flow,  and  have,  as  far  as  possible,  adojited  the  same  scale  of  prices  as  Mr.  Gray^ 
which,  as  before  stated,  we  consider  liberal  and  safe.  For  the  cost  of  the  whole 
system  of  intercepting  sewers,  which  is  the  same  in  this  as  in  the  precipitation 
scheme,  we  have  taken  Mr.  Gray's  figures  without  change,  viz.,  $2,195,973.00. 
We  have  further  assumed  that,  as  an  average  through  the  year,  each  acre  of  land, 
when  properly  prepared  by  underdrainage  and  giading,  will  dis])ose  of  45,000  gal- 
Ions  daily,  this  being  about  the  same  as  the  English  basis  of  1,000  peoj^le  pev  acre. 

Upon  these  assumptions,  we  find  the  total  cost  of  the  scheme  for  intermittent 
filtration  at  Warwick  plains,  including  the  purchase  of  1,000  acres  of  land  and  the 
special  preparation  of  200  acres  for  use  as  filter  beds,  to  be  $4, 620, 000.  Sludge- 
tanks  are  provided  at  the  farm  to  remove  from  the  sewage,  by  simple  sedimenta- 
tion without  the  use  of  chemicals,  the  solid  and  slimy  matters  which  would  tend 
to  clog  the  pores  of  the  soil,  such  removal  being,  in  the  opinion  of  the  best  judges, 
necessary  to  secure  the  best  working  of  the  system  of  intermittent  filtration  where 
so  large  a  quantity  is  put  on  the  land  as  is  proposed  in  the  ])resent  instance.* 

The  yearly  cost  of  operating,  including  the  exi:)ense  of  pumping  the  sewage  and 
the  care  of  the  sludge,  we  estimate  at  $28,000  per  year.  The  subsequent  cost  of 
distributing  the  sewage  over  the  land  and  the  care  of  the  filter  beds,  as  well  as  the 
cost  of  management  and  ojjeration  of  the  farm,  we  assume  will  be  repaid  by  the 
sale  of  the  products. 

As  to  the  expectation  of  profit  fi  om  the  application  of  sewage  to  the  land,  our 
opinion  is  decidedly  adverse.  Irrigation  in  dry  climates,  or  even  in  moist  cli- 
mates if  the  water  be  applied  only  at  such  times  and  in  such  quantities  as  are 
needed,  is  a  most  valuable  aid  to  agriculture  ;  Init  where  the  water  comes,  and 
must  be  cared  for  night  and  day.  and  every  day  in  the  year,  and  in  largest  quanti- 
ties in  rainy  weather  when  it  is  needed  least,  the  case  is  very  different.  It 
tlien  becomes  more  of  a  hindrance  than  a  help.  And  whilst  there  are  in  England 
a  number  of  towns,  mostly  of  small  size,  where  sewage  farming  on  the  process  of 
intermittent  filtration  has  resulted  in  a  jirofit,  yet  in  the  case  of  Piovidence,  where 
the  climate  forVnds  the  production  of  any  croj^s  for  nearly  half  the  year,  and  where 
no  experience  has  been  gained  in  such  farming,  we  think  our  assumption  that  the 
cost  of  distributing  the  sewage  and  the  management  of  the  farm  will  be  recovered 
from  the  sale  of  its  products,  is  as  favorable  as  it  is  safe  to  make. 

*  See  Second  Report  of  Royal  Commissioners  on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Discharge,  1884  ;  pages 
xlv.,  xlviii.     Also  Bailey-Denton's  Ten  Years'  Experience,  etc.,  etc.     Second  Edition,  page  21. 


PROPOSED  ':::hemical  pkecipitatiox  at  providence,  p..  i.     449 


IV.    PRECIPITATION    AT   FIKLD's   POINT. 

In  this  scheme  it  is  proposed  to  pump  the  sewage  from  the  main  intercepting 
sewer  into  tanks  located  at  Fields  point,  where  it  will  be  treated  chemically. 
The  claritied  effluent  will  be  conducted,  by  means  of  an  outlet  sewer,  to  a  point 
midway  between  the  shore  and  Fuller's  rock  light,  where  it  will  be  discharged  at 
the  bottom  of  the  channel  in  such  manner  as  to  secure  the  utmost  possible  diflu- 
sion.  This  is  the  scheme  recommended  by  Mr.  Gray,  and  for  which  he  has  given 
an  estimate  of  cost  in  his  report  of  November  14,  188i. 

We  have  made  a  new  estimate  of  those  parts  of  the  work  ■which  are  intended  for 
the  raising,  storing,  and  treatment  of  the  sewage,  but  as  it  gives  a  result  not  differ- 
ing materially  from  Mr.  Gray's  estimate,  we  adopt  his  figures,  which  show  the  total 
cost  of  the  precipitation  scheme  to  be  $3,699,501,  or,  say,  $3,700,000. 

As  to  the  yearly  cost  of  treatment,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  give  exact  figures, 
owing  partly  to  the  want  of  experience  in  such  work  in  this  country,  and  partly  to 
a  want  of  certainty  as  to  the  standard  of  purity  in  the  effluent  that  will  lie  required 
at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  We  have,  however,  estimated  the  cost  of  thor- 
ough treatment  throughout  the  year  of  a  sewage  of  average  quality,  believing  that 
in  i^ractice  it  will  be  found  that  a  much  less  quantity  of  chemicals  will  be  required 
in  the  colder  months  than  we  have  jarovided. 

The  yearly  cost  of  pumping  and  treating  the  sewage,  when  the  dry-weather  flow 
shall  have  reached  9,000,000  gallons  per  day,  we  estimate  at  $65,000  ;  believing, 
however,  that  in  practice  this  may  be  reduced  to  .$53,000. 


COJIPARISON-   OF   THE   SCHEME   OP   INTERMITTENT   FILTRATION    AT    WARWICK    PLAINS    WITH 
THAT   OF   CHEMICAL   PRECIPITATION   AT   FIELD'S   POINT. 

It  remains  now  to  weigh  the  comparative  merits  of  the  two  latter  schemes,  as  in 
our  judgment  it  is  between  these  two  that  the  choice  must  lie. 

And,  first  of  all,  to  what  extent  will  these  two  schemes  accomplish  the  end  for 
which  they  were  designed,  and  free  the  city  from  sewage  nuisance  ?  For  any  plan 
which  does  not  accomjilish  this  should  be  at  once  dismissed  from  consideration. 

In  answer  to  this  inquiry,  our  opinion  is  clear  that  success  ma'y  be  attained  by 
either  scheme. 

That  sewage  may  be  efiectually  disposed  of  by  intermittent  filtration  does  not 
now  admit  of  any  doubt.  Since  this  method  of  disposal  was  first  proposed  by  Dr. 
Frankland  in  1870,  it  has  been  tried  in  a  large  number  of  towns  in  England,  and  in 
a  few  instances  in  this  country — the  piincijial  one  being  at  the  town  of  Pullman, 
Illinois.  In  all  cases  excejit  where  the  essential  requirements  of  the  process  have 
been  grossly  violated,  its  success  in  producing  an  effluent  clear,  colorless,  and  free 
from  all  noxious  or  putresciblo  matters  has  been  complete.     .     . 

As  regards  the  ])articular  case  in  hand,  we  find  the  land  at  Warwick  plains  to  be 
of  a  kind  well  suited  for  filtration,  being  very  largely  sand  and  gravel  with  a  cov- 
ering of  light  soil,  so  that  we  have  no  doubt  tliat.  if  })i-6per  care  were  taken  in  the 
matter  of  underdrainage  and  grading  tlie  surface,  and  the  sewage  applied  with 
])roper  intervals  of  rest,  it  would  be  thoroughly  purified,  and  the  city  freed  from 
the  nuisance  under  wliicli  it  now  sufi"ers. 

Turniijg  now  to  the  scheme  for  chemical  precipitation  at  Field's  jioint,  we  think 
that  tills  nietliod  will  also  deal  effectually  with  the  sewage,  and  afford  a  satisfactory 
solution  of  the  present  problem.  Preci])itation  processf:*-.  "'ave  been  in  operation 
in  England  for  tlio  last  tliirty  years,  and  the  experience  thei'e  gained  is  more  than 
that  of  :dl  the  world  besides.  A  committee  ap])ointed  iv  1880  by  the  city  of  Glas- 
gow to  investigate  the  subject  of  sewage  dis])osal,*  su ->  v'">  in  their  rejiort  the 
results  of  exi)erience  bearing  U]>on  this  ])oint  as  follows 

'•  There  are  ])roc(>ss(>s  of  iirecipitation  now  in  o]ieration,  which  give  an  effluent 
capable  of  b(>ing  discharged  into  a  riv(>r  with  perfect  inoftensiveness  and  without 
sensibly  destroying  its  jiuiity.  ])n)vi(led  always  that  the  volume  of  sewage  is  small 

*  See  Report  Royal  Commission  on  Metropolitan  Sewage  Discharge,  page  xxiv.,  paia;,'r:i])li  !(>'.•. 
29 


450  sp:wage  disposal  in  'riii;  i  xhkd  states. 

compared  with  that  of  the  river Whatever  be  the  iirocess  of  chemical 

purification  to  which  the  sewage  is  subjected,  the  effluent  is  still  impure,  and  will 
Ijutrefy  and  give  off  noxious  gas  if  kej^t  for  some  time  ;  and  we  know  of  no  way  in 
which  the  })uritication  can  be  completed  but  by  oxidation.  Filtration  through 
cultivated  land,  i.e.,  irrigation,  is  jjrobably  the  best  means.  But  oxidation  of  the 
effluent  may  in  most  cases  be  effected  by  the  simple  and  natural  process  of  run- 
ning it  into  the  nearest  water-course,  when,  if  the  proportion  of  clean  water  be 
sufficient,  the  organic  matter  will  be  gradually  oxidized,  and  the  effluent  water 
will  not  become  putrid  or  offensive  in  any  way,  even  in  warm  weather." 

The  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  nuisance  of  sewage  is  almost  wholly  due  to  the  sus- 
pended matter.  If  this  be  taken  out  by  the  process  of  precipitation,  dilution  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  usually  stated  to  be  twenty  times  the  volume  of  the 
sewage,  is  all  that  is  needed  to  insure  the  complete  destruction  of  the  organic  mat- 
ters which  remain.  In  the  present  instance,  the  large  volume  of  water  which 
passes  Field's  point  is  amply  sufficient  to  diffuse  and  oxidize  without  offence  many 
times  the  quantity  of  clarified  sewage  which  will  ever  be  poured  into  it. 

We  have  no  doubt,  therefore,  that  a  precii)itation  process  at  this  point,  properly 
worked,  will  so  effectually  disjiose  of  the  sewage  that  it  will  cause  no  further  trouble. 

In  claiming  for  these  two  schemes  that  they  will  effectiially  dispose  of  the  sew- 
age, we  do  not  mean  to  say  that  there  will  not,  at  times,  be  unpleasant  smells  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  works.  The  jiumping  station,  screening  cham- 
ber, and  the  jDreciintation  tanks,  as  well  as  the  sludge  tanks  of  the  filtration  scheme 
at  Warwick  plains,  will,  under  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  not  be  free  from 
objectionable  odors.  With  good  management  there  should  ordinarily  be  no  smell 
noticeable  outside  the  works,  and  even  at  the  worst  the  trouble  will  be  strictly 
local.  lu  no  case  will  there  be  anything  detrimental  to  the  public  health,  noi  any- 
thing that  can  be  ])roi3erly  called  a  nuisance. 

Both  schemes,  then,  being  satisfactory  solutions  of  the  problem  in  hand,  and 
as  such  substantially  equal,  we  must  comjiare  them  next  from  the  financial  point 
of  view. 

As  we  have  already  stated,  the  first  cost  of  the  filtration  scheme  will  be  S4.620,- 
000,  whilst  the  cost  of  the  iirecipitation  scheme  is  83,700,000,  showing  a  difference 
in  favor  of  the  latter  of  .S920,000. 

This,  however,  is  not  conclusive.  The  question  of  annual  cost  must  also  be 
taken  into  account. 

This  is  made  up  of  three  elements  :  Interest  ujTOn  the  first  cost,  operating  expenses, 
and  repairs,  including  in  the  latter  the  cost  of  maintaining  and,  when  necessary, 
completely  renewing  such  parts  of  the  works  as  are  of  a  perishable  nature.  Sum- 
ming the  first  two  of  these  elements  for  each  scheme,  we  get  the  following  : 

For  the  filtration  scheme  : 

Interest  upon  S4, 620,000  at  3^  per  cent $161,700  00 

Operating  expenses,  including  pumping  and  care  of  sludge 28,000  00 

Total $189,700  00 

For  the  precipitation  scheme  :    * 

Interest  upon  .$3, 700,000  at  3-1  per  cent $129,500  (10 

Operating  expenses,  including  j^umping  and  cost  of  precipitation 65,000  00 

Total $194,500  00 

The  third  element  of  the  annual  expenses — to  wit,  the  repairs  and  renewals  of 
perishable  parts — hardly  admits  of  a  satisfactory  estimate.  It  is  evident,  howevei', 
that  when  we  consider  the  much  greater  cost  of  the  machinery  required  to  immp 
to  the  sewage  farm,  the  larger  amount  of  iron  submitted  to  the  action  of  sewage,  and 
the  liability  to  derangement  in  a  complicated  system  of  tile  drainage,  that  this 
item  of  expense  will  be  the  greater  for  the  filtration  scheme.  And  when  we  con- 
sider further  that  the  cost  of  treating  the  sewage  is  likely  to  be  considerably  re- 
duced below  tlie  cost  given  in  the  preceding  estimate,  it  seems  quite  certain  that 


PROPOSED    CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT   PROVIDENCE,   R.  I.      451 

in  the  matter  of  annual  cost,  as  well  as  in  first  cost,  the  balance  will  be  in  favor  of 
precipitation. 

Another  consideration  tending,  as  we  think,  to  incline  the  scale  in  the  same  di- 
rection, is  the  greater  simplicity  of  the  organization  necessary  to  carry  on  precipi- 
tation as  compared  with  filtration. 

The  kind  and  quantity  of  chemicals  required  to  produce  a  satisfactory  efHuent 
having  been  once  determined  by  the  experience  of  the  first  few  months,  during 
which  time  the  greatest  care  and  skill  will  be  well  rewarded,  the  process  afterward 
will  be  mainly  a  matter  of  routine.  This  will  be  especially  true  at  Providence, 
where  the  effluent  will  be  discharged  into  a  large  body  of  moving  water,  whereby 
it  will  be  at  once  greatly  diluted  and  dispersed.  In  discharging  into  small  fresh- 
water streams,  where  the  dilution  is  small,  the  character  of  the  effluent  has  to  be 
much  more  carefully  watched,  and,  if  economy  be  studied,  the  treatment  varied  as 


Mm  Rock 

Po/r?f-    ■•;., 

'  Zl'.IS beloif/ 
mean  lotv  w£ltei'. 


Fio.  64. — Plan  of  Outlet  Sewek  to  Field's  Point,  PnovinENCE,  Rhode  Island. 


the  character  of  the  sewage  vaines  from  the  day  to  the  night  hours  and  from  season 
to  season.  But  under  the  conditions  existing  at  Providence,  after  the  kinds  and 
quantities  of  chemicals  best  suited  to  the  local  conditions  have  been  once  deter- 
mined and  the  best  methods  of  mani]:)ulation  established,  the  works  will  need  for 
their  successful  management  only  a  small  force  of  laboi'ers  under  the  cliarge  of  a 
faitliful  and  intelligent  foreman. 

Tlie  process  of  intermittent  filtration  is  also  in  itself,  and  if  nothing  but  the  pu- 
rification of  the  sewage  l)e  aimed  at,  one  of  routine  and  simplicity  ;  but  when  carried 
on  in  coniKiction  with  farming  and  market  gardening,  it  is  no  longer  a  simple  me- 
chanical process,  but  a  business  venture,  which  requires  for  its  success  the  employ- 
ment and  dismissal  of  many  num,  \\n\  handling  of  considerable  sums  of  money,  and 
the  constant  (>xercise  of  a  skill  and  foresight  of  no  ni(>an  order. 

On  this  subject  Mr.  Bailey-Denton,  who  is  one  of  tlie  warmest  advocates  of  the 
application  of  sewage  to  land,  and  who  has  done  more  than  all  others  together  to 
develop  and  bring  into  use  the  process  of  intermittent  filtration,  r<>niarks  : 

"That  a  s(!wag(!  farmer,  to  cpialifv  himself  for  success,  must  serve  a  special  ap- 
prenticeship to  the  occupation.     Moreover,  it  has  been  made  clear  that  an  ordinary 


452 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


farmer  is  no  better  qualified  to  deal  with  sewage,  without  such  apprenticeship,  than 
a  gardener  ;  for  not  only  is  it  necessary  to  know  what  grasses  and  vegetables  can 
be  best  treated  with  sewage,  and  to  regulate  the  frequency  of  ai)plication  and  the 
quantity  of  liquid  to  gain  the  best  return,  but  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  he 
should  be  able  to  effect  the  best  and  readiest  sale  of  his  crops  when  tit  for  market, 
and  so  conduct  his  operations  with  reference  to  the  demands  of  local  markets,  and 
of  such  other  markets  as  he  can  reach,  as  will  conduce  to  the  growth  of  only  such 
crops  as  he  can  most  readily  sell.  By  this  means  he  will  reduce  to  a  minimum 
the  losses  incidental  to  all  food  production  ;  for  it  is  quite  certain  that,  in  the 
long  run,  the  man  wlio  sells  the  most  at  the  right  mnment,  anil  toho  aiins  at  con- 
verting into  milk  or  meat   what  he  cannot  sell,  is   the  person  who  will  make  the 


Section  A3, 


Fig.  65. — Sections  op  Outlet  Sewer,  Providence,  Rhode  Island. 


most  money.  To  do  this  it  is  absolutely  requisite  that  every  sewage  farm  should 
have  upon  it  sufficient  buildings  to  house  a  projier  number  of  milch  cows  and 
pigs,  to  consume  a  portion  of  each  season's  produce. 

"It  is  essential,  in  fact,  that  a  tenant  of  a  sewage  farm  should  combine  in  his 
own  caijabilities  the  practical  qualities  of  a  farmer,  a  gardener,  and  a  market  sales- 
man, which  will  induce  him  to  avoid  all  treatment  of  a  dilettante  character,  and  lead 
him  to  embi-ace  in  his  management  the  growth  of  such  crops  only  as  will  keep  him 
most  favorable  before  the  market  he  serves."* 

In  other  words,  to  conduct  a  sewage  farm  of  1,000  acres  is  an  entei'prise  calling 
for  a  high  oi-der  of  business  capacity,  and  above  all  demanding  a  constant  watchful- 
ness and  study,  which  experience  shows  can  be  expected  only  where  a  strong  per- 
sonal interest  is  at  stake,  and  in  which  any  kind  of  corporate  management  is  apt 

*See  Bailey-Denton,  on  "Intermittent  Downward  Filtration,"  edition  of  1885,  pages  98-99. 


PROPOSED    CHEMICAL    PKKCIPITATIOX    AT    PROVIDENCE,    R.  I.       453 

to  lead  to  failure.  So  long,  therefore,  as  another  course  is  open  for  adoption,  we 
cannot  advise  the  city  of  Providence  to  incur  the  risks  which  a  business  undertak- 
ing such  as  this  will  involve. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Summing  up  our  conclusions,  we  find  as  follows : 

1.  That  in  order  to  cleanse  the  rivers  and  the  cove,  all  sewage  mnst  be  kept  out 
of  them,  except  in  time  of  storms. 


50 


^fTSf 


Fkj.  0(5— Sections  of  Outlet  Seweu,  PnovinENCE,  Rhodk  Island. 

2.  That  this  can  l)o  acconiplisliod  only  by  a  system  of  intercepting  sewers,  sub- 
stantially such  as  tliat  ])rop()se(l  by  Mr.  Gray. 

3.  That  of  tlie  various  scliemos  for  final  disposal  of  the  sewage,  the  two  which 
we  consider  best  are  tlioso  for  Intorniittent  Filtration  at  Warwick  plains,  and 
Chemical  Precipitation  at  Field's  point. 


454 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


4.  That  either  of  these  will  dispose  of  the  sewage  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  and 
in  a  way  to  free  the  city  from  nuisance. 

o.  That  in  this  respect  the  two  plans  are  substantially  equal. 

6.  Tliat  of  these  two  the  precipitation  scheme  is,  in  first  cost,  the  cheaper  by 
$920,000. 

7.  That  in  annual  cost  the  balance  will  probably  be  in  favor  of  precii)itation. 

8.  That  the  organization  needed  for  precij^itation  is  simple,  having  in  view  but 
a  single  object — the  purification  of  the  sewage. 

9.  That  the  organization  at  Warwick  plains  will  have  two  objects :  one,  the 
purification  of  the  sewage  ;  the  other,  the  somewhat  complicated  business  of  con- 
ducting a  large  farm  with  a  view  to  profit.     In  other  words,  it  will  be  a  business 


1^ 


Fig.  67. — View  in  Stokm  Outlet,  Bell  Motth  of  Providence  Intehceptin© 

Sewers. 


Venture  in  which  the  city  should  not  embark  unless  there  be  no  satisfactory  alter- 
native. 

10.  For  these  reasons,  the  scheme  of  chemical  precipitation  at  Field's  point  is,  in 
our  judgment,  the  one  best  worthy  of  adoption. 

Work  was  beg-un  upon  the  intercepting  sewers  in  1890,  and  to  Decem- 
ber 31,  1891,  7.388  miles  had  been  constructed.  The  outlet  to  Field's 
point  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  map,  Fig.  64.  Some  of  the  more 
interesting-  details  may  be  gathered  from  Figs.  65  and  6G,  the  references 
of  which  for  locations  are  to  Fig.  64.  Fig.  67  is  a  view  taken  in  the 
mouth  of  a  storm  outlet.  The  proposed  precipitation  works  are  to  be 
located  on  Section  2,  near  the  point  F  as  shown  on  the  map.  Fig.  64. 

The   construction  now  in  process  is  under  the  supervision  of  Mr. 


PROPOSED    CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATION    AT    PROVIDENCE,   R.  I.      455 

Shedcl,  who  is  again  city  engineer  of  Providence,  having  succeeded 
Mr.  Gray  in  1890. 

In  regard  to  the  authorship  of  the  plans  of  the  improved  sewerage 
and  sewage  disposal  works,  as  being  actually  carried  out  at  Provi- 
dence, it  ma^^  be  said  that  the  intercepting  sewers  are  substantially 
as  designed  by  Mr.  Shedd,  and  as  outlined  in  his  report  of  1874.  The 
credit  of  the  plan  of  the  sewage  disposal  works  essentially  pertains  to 
Mr.  Gray.  The  complete  system  may  be  stated,  therefore,  as  the 
joint  work  of  these  two  eminent  engineers. 


CHAPTEK  XXIX. 

BKOAD  IRRIGATION   AT  THE  WOECESTER,  MASSACHUSETTS,  STATE 
HOSPITAL  FOR  THE  INSANE. 

The  irrig"ation  works  at  the  Worcester  Hospital,  wliicli  were  designed 
by  Buttrick  and  Wheeler,  civil  engineers,  of  Worcester,  in  1876,  are 
deserving  of  brief  description  in  this  work,  not  only  because  they  are, 
so  far  as  the  authors  are  informed,  the  first  successful  irrigation 
Avorks  in  this  country,  but  that  they  have  continued  to  successfully 
dispose  of  the  sewage  of  about  600  people,  the  ordinary  population 
of  the  hospital,  from  the  date  of  their  completion  until  the  present 
time.  A  letter  from  the  superintendent  in  January,  1892,  states  that 
no  trouble  has  ever  been  exi:)erienced  in  disposing  of  the  sewage  of 
the  hospital  in  the  manner  which  was  originally  designed. 

It  is  true  that  some  attempt  had  been  made  to  dispose  of  sewage  by 
broad  irrigation  at  the  State  Insane  Hospitals  at  Augusta,  Maine,  and 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  a  short  time  before  the  sewage  farm  of  the 
Worcester  Insane  Hospital  was  put  in  operation.  Neither  of  these 
attempts  were,  however,  entirely  successful  and  both  have  been  aban- 
doned. We  may  therefore  give  the  credit  to  the  authorities  of  the 
Worcester  Hospital,  of  instituting  the  first  successful  sewage  irriga- 
tion farm  in  the  United  States. 

The  hospital  building  is  situated  on  a  considerable  rise  of  ground, 
about  3,000  feet  west  of  the  main  irrigation  field,  shown  in  plan  by 
Fig.  68,  the  area  of  which  includes  about  14  acres.  The  several 
branches  of  the  hospital  sewers  are  all  bi'ought  to  a  common  point,  a 
few  hundred  feet  east  of  the  main  building,  and  connect  in  a  manhole 
from  which  a  by -pass  leads  to  a  settling  tank.  The  details  of  this 
tank  are  shown  by  Fig.  69. 

At  the  tank  there  is  also  located  a  windmill  by  which  sewage  is 
elevated  when  required,  and  used  during  the  growing  season  to  irri- 
gate the  lawns  immediately  about  and  adjacent  to  the  building.  It  is 
stated  that  no  nuisance  has  ever  resulted  from  a  judicious  use  of  the 
sewage  in  this  way.  The  fall  from  the  settling  tank  to  the  main  irri- 
gation field  is  about  37  feet,  and  the  pipe  sewer  leading  from  the  tank 
to  tlie  main  field  is  12  inches  in  diameter.  At  manholes  Nos.  8,  10,  11, 
and  13,  Fig.  68,  along  this  pipe,  outlets  are  provided  by  which  sewage 
can  be  run  as  required  into  main  distributing  trenches  and  consider- 


BROAD   IRRIGATION   AT  THE   WORCESTER   HOSPITAL. 


457 


458 


SEWAGE  DISPOSAL   IX   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


able  additional  area  of  land  reached  by  irrigation.  The  total  area 
that  can  be  irrigated,  including  the  specially  prepared  main  field,  is 
from  30  to  40  acres.     The  entire  hospital  farm  includes  257  acres. 

The  settling  tank,  Fig.  69,  is  30  feet  long,  16  feet  wide,  and  covered 
by  arches  turned  upon  iron  girders,  with  side  walls  and  bottom  of 


brick  laid  in  cement,  and  made  water-tight  by  a  Portland  cement 
plaster  coating  one-half  inch  in  thickness.  The  sewage  enters  the 
tank  at  the  west  end  and  flows  out  at  the  east  end,  as  indicated  on  the 
plan.  About  two-thirds  of  the  distance  from  the  inlet  to  the  outlet 
a  brick  partition  is  built  across  the  tank,  in  which  are  placed  4  plates 


BROAD    IRRIGATION    AT   THE    WORCESTER   HOSPITAL.  459 

of  brass  i^erforated  with  60  holes  one-fourth  of  au  inch  in  diameter. 
The  lower  plates  are  30  inches  from  the  floor  of  the  tank ;  the  entire 
partition  is  4.5  feet  high,  and  capped  with  a  strong-  netting-  of  gal- 
vanized wire  of  |-inch  mesh.  As  stated,  the  sewage  is  received  into 
the  larger  division,  where  the  solids  are  detained,  the  fluid  portion 
straining  through  the  brass  plates  and  wire  netting  and  passing  to 
the  main  sewer  to  be  used  for  irrigation. 

The  published  reports  do  not  furnish  any  detail  as  to  just  the 
method  used  for  disjDosing  of  the  sludge  from  the  settling  tank  and 
the  frequency  with  which  the  tank  is  cleansed.  Definite  statements 
are  also  lacking  in  regard  to  the  quantity  of  sewage  per  da}^  quality 
of  the  soil  of  the  irrigation  area,  etc. 

The  niain  irrigation  field  of  14  acres  area  is  provided  with  a  main 
carrier  laid  out  in  four  difterent  levels  of  about  equal  length.  The 
first  level  is  at  an  elevation  of  414  feet  above  tide-water ;  the  second 
at  an  elevation  of  413.33  ;  the  third,  412.67 ;  and  the  fourth  level  at  an 
elevation  of  412  feet.  The  balance  of  the  details  will  be  readily  under- 
stood by  reference  to  the  plans. 

The  work  was  largely  constructed  by  the  inmates  of  the  hospital, 
and  no  statements  of  cost  can  be  made.* 

*  The  chief  source  of  iuformation  in  regard  to  sewage  disposal  at  the  Worcester  Hospital  is  the 
47th  An.  Rept.  of  the  Trustees,  etc.,  for  the  yr.  end.  Sept.  30,  1879. 


CHAPTEK  XXX. 

BBOAD  IKEIGATION  AND  INTERMITTENT  FILTEATION  AT  PULLMAN, 

ILLINOIS. 

In  1880  the  Pullman  Palace  Car  Company  concluded  to  erect,  in 
connection  witli  their  Chicago  Works,  a  model  town  as  a  place  of  resi- 
dence for  their  large  number  of  artisans  and  mechanics.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  nearly  level  tract  of  land  was  selected  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Calumet,  at  a  point  between  five  and  six  miles  west  of  Lake  Michigan 
and  fourteen  miles  south  of  the  central  part  of  the  city  of  Chicago. 
The  company's  large  car  shops  and  car-wheel  works,  employing  over 
4,000  operatives,  are  located  here,  as  are  also  the  Allen  Paper  Car 
Wheel  Works,  the  Union  Foundry,  the  Pullman  Iron  and  Steel  Works, 
the  Standard  Knitting  Mills,  Paint  Works,  Terra  Cotta  Works,  and  the 
Drop-Forge  and  Foundry  Company's  Works.  The  total  number  of 
operatives  in  these  various  manufacturing  establishments,  including 
the  Car  Wheel  Works,  is  said  to  be  5,500. 

The  town  (now  a  part  of  the  city  of  Chicago)  owes  its  inception  to 
the  president  and  founder  of  the  Pullman  Palace  Car  Company,  Geo. 
M.  Pullman,  Esq.,  who  has  carried  out  here  an  ideal  town  in  which  are 
provided,  not  only  houses  for  the  workmen,  but  all  the  various  needs 
of  a  modern  civilized  community.  The  present  population  is  given  as 
11,000. 

The  site  of  the  town  is  almost  level,  and  on  an  average  from  7  to  8 
feet  above  the  mean  water  surface  of  Lake  Calumet.  The  lake  drains 
only  a  small  area  and  discharges  into  Lake  Michigan  through  the 
Calumet  river,  which,  however,  does  not  flow  through  the  lake, 
but  is  connected  therewith  by  a  small  channel,  through  which  the 
water  flows  from  lake  to  river,  or  from  river  to  lake,  according  to  the 
varj'ing  condition  of  winds  and  floods.  The  lake  is  about  3  miles  long, 
1|  wide,  and  from  1  to  8  feet  in  depth.  The  absence  of  any  current 
in  this  shallow  lake  renders  it  undesirable  to  make  Lake  Calumet  the 
disposal  place  for  crude  sewage. 

The  design  and  construction  of  the  sewerage  system  and  sewage  dis- 
posal works  were  entrusted  to  Benezette  Williams,  C.  E.,  of  Chicago, 
who,  after  a  review  of  all  the  circumstances,  determined  ux)on  a  purely 
separate  system  of  sewerage,  with  disposal  by  broad  irrigation  sup- 
plemented by  intermittent  filtration,  upon  a  tract  of  land  about  three 


BROAD    IRRIGATIOISr    AT    PULLMAIS',   ILLINOIS.  461 

miles  distant  from  the  town.  The  rainfall  is  disposed  of  by  a  system 
of  drains  leading-  to  Lake  Calumet  by  the  most  convenient  lines.  Con- 
straction  upon  the  sewerage  system  began  in  August,  1880,  and  in  Oc- 
tober, 1881,  the  entire  system,  including-  the  land  disposal,  was  first  put 
in  operation.  The  plans  were  reviewed  by  E.  S.  Chesbrough,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  C.E.,  as  consulting  engineer  for  the  Pullman  Company. 

The  sewerage  system  proper  is,  as  stated,  a  purely  separate  System 
to  which  nothing  is  admitted  but  sewage,  except  the  small  amount  of 
water  for  flushing  from  a  series  of  connections  with  the  water  mains. 
Automatic  flushing  basins  are  placed  on  the  house  drains  and  receive 
the  sewage  from  the  sinks  and  wash-bowls,  while  the  water-closet 
sewage  flows  directly  into  the  street  sewers.  The  flushing  basins  also 
serve  the  purpose  of  grease  traps,  the  siphons  being  so  constructed 
that  the  grease  is  carried  out  whenever  a  flush  occurs.  The  grease, 
having  become  cold  while  in  the  basin,  does  not  adhere  to  the  sides  of 
the  sewers  when  rapidly  flushed  out.  From  4  to  6  houses  are  connected 
with  one  basin,  as  a  measure  of  economy. 

The  sewers  converge  to  a  common  point,  at  which  is  located  a 
storage  reservoir  of  a  capacity  of  about  300,000  gallons.  The  ventila- 
tion of  this  reservoir  is  secured  by  means  of  8  flues,  lined  with  12-inch 
sewer  pipe,  built  into  the  buttresses  of  the  water  tower,  in  the  base  of 
which  the  storage  reservoir  is  located,  and  opening  above  the  top  of 
the  tower  at  a  height  of  165  feet.  The  ventilation  is  further  assisted 
by  a  20-inch  pipe  leading  to  the  chimney  of  the  car  shops.  The  bottom 
of  the  storage  reservoir  is  about  30  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  the  top  of  the  groined  arches  covering  it  10  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  The  pumping  engines  are  two  direct-acting 
compound  condensing  engines,  with  piston  pumps.  Each  has  a 
capacity  of  2,500,000  gallons  in  24  hours.  They  are  located  in  an 
engine-room,  directly  over  the  storage  reservoir  previously  described, 
the  floor  of  the  engine-room  being  supported  by  the  groined  arches 
which  cover  the  reservoir. 

The  daily  average  quantity  of  sewage  for  1890  was  1,800,000  gallons, 
of  which  it  is  stated  that  about  1,375,000  gallons  was  from  the  dwell- 
ings and  the  balance  from  the  shops.  In  September,  October,  and 
November,  1890,  the  average  daily  quantity  of  sewage  pumped  was  a 
trifle  over  2,000,000  gallons. 

The  yearly  amounts  of  sewage  pumped  for  the  ten  years,  1882  to 
1891  inclusive,  were  as  follows  : 


Year.  Gallons. 

188-2 211,(>'2n,l(;(> 

1883 358,.3r)-t,52(l 

1884 44a,H]r),4H() 


Year.  Gallons. 

ISHT 573,7()0,fi40 

1SS8 ,  . .  5(58, 007. 7t)0 

188<) ri()2.2r){),0()0 


1885 4(;h,3()2,  120    18!)0 r)r)7,001.3r.() 

1880   472,748,080    1801 617,604,030 


462 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATP:S. 


During  the  first  nine  months  of  1892  a  total  of  513,996,060  gallons  of 
sewage  was  pumped,  or  an  annual  rate  of  685,328,000  gallons. 

It  was  considered  desirable  to  avoid  screening  or  settling  the  sewage 
before  pumping,  and  with  this  object  in  view  the  pumps  were  de- 
signed with  special  reference  to  pumping  everything  which  might  be 
found  in  the  sewage.     For  this  purpose  a  rubber  valve  of  special  make 


frCm  Pullman 
^5"Vif-rified  tilemaindi'sfribuh'onp^e.,^ 


Screening  fafU< 


Fig.  70.— Plan  of  Sewage  Farm  at  Pullman,  III.,  as  Laid  Out  in  1880. 

is  in  use,  which  is  stated  to  work  satisfactorily.  Cotton  waste,  cloths, 
sticks  and  blocks  of  wood  pass  through  the  pumps  frequently,  without 
injury  or  inconvenience.  Whatever  sediment  collects  in  the  reservoir 
by  incidental  settling  is  washed  loose  with  a  hose  from  time  to  time, 
and  passed  through  the  pumps  with  the  sewage.  The  pumping  plant 
was  furnished  by  the  Cope  &  Maxwell  Manufacturing  Company,  of 
Hamilton,  Ohio. 

The  cost  of  operating  one  of  the  pumps  for  20  hours  a  day  and 


BROAD    IKRIGATIOX    AT    PULLMAX,   ILLINOIS.  463 

pumping-  an  average  of  1,800,000  gallons  per  day  in  1890  is  stated  as 
follows  : 

Fuel S1.73 

Oil  and  waste 0.57 

Attendance  3.75 

Total $6.05 

This  would  be  at  the  rate  of  $8.36  per  1,000,000  gallons  pumped.  The 
actual  lift,  not  including  friction  in  the  force  main,  is  on  an  average 
about  30  feet. 

A  20-inch  cast-iron  main,  nearly  3  miles  in  length,  connects  the 
pumping  station  with  the  sewage  farm.  At  the  farm  end  of  this  main 
is  located  a  olosed  screen-tank,  as  indicated  on  the  plan.  Fig.  70,  fitted 
with  a  screen  of  j-inoli  mesh.  This  tank  is  6  feet  in  diameter,  24  feet 
long,  and  made  of  :^-inch  boiler-iron.  The  lower  end  is  high  enough 
above  the  floor  to  admit  of  wagons  being  driven  under  it,  and  into 
■which  may  be  received  the  material  intercepted  by  the  screen,  by  the 
opening  of  the  valve  at  the  lower  end  of  the  tank.  A  section  through 
the  screening  tank  is  shown  b}'  Fig.  71. 

The  distribution  pipe,  leading  from  the  screening  tank,  is  fitted  with 
a  pressure  regulator  set  to  10  pounds.  An  overflow  pipe  is  also  pro- 
vided as  an  additional  precaution.  The  object  of  the  pressure  regula- 
tor is  to  prevent  heavy  pressures  and  vibrations  from  the  pumps  from 
coming  upon  the  distribution  pipes,  which  are  entirely  of  vitrified  tile. 
The  main  distribution  pipe  is  15  inches  in  diameter,  with  9-incli  laterals 
315  feet  apart.  Hydrants  are  located  on  the  9-inch  lines  every  320  feet, 
thus  giving  one  hydrant  to  about  each  2^  acres.  The  distribution 
pipes  of  vitrified  tile  were  tested  with  water  pressure  before  laying. 

The  system  of  underdraining  consists  of  parallel  lines  of  common 
agricultural  tile,  2  to  4  inches  in  diameter,  laid  to  an  average  depth  of 
31  feet  and  about  40  feet  apart.  According  to  a  statement  made  by 
E.  F.  Martin,  farm  superintendent  in  1887,  the  primary  drains  would 
give  better  service  if  they  were  all  at  least  4  inches  in  diameter.  The 
small  drains  connect  with  a  main  underdrain,  from  6  to  12  inches  in 
diameter,  Avhich  (Miipties  into  a  ditch  discharging  into  Lake  Calumet. 

The  tract  of  land  <niginally  appropriated  to  sewage  disposal  com- 
prises about  1,500  acres,  and  at  present  about  140  acres  are  in  use  for 
this  purpose.  Of  this  amount,  15  acres  were  laid  out  in  flat  beds, 
surroundiid  by  eml)ankraents  in  order  to  permit  of  use  for  intermittent 
filtration  whenever  necessary.  The  soil  is  the  ordinary  Illinois  prairie 
black  alluvium,  1  foot  in  df'])tli,  underlaid  by  clay  with  occasional 
pockets  of  sand.  The  distribution  after  the  sewage  leaves  the  hy- 
drants is  eff'ected  by  means  of  short  pieces  of  hose  connected  with  the 
liydrants,  supi)l<^mented  by  temporary  shallow  grips  or  furrows,  as 


464 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


needed  for  the  different  crops.  The  most  satisfactory  crops  have 
been  found  to  be  cabbage,  cauliflower,  celery,  asparagus,  onions,  sweet 
corn,  squashes,  and  other  vegetables  common  to  market  gardening. 
The  raising  of  potatoes  has  been  found  to  be  a  failure  on  this  farm. 


gjffg.j)'';^^??^?^': 


i^^/^^'^^^]^if(',^^^^^^f'^{^^^^i^0^^^^^^. 


Fig.  71.— Section  through  Screening  Tank  and  Pressure  Regulating  Valve, 

AT  Pullman.  Illinois. 

Italian  rye-grass  is  also  unsuited  to  the  soil  of  this  farm  ;  it  is  stated 
to  grow  so  coarse  and  rank  as  to  be  nearly  worthless  for  feeding 
Very  little  stock  is  kept,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  more  profitable  to 
raise  vegetables,  etc.,  for  the  Chicago  market. 
A  plan  of  the  farm  as  laid  out  in  1880  is  shown  by  Fig.  70. 


BROAD    IKKIGATION    AT   PULLMAX,   ILLINOIS.  465 

Many  statements  were  made  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  oj)eration  of  the 
Pullman  farm  as  to  the  large  commercial  profit  realized.  All  such  that 
have  come  under  the  authors'  notice  have  lacked  definiteness  as  to  the 
detail.  The  most  authentic  statements  indicate  that  in  some  years  the 
farm  proper  has  yielded  a  net  profit  of  as  much  as  8  per  cent,  on  the 
investment,  while  in  other  j'ears,  owing-  to  early  frost  or  other  adverse 
causes,  there  has  been  very  little  or  no  profit.  The  positive  statement 
is  made,  however,  that  in  no  year  has  the  outlay  exceeded  the  income. 
During-  the  growing-  season  about  40  laborers  are  employed,  this  num- 
ber including-  those  who  attend  to  the  irrig-ation.  During-  the  balance 
of  the  year  the  labor  at  the  farm,  which  is  mostly  confined  to  control- 
ling the  distribution  of  the  sewage,  is  limited  to  one  or  two  men.  The 
statements  of  net  profit  in  the  foregoing-  are  made  without  reference 
to  the  cost  of  pumping  the  sewage,  which,  from  what  has  already  been 
stated,  may  be  taken  at  about  $2,208  per  year. 

The  Pullman  management  has  not  kept  any  record  of  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  sewage  reaches  the  disposal  area  in  winter,  but  it  is 
stated  to  leave  the  houses  at  an  average  temperature  of  65°  Fahr.  The 
minimum  winter  temperature  of  the  air  is  —  25°  Fahr.  The  maximum 
snowfall  is  about  2  feet  ;  in  the  ordinary  winters  it  seldom  exceeds  1 
foot.  The  maximum  depth  of  frost  penetration  is  stated  at  3.5  feet; 
the  ordinary  depth,  2  feet. 

Mr.  Duaue  Doty,  engineer  for  the  Pullman  Company,  states  that  the 
only  analysis  of  sewage  and  eliiuent  in  his  possession  was  made  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Massachusetts,  November 
30,  1887,  as  follows,  an  analysis  of  water  from  the  farm  well  being  ap- 
pended : 

Ammonia. 

Free.  Albuminoid.  Chlorine.  Nitrogen. 

Pure  sewage 2.-3000                .3200               1.98  None. 

Filtered  sewage  from  manhole  on  filter-bed 8500                .04-0               2. .31  1.500 

Filtered  sewage  from  mouth  of  main  underdrain .0026                .0108               3.7S  .6.50 

Water  from  farm  well    OitOO                .0166               1.78  .033 

The  efficiency  of  the  purification  at  Pullman  has  been  the  subject 
of  considerable  discussion,  especially  in  relation  to  the  results  at- 
tained in  winter  ;  and  the  following  statements  by  engineers  who  have 
visited  the  farm  on  tours  of  inspection  are  of  considerable  interest. 
Eliot  C.  Chirke,  M.  Am.  Soc.  O.E.,  says:  * 

The  winters  at  Pullman  are  colder  than  in  most  parts  of  Massachusetts,  bnt  iiri- 
fration  lias  always  proceeded  there  without  interi-n]ition.  I  made  a  visit  to  that 
farm  in  February,  1S85.  For  the  five  days  previous  the  mercury  had  not  risen  to  0 
Fahrenheit,  and  had  been  as  low  as  —25°.  On  the  day  of  my  vi.sit,  the  mercury 
standing  at  —12°,  I  found  the  sewage  going  on  to  the  land,  and  covered  by  a 
stiatum  of  ice  from  one  to  eight  indies  thick.  I  broke  the  ice,  and  with  a  .spade 
dug  a  hole  in  the  ground  l)elow,  wliich  was  iierfectly  oiJen.  As  the  weather  mod- 
erated the  sewage  rapidly  melted  the  ice  above  it. 

*  Report  to  the  Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission  of  1885,  p.  129. 
30 


466  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  second  account  is  by  Charles  A.  Allen,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  as 
follows :  * 

Upon  the  day  of  our  visit  [January,  1887]  it  was  quite  warm,  the  thermometer 
registering  40°  Fahr.  We  found  that  the  sewage  was  all  being  discharged  upon 
the  filtration  area,  the  first  section  of  which  was  covered  with  sludge  to  a  dejith  of 
about  a  foot.  The  sewage  was  running  over  this  to  the  second  section,  which  was 
partially  covered  with  ice,  and  then  over  the  remaining  area,  which  was  entiiely 
covered  with  ice,  and  was  finally  discharged  into  the  effluent  trench  without  having 
been  filtered  in  the  least. 

The  entire  area  was  completely  covered  with  sewage,  and  there  was  evidently  no 
filtration  taking  |)lace,  as  about  the  same  quantity  passed  ofi"  at  the  lower  end  of 
the  beds  as  was  discharged  upon  the  upper  end. 

The  manager  of  the  farm  was  away,  but  we  were  given  the  following  facts  by  his 
assistant,  which  we  subsequently  verified  : 

The  farm  is  run  for  the  purijose  of  making  money,  the  purification  of  the  sewage 
being  a  secondaiy  consideration. 

During  the  summer  months  when  vegetation  has  received  all  the  sewage  it  will 
bear,  it  is  simply  turned  into  Lake  Calumet  in  its  crude  state. 

We  were  told  that  not  a  particle  of  sewage  has  been  applied  to  the  farm  proper 
this  winter,  it  all  having  been  simply  passed  over  the  area  as  already  described. 

Mr.  Geo.  H.  Benzenberg-,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  wrote  as  follows  on 
Nov.  21,  1892  :  t 

I  have  not  been  at  Pullman  for  a  number  of  years,  and  hence  cannot  give  you  any 
information  whatever  as  to  what  they  are  doing  there  now,  but  I  know  that  as  early 
as  prior  to  1887  a  large  amount  of  crude  sewage  was  I'un  into  Lake  Calumet.  This 
I  found  to  be  .the  fact  upon  a  visit  to  the  farm,  and  which  the  superintendent 
finally  admitted  and  excused  by  saying  that  it  was  necessary  in  order  to  save  the 
crops.  The  sewage  was  being  run  in  a  large  open  ditch,  covered  by  bushes  grow- 
ing on  each  side,  from  near  the  farm  to  the  lake. 

Mr.  Benzenberg-'s  statement  has  been  corroborated  by  Mr.  Rudolph 
Hering,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  who  visited  the  farm  in  1886,  and  also  in 
1887. 

In  1891  Mr.  Allen  Hazen,  chemist  of  the  Lawrence  (Mass.)  Experi- 
ment Station,  visited  Pullman.  Mr.  Hazen's  account  of  his  visit, 
together  with  an  interesting  mechanical  analysis  of  the  surface  soil 
of  the  filter  beds,  is  as  follows  :  | 

I  visited  the  Pullman  sewage  farm  in  October,  1891.  The  superintendent  was 
absent,  and  I  was  shown  about  by  a  man  who  had  worked  on  the  farm  for  some 
years.  He  told  me  that  with  the  application  of  sewage,  worms  developed  in  the 
soil  and  destroyed  the  crojjs,  and  for  this  reason  no  sewage  had  been  applied  for 
two  or  three  years.         ............ 

The  filter  was  not  in  use  at  the  time  of  my  visit,  nor  did  it  have  the  appearance 
of  having  been  used.  My  guide  thought  that  it  was  at  least  a  month  since  any 
sewage  had  been  ajjplied,  and  a  much  longer  time  since  any  considerable  quantity 
had  been  treated.  The  sewage  of  the  entire  town  was  being  turned  diiectly  into 
Lake  Calumet,  from  which  large  quantities  c^f  ice  for  Chicago  are  cut. 

*  From  Mr.  Allen's  Report  of  1887,  p.  44. 

+  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.  (.Jan.  12,  1893),  p.  27. 

X  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.  (Jan.  12.  1898).  p.  28. 


BKOAD    IRRIGATION    AT   PULLMAN,   ILLINOIS.  467 

A  sample  of  the  surface  soil  of  the  filter  had  the  following  mechanical  analysis : 

Mm.  Per  cent. 

Finer  than  .24 87 

"    .12 43 

"          "    .06 28 

"     .03 16 

"          "     .01 organic,  8 

Albuminoid  ammonia,  22b  parts  in  100,000. 

The  analj'sis  shows  the  material  to  be  very  much  finer  than  the  sands  success- 
fully used  in  Massachusetts,  and  it  would  hardly  be  possible  to  put  upon  it,  with 
good  results,  any  large  volume  of  sewage. 

Mr.  Doty  furnished  the  followiug  statement  in  this  connection,  which 
he  gave  as  the  langiiag-e  of  the  superintendent  of  the  farm :  * 

The  sewage  when  not  needed  upon  the  fields  of  the  farm  is  run  on  to  the  filter 
beds,  and  these  filter  beds  are  ploughed  up  four  or  five  times  a  year  so  as  to  loosen 
the  soil  and  expose  as  much  of  it  as  possible  to  the  air.  At  times  all  the  sewage 
is  used  upon  the  farm,  and  in  wet  weather  not  more  than  half  of  it.  Some  seasons 
have  taken  all  the  sewage  upon  the  fields.  At  rare  intervals  only,  when  it  has  been 
necessary  to  clean  the  receiving  tank  at  the  farm  end  of  the  iron  main,  is  raw  sew- 
age run  into  Calumet  lake,  and  then  for  very  brief  periods  and  not  enough  of  it  to 
do  any  harm.f 

*  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.  (Jan.  12,  189.3),  p.  27. 

t  In  addition  to  those  quoted,  the  further  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  the  Pullman 
sewage  farm  which  have  been  drawn  upon  are  : 

(1)  The  Pullman  Sewerage,  a  paper  by  Benezette  Williams,  Member  of  the  Western  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers,  in  Jour,  of  the  Assoc,  of  Eng.  Socs.  vol.  i.  (1SS3),  pp.  311-319.  from  which  the 
main  facts  in  the  forci^oing  in  relation  to  original  design  of  the  sewerage  system,  sewage  farm, 
straining  tank,  etc.,  have  been  abstracted.  An  abstract  of  Mr.  Williams'  paper  may  also  be 
found  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  ix.  (1882),  pp.  20:i-204. 

(2)  Tabulation  of  sewage  irrigation  statistics,  in  Mr.  Gray's  Providence  Rept.  of  1884. 

(3)  Articles  in  Eng.  <fe  Bldg.  Reed.,  vol.  vii.,  p.  3.5;  voL  ix.,  p.  476;  vol.  x.,  p.  360;  vol.  xiv., 
p.  .55. 

(4)  Private  letters  to  the  authors. 

(p)  Articles  in  the  Sanitary  News  and  the  American  Architect. 

(6)  Description  of  a  visit  to  Pullman  by  Dr.  Wm.  Oldright  in  6th  An.  Rept.  Prov.  Bd.  of 
Health  of  Ontario  (1887),  pp.  Ixxxiv.-vi. 

(7)  Article  "Scientific  Sewerage,"  in  the  Pullman  Journal,  Feb.  21,  1891.  By  Duane  Doty, 
C.E. 


CHAPTEK  XXXI. 

BEOAD  IRRIGATION  AT  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  REFORMATORY, 

CONCORD. 

The  sewage  of  this  institution  was  originally  discharge  d  into  the 
Assabet  river  at  a  jooint  immediately  opposite  the  institution.  The 
deposit  of  floating  and  suspended  matter  of  the  sewage  along  the 
banks  and  on  the  bottom  of  the  stream  having  become  noticeable,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  screen  out  the  solid  portion  through  coarse  wire 
screens  located  in  a  subterranean  screen-pit,  which  was  situated  near 
the  line  of  the  main  sewer  and  connected  therewith  by  a  by-pass. 
This  still  permitted  the  liquid  portion  of  the  sewage,  with  its  soluble 
constituents  and  much  of  the  finer  suspended  matter,  to  be  discharged 
into  the  river  as  before.  The  arrangements  for  removing  the  solid 
portion  from  the  screen-pits  were  inconvenient,  and  their  non-removal 
led  to  the  production  of  a  positive  nuisance.  The  clogging  of  the 
screens  also  rendered  it  necessary,  in  order  to  allow  the  flood  flow  to 
pass,  either  to  open  the  gates  of  the  main  sewer  so  that  the  sewage 
would  flow  directly  into  the  stream  without  passing  into  the  screen - 
pits,  or  else  to  raise  the  screen  and  allow  the  accumulations  of  sludge 
to  be  flushed  out  into  the  river  by  storm  flow. 

The  sewage  proper  from  the  main  group  of  prison  buildings 
amounted  to  upwards  of  100,000  gallons  per  day,  and  in  times  of  rain- 
fall this  amount  was  augmented  by  the  roof-water. 

The  waste  water  from  the  gas-works,  originally  discharged  into  the 
common  drains,  had  been  afterwards  excluded  therefrom  and  allowed 
to  run  into  an  open  sink-hole  in  the  gravel,  in  the  rear  of  the  build- 
ings. 

The  drainage  from  the  sinks  and  water-closets  of  a  large  isolated 
shop,  which  has  since  been  removed,  was  disposed  of  by  flowing  in  an 
open  ditch  leading  from  the  shop  to  a  sink-hole  about  70  feet  distant. 

The  waste  liquors  from  the  dyeing-vats  in  the  hat-shop,  amounting 
to  from  40,000  to  70,000  gallons  per  day,  was  further  disposed  of  by  al- 
lowing it  to  flow  out  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  into  gravel 
and  sand-pits  near  by,  where  it  was  left  to  soak  away  as  best  it  might. 

Finally,  the  sink  drainage  from  10  houses  on  Commonwealth  ave, 
(see  Fig.  72),  occupied  by  the  officers  and  their  families,  was  dis- 
charged by  a  pipe  sewer  into  a  large  cesspool.     The   cesspool  re- 


BIIOAD    IRRIGATION    AT   THK    CONCORD    REFORMATORY. 


469 


quired  cleaning  about  once  each  week,  involviner  an  amount  of  labor 
equal  to  the  total  expenditure  of  six  mouths'  time  of  one  man  through- 
out the  year.     Water-closets  were  not  introduced  into  these   houses 


until  1885,  and  previous  to  that  time  each  house  was  provided  with  a 
privy. 

In  the  spring  of  1883,  an  Act  was  passed  by  the  Massachusetts  Leg- 
islature, authorizing  the  expenditure  of   a  sum  not  exceeding  ?<5,000 


470 


SKWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


for  the  disposal  of  the  sewag-e  at  the  Eeformatory  ;  and  in  June  of  that 
year  the  Prison  Commissioners  instructed  William  AYlieeler,  C.E.,  to 
prepare  plans  for  a  comprehensive  system  of  sewag-e  disposal.  Sur- 
veys were  immediately  made  and  plans  jarepared  and  submitted  to  the 
Commissioners,  who,  after  accepting  them,  referred  them  to  the  State 
Board  of  Health  for  approval,  in  accordance  with  the  Act.     The  State 


VMJWMW^Jk,        ii;M,^/M^^ 


Plan  of  Receivinq  and  Separating  Pits  on  CO. 

Fig.  73. — Details  op  Receiving  and  Separating  Tanks, 
Massachusetts  Reformatory. 

Board  of  Health,  after  some  chang-es  in  the  selection  of  the  lands 
upon  which  the  sewag-e  was  to  be  disposed  of,  approved  the  plans 
September  1,  1883.  The  construction  of  the  works  was  begun  on  Sep- 
tember 18,  and  mostly  completed  during-  the  following-  summer. 

The  common  labor  and  much  of  the  skilled  labor  was  done  by  con- 
victs. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  new  works  is  shown  by  Fig.  72, 
while  Fig.  73  represents  the  principle  features  of  the  receiving  and 


BROAD    IltKIGATIOX    AT   THE    CONCORD    REFORMATORY.  471 

separating  tanks,  pumping  station,  etc.     The  plant  has  been  described 
as  follows : 

The  plan  of  the  new  works,  while  leaving  substantially  unchanged  the  general 
arrangement  of  jDlumbing  and  interior  drains,  involved  the  construction  of  an  en- 
tirely new  system  of  pipe  sewers  outside  the  prison  buildings,  from  which  stoi-m 
water  is  excluded  except  at  a  few  points  for  flushing  purposes,  as  later  described, 
and  whereby  all  the  ordinary  sewage  is  carried  to  a  series  of  underground  receiving 
and  separating  tanks  or  chambers.  These  chambers  are  separated  by  brick  par- 
titions sixteen  inches  thick,  laid  in  hydraulic  cement  mortar,  the  outside  walls  con- 
sisting of  an  eight-iach  brick  lining  or  interior  facing,  with  an  impervious  backing 
of  hydraulic  cement  concrete  or  beton,  constructed  ni  situ,  after  the  brick  was  laid. 
Every  alternate  brick  in  alternate  courses  is  a  header,  projecting  outward  half  its 
length,  thus  affording  a  pei'fect  bond  between  the  brick  face  and  concrete  backing. 
The  whole  is  built  upon  a  concrete  foundation  extending  over  the  entire  area  of  the 
chambers,  affording  a  tight  floor  three  inches  thick  and  footings  six  inches  thick 
under  all  walls  and  partitions,  and  is  covered  by  two  arches  whose  adjacent  skew 
backs  rest  upon  a  middle  partition  and  piers,  thus  forming  a  valley  which  alfords  a 
passage  for  the  main  collecting  sewer  and  safety-overflow  pipes. 

The  chambers  are  provided  with  sewage  inlets,  sludge  outlets,  and  suction  pijies 
for  discharging  the  liquid  portion,  all  in  duplicate,  and  each  one  in  a  separate  com- 
partment from,  and  ca))able  of  being  used  interchangeably  with,  its  companion. 
Access  to  each  compartment  is  had  through  man-holes  of  ample  size. 

The  sewage  is  commonly  first  admitted  through  an  inlet  valve,  a,  into  a  compart- 
ment, A  (see  "Plan  of  Receiving  and  Separating  Pits,"  Fig.  73),  about  twelve  feet 
square,  from  which,  when  filled  to  a  depth  of  five  feet,  the  liquid  portion  overflows 
automatically  from  its  middle  depth,  through  an  unsealed  three-legged  siphon,  m, 
into  another  chamber  of  the  same  size.  A' .  The  second  compartment,  .4'.  has  con- 
nection through  a  valve,  b,  with  a  storage  chamljer  about  twenty-five  feet  square, 
BB.  into  which  the  li(|uid  portion  flows  in  the  usual  operation  of  the  works,  the 
said  liquid  portion  being  pumped  out  daily  through  either  or  both  of  the  suction 
pij)es,  c  and  c',  as  circumstances  may  require. 

The  second  chamber,  A',  is  pi-actically  a  duj^licate  of  the  first  one.  A,  and  may 
be  used  interchangeably  with  cither  the  first  one  as  the  primaiy  receiving  and 
separating  compartment  (in  which  case  the  crude  sewage  is  admitted  through  an 
alternate  inlet  valve,  (i)  ;  or  with  the  larger  one,  BB,  as  a  storage  chamber  and 
pump-well ;  or,  as  ordinarily  used,  in  open  connection  therewith,  it  affords  simply 
an  addition  to  the  storage  capacity  of  the  works. 

With  this  interchangeability  of  uses,  effected  by  simple  devices,  the  function  of 
eacli  compartment  may  bo  performetl  by  one  of  the  other  two,  whereby  each  may  in 
turn  be  left  in  temporary  disuse,  thus  facilitating  the  work  of  discharging  the 
sludge,  and  the  examination,  repair,  and  gen(n-al  care  of  the  works. 

By  causing  the  liquid  overflow  from  the  receiving  chamber  to  take  place  from 
the  middle  of  its  depth,  the  solid  matter,  which  either  floats  or  sinks,  remains  in 
the  chamber,  where  it  is  allowed  to  accunnilate  until  it  approaches  the  level  of  the 
inlet  of  the  overflow  pipe  or  siphon.  The  shulge  is  then  discharged  by  gravity 
through  the  valve,  e  or  e',  as  the  case  may  be,  an  eight-inch  Akron  ]upe,/,  into  a 
composting  ])it  situated  about  six  hundred  f(>et  distant,  on  the  low  bluff  overlook- 
ing the  river.  Here  the  excess  of  liquid  that  flows  out  with  it  is  allowed  to  leach 
away  into  the  dry,  porous  soil,  and  the  residue  is  covered  (at  intei'vais  of  about  two 
or  three  days)  with  a  light  layer  of  dry  loam,  muck,  or  other  absorbent,  whereby  it 
is  rendered  odorless  and  innocuous,  and  its  fertilizing  value  develo])ed  and  pre- 
served. Before  the  next  discharge  is  to  occur,  it  is  in  suitable  condition  to  be 
carried  away  and  composted  with  more  absorbents,  or  applied  directly  to  the  land, 
with  results  wliich  demonstrate  its  agricultural  value.  In  practice,  with  the  present 
population  serv<'d  by  these  works,  numbering  about  O.'jO  convicts  and  upward  of 
twenty  officers'  families,  and  disposing  of  about  1()(),()0()  gallons  of  sewage  daily, 
the  sludge  is  discharged  once  in  two  weeks.  The  accumulations  of  that  ])eriod 
furnish  a  deposit  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  deep  upon  tlie  bottom  of  the 
receiving  chamber,  an<l  floating  matter  to  a  thickness  of  from  six  to  ten  inches  upon 


472  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

the  toi^  of  its  contents.  After  a  thorongh  agitation  with  a  pole,  throngli  a  man-hole, 
during  which  abont  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  floating  matter  sinks,  the  dis- 
charge valve  is  ojjeued  and  the  entire  contents  gravitate  into  the  sludge-pit,  which 
has  been  made  ready  bv  cleaning  out  the  preceding  charge,  and  loosening  up  the 
bottom  to  facilitate  the  leeching  away  of  the  excess  of  liquid  as  already  described. 

Two  open  sludge-pits,  each  about  12  x  iO  feet,  were  originally  constructed,  to  be 
used  alternately ;  but  one  has  recently  been  found  to  serve  the  purpose,  after  cover- 
ing it  with  a  substantial  building  to  exclude  rain  and  snow,  and  to  confine  the  odor 
occurring  temporarily  during  the  flow  of  the  sludge  into  it.  Although  situated 
within  from  150  to  400  feet  from  six  double  houses  occupied  by  officers  of  the 
i:)rison,  the  resident  engineer  states  that  no  complaints  have  arisen  therefrom  since 
it  was  so  housed. 

Over  one  of  the  small  compartments,  A  ,  of  the  receiving  chambers,  a  small 
pump  house  is  built,  the  walls  of  the  compartment  constituting  the  foundations  of 
the  building.     (See  "  Plan  of  Pump  House."  also  '■  Vertical  Section  on  E  F,"  Fig.  73.) 

The  pumjj  room  contains  a  small  Knowles  tank  sewage-jiump,  having  its  steam 
cylinder  eight  inches  and  plunger  ten  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  twelve-inch  stroke, 
and  connected  with  an  upright  tubular  boiler  thirty-six  inches  in  diameter  and 
seven  feet  high — both  pump  and  boiler  being  constructed  expressly  for  these  works. 
The  pump  has  two  suction  pipes,  c  and  c  ,  whereby  the  sewage  may  be  ]nimped 
directly  from  either  chamber,  ^4  or  BB,  whence  it  is  delivered  through  a  six- inch 
iron  force-main  to  the  various  points  at  which  it  is  to  be  disjjosed  of  by  irrigation. 
It  is  discharged  through  common  fire  hydrants  made  with  one  specially  large 
nozzle  and  two  hose  nozzles  of  ordinary  size.  Two  sewage  hydrants  are  placed 
within  the  j^risou  yard,  where  large  quantities  are  used  for  the  irrigation  of  its 
sandy  soil,  and  two  more  outside  the  enclosure  upon  the  highest  points  of  the 
arable  land  of  the  prison  farm,  and  at  distances  of  about  400  and  600  feet  from  the 
driven  wells. 

Here  the  sewage  is  used  in  broad  irrigation  upon  such  desirable  crops  as  are  best 
fitted  for  cultivation  therewith — chiefly  grasses  and  grains,  as  well  as  general  tilled 
crops  to  a  limited  extent.  The  soil,  being  light,  free,  and  sandy,  with  the  natural 
water-table  at  a  considerable  depth  below  its  surface,  is  eminently  well  adapted  to 
receive  the  sewage,  which  it  does  with  great  benefit  to  itself,  and  without  com- 
plaint of  odor  or  appearance  of  disagreeable  results  of  any  sort ;  and  this  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  methods  pursued  for  its  distribution  are  still  somewhat 
crude.  The  sewage  is  received  at  an  elevation  of  several  feet  above  the  ground, 
into  a  line  of  wooden  troughs  sujoported  upon  light  "  hoi'ses  "  or  portable  trestles, 
graduated  in  height  so  as  to  secure  a  suitable  fall  toward  the  points  of  final  dis- 
charge, and  is  often  allowed  to  run  two  weeks,  during  the  hours  of  pumping,  in  one 
place  without  change. 

Undoubtedly  a  more  convenient  and  economical,  and  certainly  a  more  sightly 
management  of  the  sewage,  would  be  effected  by  suitably  grading  the  surface  of  the 
utilization  grounds,  and  constructing  shallow  open  conduits  and  surface  channels, 
provided  with  suitable  contrivances  for  deflecting  the  flow  toward  any  desired  part 
of  the  field,  and  through  which  the  sewage  would  be  distributed  by  gravity  and 
regulated  at  pleasure. 

The  inconvenience  of  moving  the  present  arrangement  of  troughs  and  trestles 
afi"ords  a  potent  temptation  to  unduly  prolong  the  time  of  flow  in  a  single  place. 
The  duration  of  flow  in  one  place,  under  the  more  convenient  system  of  distribu- 
tion, could  wisely  be  limited  to  not  more  than  four  days,  on  even  so  free  and  dry  a 
soil ;  and  while  the  works  were  not  originally  so  constructed  by  reason  of  an  inade- 
quate appropriation,  later  recommendations  for  reforming  the  methods  of  distribu- 
tion in  accordance  with  the  foregoing  suggestions  have  been  made  to  the  commis- 
sioners, with  the  offer  of  gratuitous  professional  assistance  in  carrying  them  into 
execution.  The  absence  of  any  particular  sanitary  motive  or  necessity,  however, 
for  pressing  such  improvements,  may  perha2:>s  be  held  to  be  a  reasonable  excuse  for 
neglecting  to  make  them. 

The  new  drains,  with  a  minor  exception,  are  laid  in  straight  lines,  with  a  man-hole 
at  every  junction  and  at  every  change  of  direction  or  grade.  The  ventilation  of  the 
sewers  is  insured  by  the  admission  of  air  through  perforated  covers  upon  certain  of 


BROAD    IKRIGATIOX    AT   THE   COXCOKD    REFORMATORY.  473 

tlie  man-boles,  whence  it  circulates  to  and  through  the  soil  pipes  which  are  carried 
through  the  roofs  of  the  prison  buildings — the  soil  pipes  of  the  "  strong  rooms  " 
also  having  been  so  extended  iu  conjunction  with  the  work  done  under  the  Act  of 
18S3,  with  the  direct  result  of  entirely  obviating  the  presence  of  objectionable 
odors  and  sewer  emanations  which  had  occasionally  existed  before. 

The  ventilation  uf  the  receiving  and  separating  works  is  effectually  accomi:)lished, 
without  objectionable  results  of  any  sort,  by  the  constant  admission  of  air  through 
a  perforated  man-hole  cover,  r,  into  the  primary  receiving  compartment,  A,  and  its 
positively  induced  circulation  through  a  series  of  openings  connecting  all  the  com- 
jDartments  above  the  level  of  the  sewage  tliereiu,  and  leading,  by  a  suitaV)le  ar- 
rangement of  dampers  at  the  base  of  the  furnace,  into  either  the  fire-box  under  the 
boiler,  or  the  chimney  directly  over  the  boiler,  where  the  gases  may  be  biarned — 
the  draught  of  the  chimney  iu  either  case  eflfectiug  the  necessary  circulation. 

The  officers'  houses  upon  Commonwealth  row  were  furnished  with  water-closets, 
and  together  with  the  ^Yarden's  and  Deputy-Warden's  (now  Superintendent's) 
houses,  were  connected  with  this  system  of  works  during  the  months  of  August  and 
September,  1885,  through  sewers  shown  upon  Fig.  72 — the  expense  for  this  addi- 
tion being  paid  out  of  the  general  appropriation  for  the  Reformatory. 

Storm  water  is  excluded  from  the  new  sewerage  works,  except  in  the  case  of  that 
admitted  for  flushing  purposes  by  the  conductors  upon  the  two  houses  at  the  heads 
of  the  Commonwealth  row  sewers,  and  also  through  connecting  conductors  near 
the  heads  of  some  of  the  principal  drains  within  the  prison  yard. 

To  prevent  any  back-flow  of  sewage,  in  case  the  contribution  of  storm  water  by 
these  connections  should  be  excessively  large  during  the  night,  when  the  pumjjs 
are  not  ordinarily  in  operation,  a  safety  overflow,  d,  is  provided,  whereby  the  excess 
automatically  escapes  into  the  sludge-pipe,  and  thence  passing  by  the  sludge-pits, 
is  discharged  into  the  river.  No  considerable  quantity  of  objectionable  refuse  can 
so  reach  the  stream,  however,  inasmuch  as  such  overflow  takes  jjlace,  as  already 
stated,  at  night,  when  not  only  is  the  amount  of  normal  sewage  at  its  minimum, 
but  the  overflow  itself  consists  of  the  secondary  contributions  of  the  storm  water, 
after  its  primary  flow  has  cleansed  the  sewers  and  discharged  its  scouriugs  into  the 
receiving  chambers. 

With  the  present  consumption  of  water,  amounting,  as  already  stated,  to  about 
100,0()(J  gallons  jier  day,  the  night  flow  of  sewage  from  about  5.30  p.m.,  when 
pumping  usually  ceases,  to  7  a.m.,  when  it  begins  again.  Alls  the  sewage  reservoirs 
to  witliin  about  a  foot  of  the  overflow  level,  or  from  80  to  85  per  cent,  of  their  full 
capacity  of  about  28,000  gallons.  The  iiumping  continues  from  about  7  a  m.  to 
10.30  a.m.,  and  again  from  3  p.m.  to  5.30  p.m.  daily,  at  which  time  it  is  left  empty, 
ready  for  the  night  flow.  The  large  consumption  of  water  and  consequent  delivery 
of  sewage  during  the  night,  and  indeed  at  all  hours  of  the  day,  is  largely  due  to  the 
practice  by  a  large  number  of  the  convicts  of  so  placing  a  small  bit  of  wood  or  other 
material  under  the  seats  of  their  water  closets  as  to  cause  it  to  flow  with  a  constant 
stream,  thus  maintaining  a  sense  of  cleansing  and  purifying  efficacy  which  is  only 
imaginary,  at  the  expense  of  a  considerable  waste  of  water  and  the  disposal  of  it  in 
tlie  form  of  .sewage. 

The  winter  care  and  management  of  the  sewage  does  not  differ  in  any  essential 
degree  from  that  at  other  seasons  of  the  year,  nor  does  it  present  any  i)eculiai-  diffi- 
culties or  annoyances.  The  comparative  warmtli  of  the  sewage  enables  it  to  find 
its  way  into  the  ground  before  freezing  to  any  injurious  extent,  wliile  the  sludge-pit, 
being  covered  by  a  clo.se  house  in  which  a  quantity  of  dry  absorbents  is  stored,  is 
managed  without  difficulty. 

All  labor  recjuired  in  the  management  and  operation  of  these  works  is  done  by 
convicts.  The  annual  expense  of  running  them  may  be  approximately  stated  as 
follows — tlie  labor  being  rated  at  what  would  be  its  fair  valuation  under  normal  con- 
ditions of  cmplovment : 

55  tons  soft  coal,  at  81  00 8220  00 

Salaiy  of  attendant 600  00 

Repairs  and  sundries 80  00 

8900  00 


474  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    TlIK    UNITED    STATES. 

The  cost  of  taking  care  of  the  sluJge-jjits  and  utilization  grounds  would  be  ad- 
ditional, but  it  is  doubtless  more  than  rejiaid  by  the  purely  agricultural  value  of 
the  sewage  products  to  be  cared  for  and  disposed  of  under  any  rational  system  of 
treatment. 

Most  of  the  conductors  disconnected  from  these  works  have  been  reconnected 
with  the  old  brick  sewers,  whereby  a  complete  double  and  separate  system  of  sew- 
erage is  jjrovided — the  storm  water  thus  finding  its  way  into  the  river. 

The  dye  refuse  and  washing  water  from  the  hat  shops,  amounting  to  about  50,000 
gallons  daily,  was  disposed  of  by  an  independent  method,  having  been  collected 
and  curried  by  a  six-inch  pipe  sewer  into  a  pair  of  open  filter  beds  or  sinks,  contain- 
ing each  about  500  square  feet,  and  situated  on  the  slope  of  the  bluif  east  of  the 
prison  yard,  where  it  soaked  away  without  unsightly  or  unpleasant  consequences. 
These  beds  or  sinks  were  made  in  dui)licate,  to  enable  the  bottom  and  sloping  sides 
of  either  one  to  be  raked  over,  and  the  nearly  impervious  dei^osit  of  felting  fibre 
thereon  to  be  removed,  wliile  the  other  was  in  use.  The  removal  of  the  hat  indus- 
try last  year  led  necessarily  to  the  abandonment  of  this  branch  of  the  works,  which 
is  not  therefore  shown  ujion  the  accomj^anyiug  jjlans. 

The  water  from  the  purifiers  of  the  gas-works,  under  an  aii-angement  made  by 
the  resident  engineer  of  the  Refoi'matory,  flows  into  an  oi:)en  rectangular  pit  be- 
hind the  gas-house.  Across  one  end  of  the  pit  is  a  brick  i)artition  having  an  open- 
ing through  it  below  the  level  of  the  liquiel  standing  therein.  The  gas  liquor  first 
enters  the  larger  compartment,  where  the  oil  and  light  combustible  compounds 
which  are  brought  along  with  it  gather  upon  its  surface  and  remain  therein,  while 
the  water  itself  flows  through  the  submerged  opening  in  the  brick  partition  into 
the  smaller  compartment.  From  the  latter  it  flows  out  through  a  submerged  pipe 
orifice  into  a  drain  leading  into  one  of  the  old  brick  sewers,  and  thence  into  the 
river.  The  combustible  supernatant  matter  remaining  in  the  larger  compartment 
is  regularly  burned  off  twice  a  month. 

The  removal  of  the  picture  moulding  shop,  which  was  in  contemplation  at  the 
time  of  building  the  new  works,  has  since  been  caiTied  into  effect,  thiis  taking  it 
out  of  the  drainage  problem.* 

*  Disposal  of  Sewage  at  the  Massachusetts  Reformatory.  By  Wm.  Wheeler,  C.  E. ,  Tth  An. 
Rept.  of  the  St.  Bd.  of  Health,  Lunacy,  and  Charity  of  Mass.  Supplement,  etc.  (1886),  pp.  195- 
208. 


i, 


CHAPTEE  XXXn. 

BROAD  IRRIGATION  AT  THE   RHODE   ISLAND   STATE   INSTITUTIONS. 

The  Khode  Island  State  Institutions,  consisting-  of  the  House  of 
Correction,  State  Alms  House,  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  State 
Prison,  Sockanosset  School  for  Boys,  and  the  Oaklawn  School  for 
Girls,  are  located  at  Cranston,  a  short  distance  west  of  the  city  of 
Providence,  in  the  midst  of  a  tract  of  about  500  acres  of  land  owned  by 
the  State. 

In  the  fall  of  1884,  the  Board  of  State  Charities  and  Corrections, 
which  has  charge  of  the  State  Institutions,  requested  Samuel  M.  Gray, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  of  Providence,  to  suggestan  improved  method  for 
disposing-  of  the  sewage,  which  jDrevious  to  that  time  had  been  utilized 
to  some  extent  in  irrigation,  but  without  any  special  order  or  system. 
Mr.  Gray,  after  investigation,  recommended  systematic  broad  irriga- 
tion, and  designated  a  number  of  areas  which  were  adapted  to  such  use. 
His  preliminary  report  was  presented  to  the  General  Assembly  of 
Rhode  Island  the  following-  spring-,  and  an  Act  passed  appropriating 
$10,000,  and  authorizing  the  Controlling-  Board  to  pui'chase  or  condemn, 
if  necessary,  not  exceeding  50  acres  of  land  to  be  used  specially  for 
irrigation.  AVork  was  immediately  begun  on  the  construction  of  an 
experimental  irrigation  area,  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  from  the 
House  of  Correction,  Alms  House,  and  Insane  Hospital.  For  this 
purpose  the  sewag-e  was  collected  and  carried  to  a  field  some  500  feet 
east  from  the  buildings,  where  an  area  of  3.5  acres  was  prepared.  This 
area,  under  favorable  conditions,  was  considered  sufficient  to  tempo- 
rarily dispose  of  the  sewage  of  the  population  of  the  three  institutions 
named,  which  amounted  to  about  850  people,  and  to  also  serve  as  an 
index  of  what  could  be  accomplished  by  land  purification  at  this  place. 

The  area  selected  was  of  somewhat  irregular  and  uneven  surface, 
with  the  top  soil,  ten  inches  in  depth,  of  fine  light  loam  underlaid  by  a 
sandy  subsoil  and  fine  g-ravel,  which  grows  coarser  as  the  depth  in- 
creases, until  at  the  depth  of  six  feet  it  is  composed  of  coarse  gravel 
and  sand  in  such  jn-oportions  as  to  form  a  nearly  ideal  material  for  the 
purification  of  sewage.  A  plan  of  the  field  as  prepared  is  shown  bj'' 
Fig.  74.  The  surface  of  the  field  was  first  graded  to  a  uniform  slope, 
and  the  field  then  underdraiiicd  with  8-inch  and  4-inch  round  til(\  laid 
from  5  to  6  feet  in  depth,  in  lines  about  40  feet  apart.     The  drains 


476 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED   STATES. 


are  shown  on  Fig-.  74  by  dotted  lines,  the  full  lines  on  the  same  figure 
representing-  the  contours,  the  elevation  of  which  above  tide-water  are 


^/^o 


there  given.     The  3-inch  drains  are  laid  nearly  at  right  angles  to  the 
contours,  and  empty  into  the  4-inch,  which  are  laid,  as  indicated,  along 


BKOAD    IRKIGATIOJT,    RHODE   ISLAND    STATE    INSTITUTIONS.     477 

the  lower  side  of  the  field  and  with  a  grade  of  6  inches  to  the  hundred 
feet.  The  outlet  of  the  4-inch  drain  is  at  the  jDoint  /,  Fig.  74.  At  the 
junction  of  each  line  of  3-inch  with  the  4-inch  is  a  brick  well,  8  inches 
square  in  the  clear,  carried  above  the  tiles  about  4  inches  and  covered 
with  brick.  The  chief  object  of  these  wells  is  to  aflbrd  means  of  ex- 
amining the  drains  when  necessary  without  breaking  the  tiles.  The 
method  of  laying  the  tiles  has  been  described  as  follows  : 


A  narrow  trench  was  excavated  to  a  true  grade,  and  in  the  trench  were  laid  strips 
of  spi-uce  boards,  one  inch  thick  and  about  four  inches  wide,  upon  which  were 
placed  the  tiles  end  to  end  and  close  together,  each  joint  wound  with  strips  of 
tarred  paper  about  four  inches  in  width,  lapping  two  inches  on  each  tile  and  ex- 
tending twice  around  it.  The  tiles,  as  fast  as 
laid,  were  covered  with  screened  pea-gravel, 
free  from  sand,  to  a  depth  of  about  three 
inches,  and  this  fine  gravel  was  in  turn  covered 
with  al)out  three  inches  of  coarse  gravel,  an 
aV)undauce  of  this  material,  coarse  and  tine, 
having  been  obtained  from  excavations  ou  the 
field.  The  trenches  were  then  back-filled, 
care  having  been  taken  to  pack  the  earth  sol- 
idly. The  tile-drains  having  been  completed, 
the  surface  of  the  field  was  again  evened  and 
the  soil  replaced  where  it  had  been  previously 
removed  in  grading. 

In  order  to  form  a  basin  to  retain  the 
sewage,  if  necessary,  in  winter  when  the 
ground  is  frozen,  and  also  to  prevent 
its  possible  escape  without  filtration  at 
any  time  into  the  Pawtuxet  river  near 
by,  from  which  the  water  supply  of  the 
city  of  Providence  is  derived,  an  em- 
bankment was  built  around  the  three 
low  sides  of  the  field,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
'^4.  The  following  is  a  description  of 
the  works : 

The  sewage  is  conveyed  to  the  field  in  a  six- 
iiicli  Akron  pipe  and  discharged  into  a  wire- 
basket  (at  tlie  ijoint/.  Fig.  74,  also  shown  in 
the  i)lan  and  section  of  the  screening  well. 
Fig.  75).  The  use  of  the  basket  is  to  catcli 
rags  or  other  materials  coming  from  the  In- 
s'itutions  througli  tlu;  six-inch  pipe,  which,  if 
not  removed,  might  interfere  with  the  projior 
distribution  of  the  s(;wago  upon  the  field.  Af- 
ter  passing   through  the   basket   the    sewage 

runs  into  a  brick  well,  and  from  thence  flows  in  a  carrier  or  trough  along  the  up- 
per or  westerly  side  of  tlie  field,  from  wliicli  carrier  it  is  discharged  at  nine  differ- 
ent points  by  a  systcmi  of  gates,  as  described  further  on  ;  or  tlie  sewage  may  be 
discharged  directly  upon  the  field  from  the  well,  as  sjiown  at  B,  Fig.  7'4. 

The  earner  was  constructed  in  the  following  manner  (see  Fig.  76)  :  To  provide 


Fio.    75  .  —  Screening 
Rhode  Island  State 

TIONS. 


Basket, 
Instttu- 


478 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


a  foundation  which  should  be  affected  as  little  as  i:)Ossible  by  frost,  a  trench  was 
dug,  three  feet  wide  at  the  top  and  two  and  one-half  feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  having 
a  depth  of  three  feet.  This  was  filled  to  a  point  two  feet  and  eight  inches  from  the 
bottom  with  loose  stone  closely  packed,  the  upper  layer  composed  of  pieces  about 
one  inch  in  diameter.  On  this  stone  foundation  concrete  was  laid  about  four  inches 
in  depth,  composed  of  one  part  cement  and  four  parts  gravel  and  sand,  and  upon  the 
to])  of  this  the  carrier  rests.  To  form  j^roperly  this  concrete  bed,  boards  twelve 
feet  long  and  nine  inches  wide  were  placed  nearly  upright  and  in  the  direction  of 
the  carrier,  the  bottom  edges  eighteen  and  the  upper  edges  sixteen  inches  ai:)art, 
giving  a  batter  of  one  inch  to  each  side  of  the  bed.  To  hold  in  position  the  boards 
thus  placed,  short  strips  of  wood  notched  near  the  extremities  were  i^laced  across 
the  boards,  near  the  ends  and  in  middle,  both  above  and  below,  the  edges  of  the 
board  fitting  closely  into  the  notches  of  the  strips.  A  plan  and  end-view  of  one  set 
of  boards  and  cross-pieces  iu  position  are  shown  at  G  and  H,  Fig.  76. 


P/on 
Fig.  76. — Details  of  Carrier  and  Drain,  Rhode  Island  State  Institutxok8. 


T!le  Drain 
and  Trench  < 


The  carrier  itself  is  made  of  twelve-inch  vitrified  pipe  divided  longitudinally  in 
the  centre,  making  what  is  known  as  "  sj^lit  pipe."  This  is  done  by  cutting  grooves 
in  the  clay  while  soft  before  baking,  so  that  when  taken  from  the  kiln  the  pipes  are 
easily  divided  into  two  longitiidinal  sections  of  equal  size. 

These  half-pipes  were  i:)laced  to  line  and  grade  upon  the  concrete  bed  so  as  to  form 
a  continuous  trough,  and  backed  up  with  brick  and  cement.  (See  section  of  car- 
rier on  Fig.  76.)  Along  the  line  of  carrier,  at  distances  of  about  one  hundred  feet, 
were  placed  iron  castings,  each  casting  taking  the  jilace  of  a  section  of  the  vitified 
half-pipe,  having  the  same  trough-like  form,  and  arianged  with  a  system  of  gates 
as  before  mentioned.  These  are  shown  in  plan  and  elevation  on  Fig.  76,  from 
which  a  better  concei^tion  can  be  formed  than  from  description.  By  means  of 
these  gates  the  whole  or  part  of  the  sewage  may  be  discharged  upon  the  field  at 
any  of  the  points  where  these  castings  and  gates  are  placed. 

The  most  difficult  eng-ineering-  operation  relating-  to  tlie  sewage  of  the 
State  Institutions,  namely,  that  of  disposing-  of  the  sewag-e  of  the  State 
Prison,  was  not  entered  into  in  1885,  there  being  no  portion  of  the 
area  already  owned  by  the  State  upon  which  the  sewage  could  be  de- 
livered by  gravity  which  was  considered  suitable  for  broad  irrigation, 
and  the  alternative  of  pumping  the  i^rison  sewage  upon  suitable  areas 


BROAD   IRRIGATION,    RHODE   ISLAND   STATE   INSTITUTIONS.     479 

of  the  State  land  was  tlioug-lit  to  have  so  many  objectionable  features 
that  its  adoption  was  not  deemed  advisable,  unless  it  should  prove 
imjoracticable  to  obtain,  by  purchase  or  otherwise,  sufficient  land  so 
located  with  reference  to  the  prison  as  to  permit  delivering-  the  sew- 
age thereon  by  g-ravity.  It  was  to  meet  this  difficulty  that  the  Act  au- 
thorizing the  purchase  of  additional  land  was  passed.  Under  its  pro- 
visions a  little  over  12  acres  were  purchased  for  the  sum  of  $3,959.79. 

A  definite  statement  of  the  cost  of  the  work  cannot  be  g-iven,  inas- 
much as  the  manual  labor  needed  for  draining",  grading,  etc.,  was  fur- 
nished by  the  inmates,  under  the  direction  of  the  Superintendent  of 
State  Institutions.  Aside  from  such  labor  there  was  paid  out  on  ac- 
count of  construction,  up  to  December  31,  1885,  the  sum  of  $3,424.12. 

The  direct  supervision  of  the  construction  work  was  intrusted  to 
Joseph  A.  Latham,  C.E.,  who  acted  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Gray. 

In  regard  to  the  winter  disposal  at  this  place,  the  following  state- 
ment was  made  by  Frederick  P.  Stearns,  M,  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  in  a  dis- 
cussion of  sewage  disposal  before  the  Boston  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers on  February  15,  1888  : 

I  visited  the  sewage  disposal  area  of  tlie  State  Institutions  at  Cranston,  R.  I.,  on 
the  28th  day  of  January,  1888.  The  temperature  of  the  air  iu  the  morning  was 
—  19.4°  C.  (3°  below  zero  F.),  and  at  one  p.m.,  at  the  time  of  the  visit,  —15.6°  C. 
(■i'  F.).  This  was  one  oi  the  coldest  days  of  the  season,  at  the  end  of  a  very  cold 
week,  and  near  the  end  of  the  coldest  January  since  1857. 

The  p()i)ulations  of  the  institutions  contributing  sewage  was  about  1,000,  and  the 
mean  flow  about  90,000  gal.  per  day.  The  sewage  was  being  turned  u^jon  a  level 
tract  of  about  2.5  acres.  The  surface  of  the  ground  was  generally  covered  with  ice 
about  5  inches  thick.  Near  where  the  sewage  went  upon  the  field  it  was  not  frozen. 
Beyond  this  it  appeared  to  be  flowing  over  the  ice,  and  a  new  layer  was  forming 
upon  the  surface  of  the  sewage.  To  all  appearances  very  little  sewage  was  enter- 
ing the  ground.  It  is  evident,  however,  either  that  the  sewage  did  enter  the 
ground  or  that  it  had  been  filtering  •^hrough  prior  to  this  time,  as  the  total  accu- 
mulation of  ice  upon  the  surface  did  not  represent  more  than  8  days'  flow  of  the 
sewage,  and  a  large  portion  of  it  was  probably  due  to  rain  and  snow,  the  precipita- 
tion for  the  month  having  been  4.5  inches.  The  areas  were  so  arranged  that  no 
sewage  could  run  off"  over  the  surface. 

Not  only  was  the  weather  very  cold,  but  the  temperature  of  the  sewage,  4.7°  C. 
(40.5°  F.),  was  unusuallv  low.  The  average  temperatui'e  of  Medfield  sewage  in 
January,  1888,  as  d(Hluc'ed  from  daily  observations,  was  1(3°  C.  (60  7°  F.).  The 
mean  temperature  of  sewage  of  the  Concord  Reformatory  during  the  last  week  in 
Januarv  was  11.1°  C.  (51. i»  F.).  The  mean  temperature  of  Boston  sewage  during 
this  month  was  6  3'  C.  (43.3°  F.). 

Recent  statements  in  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  purification 
woiks  at  Cranston  are  lacking,  as  are  also  statements  as  to  the  actual 
cost  of  operation  ;  but  the  latter  item  is  quite  small,  since  indepen- 
dent of  the  use  of  a  portion  of  the  sewage  for  the  irrigation  of  crops  it 
requires  considerably  less  than  the  time  of  one  man.* 

*  The  chief  source  of  information  in  regard  to  the  disposal  works  at  Cranston  is  (he  17th  An. 
Rept.  of  the  Bd.  Charities  and  Corrections  of  11.  I.  for  1885.  Also  see  Eng.  i  liki.  Reed.,  vol. 
xiii.,  p.  :'>:12  (March  4,  IS.SC). 


CHAPTEE   XXXIII. 

INTERMITTENT    FILTRATION  AND  BROAD    IRRIGATION  AT    SOUTH 
FRAMINGHAM,   MASSACHUSETTS. 

The  town  of  Framing-liam,  Massachusetts,  of  which  South  Framing- 
ham  is  the  principal  vilhig-e,  is  situated  in  the  drainage  area  of  Lake 
Cochituate,  from  which  a  i^ortion  of  the  M^ater  supply  of  Boston  is  de- 
rived, as  is  shown  by  Fig.  77.  Until  recently  the  sewage  of  the  town 
has  flowed  into  Beaver  Dam  brook,  a  tributary  of  Lake  Cochituate. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1889  complete  sewerage  and  sewage 
disposal  works  were  completed  and  put  in  operation. 

A  i3roject  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  South  Framingham  was 
elaborated  by  Eliot  C  Clark,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  in  his  report  to  the 
Massachusetts  Drainage  Commission  in  1885.*  At  that  time  it  was 
proposed  to  convey  the  sewage  from  the  towns  of  Ashland  and  Natick 
and  the  village  of  South  Framingham,  and  also  from  Sherborn  prison, 
to  a  common  point  for  disposal — a  tract  of  land  just  outside  of  the 
Lake  Cochituate  drainage  area  and  in  the  area  of  the  lower  Sudbury 
river  basin  being  selected  for  this  purpose.  Mr.  Clark's  proposition 
was  to  purify  the  combined  sewage  of  the  towns  and  the  jirison  by 
intermittent  filtration  at  this  point.  His  j)lan  included  the  delivery  of 
all  the  sewage  at  a  pumping  station  to  be  located  near  the  Boston 
and  Albany  railroad,  a  little  w^est  from  the  estuary  of  the  Beaver  Dam 
brook,  and  from  that  point  to  be  delivered  through  a  force  main  to  the 
proposed  filtration  area,  about  one  mile  to  the  north. f 

The  selectmen  of  Framingham,  in  the  latter  part  of  1886,  engaged 

*  As  early  as  1879.  Desmond  FitzGerald,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  from  one  of  whose  reports  the 
map,  Fig.  77,  was  originally  taken,  began  to  urge  the  importance  of  excluding  sewage  from  the 
Boston  water  supply.  Further  details  of  this  movement  on  the  part  of  Boston  are. given  in  Eng. 
News,  vol.  xxix..  pp.  98-C)9  (Aug.  4.  1892). 

+  By  the  Public  Statutes  of  Massachusetts,  Chapter  eighty,  Section  ninety-six,  it  is  provided : 

No  sewage,  drainage  or  refuse  or  polluting  matter  of  such  kind  and  amount  as  either  by  itself  or 
in  connection  with  other  matter  will  corrupt  or  impair  the  quality  of  the  water  of  any  pond  or 
stream  hereinafter  referred  to.  for  domestic  use,  or  render  it  injuiious  to  health,  an  i  no  human 
excrement  shall  be  discharged  into  any  pond  used  as  a  source  of  water  supply  by  a  city  or  town, 
or  upon  whose  banks  any  filter  basin  so  used  is  situated  within  20  miles  above  the  point  where 
such  supply  is  taken,  or  into  any  feeders  of  such  ponds  or  streams  within  such  20  miles. 

It  is  therefore  questionable  whether  any  town  in  that  State  has  a  right  to  discharge  a  purified 
effluent  into  any  stream,  pond,  or  lake  which  is  either  the  source  of  a  water  supply  or  tributary  to 
one  within  20  miles  from  the  point  of  discharge.  Under  the  Statute  it  would  appear  necessary 
to  show  the  effluent  entirely  free  from  polluting  matter,  before  its  discharge  would  become  per- 
missible. 


SOUTH    FRAMINGIIAM,   MASSACHUSETTS. 


481 


S.  C.  Heald,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  of  Boston,  to  make  the  necessary 
surveys  and  plans  for  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  works  for  that 
town  alone,  and  proceeded  to  obtain  from  the  Legislature  an  act  au- 
thorizing the  town  to  construct  and  maintain  a  system  of  sewage  dis- 
posal. 

In  the  meantime  H.   H.   Carter,   C.E.,   acting  as  engineer  for  the 
Boston  Water  Board,  had  reported  in  January,   1887,  that   the  best 
method  for  disposing  of  the  sew-         . 
age  of  South  1  rumingham  was  by 
filtration  at  substantially  the  loca- 
tion selected  by  Mr.  Clark  in  1885. 

Mr.  Heald,  as  engineer  for  the 
town,  submitted  his  report  to  the 
Sewerage  Committee  in  August, 
1887.    He  proposed  a  sei3arate  sys- 


NOTE 
5ewcraqeSvsfem,i869  Shown  •■ 


Map  of  Sotjth  FRAMracnAM,  Massa- 
chusetts, AND  Vicinity. 


tern  of  sewers,  with  disposal  at  the  point  previously  indicated  in  the 
reports  of  Messrs.  Clark  and  Carter.  The  sewage  would  flow  by 
gravity  to  a  point  near  the  east  line  of  the  town  of  Framingham, 
where  a  receiving  tank  and  pumping  station  would  be  located, 
from  which  the  sewage  was  to  be  forced  to  a  disposal  area  substan- 
tially as  proposed  in  the  original  report  of  Mr.  Clark  in  1885.  For  the 
main  outfall  sewer  in  AVaverly  stro(^t  ho  proposed  a  ]niie  15  inches  in 
diameter,  laid  to  a  grade  of  1  foot  in  400. 

The  present  population  to  be  provided  for    is  about  5,000,  ami  a 
volume  of  about  75  gallons  per  capita  per  day  was  considered  a  safe 
l)asis  for  estimate. 
31 


482  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

In  regard  to  the  disposal  area,  Mr.  Heald,  in  liis  report  of  1887, 
says : 

If  we  avoid  the  denser  clays  as  altogether  unsuitable  (unless  they  are  so  altered 
in  their  condition  by  mixing,  burning,  etc.,  as  to  lose  their  natural  character),  and 
regulate  the  application  of  the  sewage  to  other  soils  within  the  limits  of  one  thou- 
sand persons  to  the  acre  to  those  most  suitably  constituted,  and  two  hundred  and 
fifty  2^ersons  to  the  acre  to  those  least  suitably  constituted,  all  other  descriptions 
of  cultivable  land  may  be  made  capable  of  filtration. 

For  the  jaresent  wants  of  the  town  I  would  advise  taking  about  eighty-five  acres 
of  land  on  the  northerly  side  of  the  Worcester  turnpike  and  westerly  of  the  road 
leading  from  said  turnpike  to  Saxonville.  Should  the  town  at  any  time  desire  to 
increase  the  area  of  its  farm,  additional  land  could  be  obtained  on  the  northerly 
side  of  tlie  brook  that  crosses  the  Worcester  turnpike  near  the  town  line,  and  land 
on  the  easterly  side  of  said  road  to  Saxonville. 

The  soil  is  well  suited  for  the  purification  of  sewage,  the  surface  being  of  light 
sandy  loam  and  the  subsoil  for  the  greater  part  being  coarse  gravel. 

I  have  reserved  about  ten  acres  of  the  land  for  intermittent  filtration,  the  re- 
mainder to  be  used  for  broad  irrigation.  The  filtration  area  is  to  be  divided  into 
nine  fields,  each  of  which  contains  nearly  an  acre  of  land ;  each  field  is  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  an  earth  embankment  three  feet  high.  These  fields  are  at  different 
elevations,  depending  upon  the  natural  elevation  of  the  land.  Each  field  is  given 
an  elevation  that  would  require  the  least  amount  of  labor  to  bring  it  to  a  nearly 
level  surface.  In  prei)aring  a  field,  after  it  has  been  properly  graded,  a  ditch  or 
carrier  about  two  feet  wide  and  one  foot  deep  is  formed  on  one  side  of  the  field,  and 
at  right  angles  with  the  carrier  a  series  of  furrows  is  made.  The  furrows  are  from 
four  to  five  feet  apart  from  centre  to  centre,  and  divide  the  field  into  long,  narrow 
beds.  The  beds  may  be  used  for  raising  root  crojis,  the  sewage  flowing  through 
the  carriers  and  furrows  without  coming  in  contact  with  the  vegetables  in  the  beds. 

In  practice  it  may  be  fountl  that  the  filtration  fields  are  not  needed  during  the 
summer  mouths — that  the  area  devoted  to  broad  irrigation  and  the  demands  for 
sewage  from  the  owners  of  land  along  the  line  of  the  force  main,  even  in  rainy 
weather,  will  be  snflSeient  to  dispose  of  all  the  sewage. 

If  such  should  be  the  case  the  fields  may  be  used  to  take  the  sewage  during  the 
winter  months,  and  in  the  summer  any  suitable  crop  could  be  laised  in  them  with- 
out any  esjiecial  preparation  of  the  beds. 

By  having  embankments  around  them,  the  fields  can  be  flooded  to  a  depth  of  at 
least  two  feet,  should  occasion  require  it. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  just  how  a  sewage  farm  should  be  conducted  in  order  to 
attain  the  best  results  in  respect  to  crops,  or  just  what  crops  should  be  raised  ;  but 
for  the  area  devoted  to  broad  irrigation  a  grass  crojj  would  undoubtedly  be  the 
best.  Some  of  the  land  to  be  devoted  to  the  broad  irrigation  may  be  ploughed  in 
the  autumn  and  lay  fallow,  receiving  diiring  the  winter  an  occasional  dressing  of 
sewage,  and  in  the  spring  cross-ploughed  and  a  crop  of  corn  or  oats  started. 

The  area  to  be  devoted  to  sewage  farming  should  be  thoroughly  cleared  of  all 
'trees  and  brush.  The  sewage  may  then  be  ajiplied  and  the  land  be  gradually  put 
into  a  suitable  condition  for  the  growth  of  grass  or  other  crops. 

The  area  of  land  recommended  to  be  taken  will  undoubtedly  be  sufficient  to 
meet  the  wants  of  the  town  for  at  least  fifteen  years,  and  the  additional  land  re- 
ferred to  would  be  ample  for  any  probable  giowtli  of  the  town. 

In  advising  your  town  to  adopt  this  method  of  disposing  of  its  sewage  I  am  not 
advising  anything  experimental.  In  England  the  same  treatment  of  sewage  has 
been  in  successful  operation  for  nearly  thirty  years.  On  the  Continent  the  follow- 
ing cities,  having  a  winter  climate  nearly  like  that  of  Massachusetts,  dispose  of  their 
sewage  upon  the  land. 

Danzig,  in  1871,  commenced  to«^dispose  of  its  sewage  in  this  manner.  In  1873 
Berlin  decided  to  adopt  the  same  method,  and  w^as  followed  in  a  few  years  by  Bres- 
lau,  and  quite  recently  by  Frankfort. 


POUTH    FRAMING II AM,   MASSACHUSETTS.  483 

The  cost  of  pumping  and  caring  for  the  sewage  at  the  farm  is  estimated  at 
twenty-seven  hundred  dollars  (i?2,700)  per  year. 

Mr.  Heald's  report  is  accompanied  by  a  report  by  Phinehas  Ball, 
C.E.,  of  Worcester,  in  wliicb  the  plans  and  arrangements  proposed 
by  Mr.  Heald  are  strongly  commended. 

The  Sewerage  Committee  of  the  town,  having  accepted  Mr.  Heald's 
report,  proceeded  to  negotiate  with  the  Boston  Water  Board  in  order 
to  ascertain  how  much  the  city  of  Boston  would  contribute  toward 
the  expense  of  the  construction  of  such  system  of  sewerage  and  of  sew- 
age disposal  for  South  Framingham  as  would  result  in  preventing  the 
flow  of  any  of  the  sewage  of  the  town  into  the  tributary  streams  of 
Lake  Cochituate.  As  the  result  of  the  negotiation  on  the  part  of  the 
Town  Sewerage  Committee,  the  Boston  Water  Board  proposed  to  con- 
tribute twenty-five  thousand  dollars  ($25,000)  whenever  the  town  should 
complete  and  put  in  service  so  much  of  the  system  devised  by  Mr. 
Heald  as  provided  for  the  irrigation  field,  force  main,  pumping  plant, 
and  main  trvink  line  sewer  from  Bridges  street  to  the  pumping  station, 
provided  that  said  work  should  be  completed  on  or  before  December 
31,  1889. 

Upon  receipt  of  this  proposition,  the  Town  Sewerage  Committee 
submitted  the  ofi^er  of  the  Boston  W^ater  Board  to  the  Hon.  Wm.  Gas- 
ton for  a  written  opinion  as  to  the  validity  and  the  power  of  the 
Water  Board  to  bind  the  city  of  Boston  to  such  payment. 

The  following  is  the  opinion  received  : 

Boston,  Febniaiy  7,  1888. 
To  THE  Drainage  Committee 

OF   THE   TOW^   OF   FkAMINGHAM,    MaSS. 

Gentlemen  :  Keferring  to  the  letter  addressed  to  the  inliahitants  of  the  town  of 
Framingham  by  the  Boston  Water  Board,  and  approved  by  the  Mayor  of  Boston 
February  3d,  1888,  concerning  which  our  opinion  has  been  asked,  we  beg  leave  to 
say  that  we  have  examined  the  same  and  are  of  the  opinion  as  follows  : 

By  the  provisions  of  Chapter  1(57  of  the  Acts  of  the  year  1816,  entitled  an  "Act 
for  supplying  the  City  of  Boston  with  pure  water,"  the  city  is,  after  an  enumeration 
of  various  powers,  finally  authorized  at  the  close  of  the  second  section  of  the  Act,  to 
do  "  any  other  acts  and  things  necessary  or  convenient  and  jiroper  for  the  jmrpose 
of  this  act  ;  "  this  same  general  ])ower  was  also  conferred  U])on  the  city  by  the  pro- 
visions of  Chapter  177  of  the  Acts  of  the  year  1872,  in  refeience  to  the  sui:)ply  of 
jnu'e  water  to  the  city  of  Boston  from  Sndbiiry  river  and  Farm  ]iond. 

The  powers  tluis  given  to  the  city  (which  in  our  o])inion  sliould  be  construed 
lil)erallyj  were,  under  the  provisions  of  (!liapter  80  of  the  Acts  of  the  year  1875, 
and  of  an  ordinance  passed  by  the  City  ('onncil.  thereunder  transferred,  so  far  as 
they  couliT  legally  be  delegated,  to  the  Boston  Water  Board.  In  our  judgment  the 
general  ])owers  above  recited  in  the  Acts  of  1810  and  1872  could  tlius  be  legally 
delegated,  and  are  now  vested  in  the  Water  Board. 

That  Board  has  therefore,  in  our  o]nnion,  the  power  to  do  any  acts  and  things  nec- 
essary or  convenient  and  ])roper  for  the  ])uipose  of  su]))ilying  ])iire  water  to  Boston, 
eith(>r  from  Lake  Cocliituate  or  from  Sudbury  river  or  Farm  ])ond.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  any  system  of  sewerage  wliicli  lias  for  its  object  the  removal  and  dis- 
charge of  8(iwag<»  and  polluting  substances  which  now  naturally  drain  into  the 
above  sources  of  Boston's  water  supply,  to  a  point  outside  the  watershed  furnishing 


484  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

such  supply,  is  a  proijer  and  convenient  thing  for  accomplishing  the  purisose  of  the 
two  acts  named,  viz.,  to  give  Boston  pure  water.  And  we  are  accordingly  of  ojiin- 
iou  that  the  Boston  Water  Board  has  the  power  to  contribute,  or  agree  for  the  city 
to  contribute,  any  sum  which  it  deems  proper  towards  the  construction  of  such 
sewerage  system.  It  can  in  our  judgment  make  no  difference  so  far  as  Boston  is 
concerned  whether  the  beneticial  work  so  paid  for  by  Boston  is  done  by  persons 
directly  in  the  employ  or  by  the  town  of  Framingham  in  its  municij^al  character. 
In  our  view  the  jjroposed  contract,  if  duly  accepted  by  the  town  of  Framingham,  is 
binding  on  the  city  of  Boston.  Under  the  provisions  of  the  new  city  charter  (St. 
1885,  Ch.  266,  S.  6),  the  city  of  Boston  is  prohibited  from  incurring  any  liability 
beyond  the  a^jprojiriation  duly  made  therefor.  We  are  informed  by  the  City  Auditor 
that  the  sum  of  .f50,000  has  been  duly  appropriated  by  the  City  Council  to  be 
ex}>ended  by  the  Water  Board  for  the  protection  of  the  purity  of  the  water  supply 
by  agreements  with  the  towns  of  Framingham  and  Marlborough,  and  that  the  sum 
of  money  is  still  on  hand.  We  find  upon  a  recent  conference  with  the  Corijoration 
Counsel  of  Boston  that  he  concurs  in  the  above  views. 

Yours  respectfully, 

Gaston  &  Whitney, 

The  Committee  thereupon  recommended  the  acceptance  of  the 
proposition  of  the  Boston  AVater  Board. 

In  the  meantime  Mr.  Heald's  plans  had  been  submitted  to  the  State 

Board  of  Health,  which,  after  due  consideration,  reported,  in  regard  to 

them  as  follows : 

Office  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 

13  Beacon  St.,  Boston,  May  13,  1888. 

To  the  Committee  on  Seweeage,  Framingham,  Mass. 

Gentlemen  :  In  response  to  the  application  from  the  town  of  Framingham  of 
March  1,  1888,  giving  notice  of  their  intention  to  introduce  a  system  of  sewerage 
and  asking  advice  as  to  the  best  practicable  method  of  disjiosing  of  their  sewage, 
and  ajiproval  of  the  plans  presented  laursuant  to  Chapter  403  of  the  Acts  of  1887, 
the  State  Board  of  Health,  after  fourteen  days'  notice  by  pul)lication  in  the  news- 
pa])ers  of  Framingham  and  Natick,  and  oflicial  notice  in  writing  to  the  Selectmen 
of  the  town  of  Natick  of  the  ^presentation  to  it  of  such  system  for  its  apju'oval,  gave 
a  public  hearing  at  the  State  House  in  Boston  on  the  24th  day  of  April  to  all  in- 
terested in  said  system,  and  after  careful  exaininatiou  of  the  plans  presented  and 
of  the  proposed  location  of  grounds  for  sewage  disjiosal  and  their  surroundings,  both 
by  personal  examination  and  h\  its  engineers,  this  a]iproves  of  the  disjwsal  of  sew- 
age of  Framingham  by  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration  upon  the  tract  of  land, 
containing  sixty-eight  acres,  selected  l)y  the  town,  which  is  located  in  the  town  of 
Natick  on  the  northerly  side  of  the  Worcester  turnpike  and  outside  of  the  Boston 
water  supply  basin.  As  the  method  of  disposal  of  sewage  ui)on  this  tract  is  not 
presented  by  the  town  with  sufficient  clearness  to  enable  this  Board  to  apin-ove  or 
disapprove  of  the  same  in  detail,  the  Board  therefore  approves  the  system  as  modi- 
fied and  amended  as  follows  : 

The  sewage  should  be  apj^lied  to  so  much  of  the  surface  of  the  tract  of  land  as  is 
more  than  four  feet  above  the  level  in  siimmer  of  the  water  in  the  brook  draining 
the  tract,  and  at  or  near  this  height  on  the  sloj^e  towards  the  brook,  and  near 
the  lower  border  of  the  tract  upon  which  sewage  is  to  be  a^^plied,  in  those  sections 
not  sloping  directly  towards  the  brook,  there  shall  be  constructed  an  embankment 
of  earth  as  much  as  one  foot  high  above  the  adjacent  surface  to  which  sewage  is  to 
be  applied,  and  four  feet  wide,  which  shall  at  all  times  be  maintained  at  such 
height  as  to  prevent  any  sewage  applied  to  the  surface  from  flowing  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  into  the  brook  or  upon  adjoining  land ;  and  the  Board  further 
amends  by  directing  that  the  top  of  the  underdrains  to  convey  the  eftiuent  from 
the  filtration  or  irrigation  areas  shall  not  be  less  than  four  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground  to  which  sewage  is  applied  ;  and  the  Board  further  amends  by  directing 
that  the  quantity  of  sewage  to  be  aj)ijlied  to  any  filter-bed  or  any  irrigation  area 


SOUTH    FRAMINGHAM,   MASSACHUSETTS. 


485 


shall  not  exceed  in  any  week  the  equivalent  of  one  foot  in  depth  over  the  whole 
area  of  that  bed  or  irrigation  area  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  the  times  of  appli- 
cation shall  be  so  arranged  that  no  liquid  sewage  shall  remain  exposed  upon  the 
surface  or  in  open  ditches  more  than  twenty-four  hours  at  a  time.  It  is  understood 
that  the  receiving  reservoirs  are  to  be  completely  covered  and  ventilated  by  fines 
extending  to  the  flue  of  the  chimney  of  the  pumping  station,  and  both  reservoirs 
and  pnmi)iug  station  are  to  be  located  within  the  town  of  Framingham.  As  herein 
modified  and  amended  the  proposed  system  of  sewage  disposal  and  its  location  are 
appi-oved 

Per  order  of  the  Board, 
(Signed)  Samtjel  W.  Abbott, 

Secretary  of  State  Board  of  Health 

The  preliminary  arrang-ements  having-  been  all  satisfactorily  made,  a 
portion  of  the  work  was  advertised  for  letting  June  18, 1888.     The  con- 


FiG.  78.  — Plan  ok   Resi-:uvoii{s  and   Pumping   Station,  South   Fiiamingham, 

Massachusetts. 

struction  began  immediately  thereafter  and  proceeded  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  The  work  was  practically  completed  about  November  1, 
1889.  The  following  extracts  from  the  report  of  J.  J.  Van  Yalken- 
burgh,  (aigineer  in  charge  of  construction,  give  the  main  facts  in 
regard  to  that  portion  of  the  work  which  relates  more  particularly  to 
the  sewage  disposal. 


'riic  two  receiving  leservoirs  at  the  pumping  station  are  each  one  hundred  ten 
and  a  half  feet  long  and  thirty  feet  wide.  [See  Fig.  78  for  plan  of  reservoirs  and 
pumping  station.]  These  are  parallel  to  and  sejiarated  from  each  other  by  a  wall 
tlir(>t>  foi't  thick  and  seven  and  one-half  f(Hit  high.  The  side  walls  are  three  and 
one-lialt  feet  tliick  and  eight  and  one-half  feet  high.  The  brick  arclies,  two  feet 
in  thickness,  rest  on  tliese  walls. 

Tlie  bottoms  of  the  reservoirs  are  inverted  and  are  constructed  of  rubble  concrete, 
varying  in  tliickness  from  one  and  one-lialf  feet  in  the  centre  to  two  feet  at  the 
wUs.     In  the  centre  of  the  reservoirs  the  arches  are  eleven  feet  and  nine  inches 


486  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

above  the  invert,  and  at  the  walls  three  and  one-half  feet.     The  reservoirs  when 
completely  tilled  will  hold  four  hundred  and  thirty-one  thousand  gallons. 

Both  of  the  reservoirs  may  be  kept  free  of  sewage  while  the  pumps  continue  to 
run,  being  fed  by  means  of  an  eighteen-inch  pipe  extending  through  the  centre 
wall  from  the  gate  house  to  the  pump-well. 

The  pump-well  and  gate  house  are  both  arranged  for  screens,  but  it  is  hardly 
probable  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  resort  to  screening  the  sewage,  since  the  pump 
valves  are  of  the  swinging  type,  eight  by  ten  inches  in  diameter.* 

The  pumping  station  and  chimney  in  every  particular  are  of  ample  size  to  ac- 
commodate a  duplicate  set  of  machinery  similar  to  what  you  now  have.  The  inimjj- 
ing  engine  is  one  of  M.  T.  Davidson's  improved  compound  d^^plex  condensing  tyj^e, 
and  is  guaranteed  to  deliver,  through  nine  thousand  feet  of  twelve-inch  i)ipe,  two 
million  U.  S.  gallons  of  sewage  per  twenty-four  hours,  against  a  total  head  of  forty 
feet.  This  total  head  does  not  include  friction.  This  then  is  at  the  rate  of  thir- 
teen hundred  and  eighty-nine  gallons  per  minute,  or  eighty-three  thousand  three 
hundred  and  thirty-three  gallons  per  hour.  Thus  if  the  reservoirs  were  completely 
filled,  i)nmping  at  the  rated  capacity  of  the  pumps,  they  could  be  emptied  in  live 
hours  and  ten  minutes. 

Water  for  the  boilers  and  condenser  is  taken  from  a  well,  six  feet  in  diameter  and 
twelve  feet  deep,  situated  near  the  brook  which  flows  by  the  easterly  side  of  the 
station.  This  well  is  connected  with  the  brook  by  an  eight-inch  pipe.  The  dejith 
of  the  well  is  such  that  in  case  said  stream  becomes  too  low  to  be  of  service,  the 
drain  in  Waverly  street  or  Beaver  Dam  brook  can  be  piped  so  as  to  flow  into  the 
well. 

There  are  two  steel  boilers  of  the  horizontal  tubular  type,  each  forty-eight  inches 
in  diameter,  thirteen  feet  and  two  inches  long,  and  containing  fifty-two  three-inch 
steel  tubes  twelve  feet  long. 

The  shell  of  the  boilers  is  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick  ;  the  heads  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch. 

A  three-foot  flue  extending  from  the  reservoir's  j^asses  under  and  in  front  of  the 
boilers,  and  is  then  connected  by  a  two-foot  pipe  with  the  thirty-inch  flue  leading 
from  the  boilers  to  the  chimney. 

The  draught  for  the  boilers  is  taken  from  this  source.  You  see,  therefoi'e,  that 
the  reservoirs  have  an  excellent  ventilation. 

The  twelve-inch  cast-iron  force  main,  which  is  ninety-seven  hundred  and  forty 
feet  long,  extends  in  nearly  a  straight  line  to  a  point  on  Hartford  street  about  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  east  of  Bowdoin  lane.  Thence  following  the  southerly  side 
of  said  street  and  the  easterly  side  of  Speen  street  (or  road  to  Saxonville),  it  reaches 
the  farm  at  a  point  three  hundred  feet  north  from  the  Worcester  turnpike  ;  thence 
in  a  straight  line  and  parallel  with  said  turnpike  one  hundred  and  eighty  feet  to 
the  first  manhole,  where  the  force  main  ends ;  but  the  .same  course  is  continued 
two  tliousand  feet  further  with  fifteen-,  twelve-,  and  ten-inch  Akron  pipe  laid  to  a 
grade  of  one  foot  in  a  thousand. 

The  force  main  is  laid  to  grade  ;  that  is,  by  opening  a  six-inch  gate  in  the  engine 
room,  six  thousand  one  hundred  feet  of  this  main  will  drain  into  the  reservoirs. 
Through  two  more  gates  of  the  same  size  the  remainder  of  tlie  pipe  can  be  emptied. 
The  advantages  of  this  arrangement  will  be  better  appreciated  when  it  becomes 
necessary  to  repair  a  possible  break  or  leak. 

Eleven  six-inch  plugged  branches  have  been  put  in  on  line  of  the  foi-ce  main  at 
such  places  as  seemed  to  us  most  advantageous  to  those  who  might  desire  to  take 
the  sewage  as  a  fertilizer. 

On  lines  of  pijje  at  the  farm  there  are  fourteen  hexagonal  man-holes,  so  con- 
structed that  when  the  pumps  are  working,  by  closing  a  gate  on  the  pipe  extending 
through  them,  the  sewage  will  rise  in  them.  At  certain  distances  up  the  sides  of 
the  manholes  there  are  eight-inch  gates,  generally  four  of  them,  at  elevations  one 

*  Near  the  beginuing  of  1892  screens  were  added  to  remove  some  of  the  coarse  matters. 


SOUTH  FRAMING nA:\r,  MASSACHUsprrrs.  487 

foot  liigher  than  the  bed  or  point  of  laud  ujson  which  it  is  desired  to  let  sewage 
flow.  Regulating  the  ojaening  of  these  gates  regulates  the  amount  of  sewage 
delivered. 

The  farm,  containing  sixty-nine  acres,  three  roods,  and  eleven  and  one-tenth 
rods,  is  now  in  good  shape  to  receive  its  first  instalment  of  sewage.  Ail  wood,  ex- 
cepting that  reserved  bv  the  town,  has  been  cut,  likewise  this  season's  growth  of 
sprouts.  About  twelve  acres  of  land  have  been  taken  for  intermittent  filtration  ; 
the  remainder  is  to  be  devoted  to  broad  irrigation.  The  area  for  intermittent  filtra- 
tion ha-;  been  divided  into  eleven  beds,  with  banks  about  three  feet  high  and  four 
feet  Ijroad  at  the  top,  with  sides  slojHng  one  and  a  half  to  one.  One  embankment, 
througli  which  extends  the  main  feed  pipe,  is  somewhat  higher  in  certain  sections 
tliau  the  others,  in  consequence  of  giving  said  pipe  the  same  depth  of  covering.  In 
preparing  a  bed  a  portion  of  land  was  taken  which  was  as  generally  level  as  i)ossi- 
ble,  and  after  ploughing,  grubl)ing,  and  removiugas  much  loam  as  was  necessary  to 
form  the  emba'-'knients,  to  smooth  oft'  the  surface  and  reploughinto  lands  seven  feet 
in  width.  Tlie  ditches  produced  by  thus  ploughing  are  about  nine  inches  deep  and 
twice  that  in  width.  These  ditches  are  met  at  the  banks  by  a  larger  ditch  or  car- 
rier, which  will  conduct  the  sewage  from  the  manholes  into  them.  Eight  of  the 
beds  are  finished,  and  their  embankments  in  proper  shape  and  seeded.  The  re- 
maining three  beds  are  graded,  and  the  loam  has  been  put  on  line  of  embankments 
as  disposed  of  by  the  carts.  Two  beds  have  been  ploughed  with  a  swivel  j^lough 
from  one  side,  conserpiently  these  beds  do  not  have  a  series  of  ditches  similar  to 
those  possessed  by  the  beds  just  described.  But  they  have  a  main  carrier  along 
the  upper  sides,  from  which  the  sewage  will  flow  into  the  furrows  as  ploughed. 

Six  of  the  beds  have  a  six-inch  underdrain,  six  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  These  drains  extend  tlirough  nearly  the  centre  of  the  beds,  and  their 
outlets  are  in  the  ravines  near  the  centre  of  the  farm.  During  the  most  rainy 
season  no  water  has  been  observed  to  come  from  them,  excepting  the  case  of  one 
drain  tliat  is  in  close  proximity  to  the  bed  of  the  pond  that  formerly  existed  near 
the  Worcester  turnpike.  The  point  of  observation  of  this  drain  is  outside  of  the 
beds  and  eight  feet  below  their  general  level.  We  think  it  advisable,  therefoi'e,  to 
defer  further  underdraining  until  the  assured  necessities  of  the  l)eds  demand  it. 

We  also  advi.se  devoting  as  much  of  the  sewage  as  is  practicable  to  broad  irriga- 
tion, reserving  the  beds  as  much  as  possible. 

According-  to  the  financial  statement  submitted  by  tlio  towns  sewer- 
age committee  at  the  completion  of  tlie  work,  the  total  cost  of  the 
sewerag-e  and  sewage  disposal  works  was  $148,288.  The  statement 
does  not  show  the  amount  properly  chargeable  to  sewage  disposal, 
but  an  idea  of  the  cost  of  the  same  can  be  derived  from  Mr.  Heald's 
original  estimate,  which  stood  as  follows  : 

26,088  lin.  feet  of  sewer,  all  sizes,  with  man-holes $63,756  50 

Pumps  and  boilers  in  dui)licate    8.000  00 

C!liimney,  engine  and  boilers  house 7,000  00 

Foundations,  screens,  gates,  etc :{,0()0  00 

Receiving  reservoirs  (250,000  gallons  capacitv) ' 12,000  00 

10,200  lin.  feet  of  r2-inch  force  main,  at  $1.85 18,870  00 

85  acres  of  land  at  §40 ;$,4()0  00 

Clearing  and  burning  65  acres,  at  $20.00 1,;30()  00 

Filtration  beds  and  carriers 10,000  00 

Amount $127,826  50 

Add  10  per  cent,  for  engineering  and  contingencies 12,732  65 

Total  estimated  cost $140,059  15 

In  regard  to  tin-  increase  in  cost  of  the  work  in  actual  construction 
over  the  amount  of  the  estimate,  it  is  stated  by  Mr.  Van  Valkenburgh 


488 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATP:S. 


in  his  report,  from  which  we  have  already  quoted,  that  the  increase 
was  due  to  the  hirge  number  of  heavy  storms  which  occurred  while 
the  work  was  constructing,  necessitating-  extra  pumping,  additional 
underdrains,  deeper  foundations  and  more  extended  supervision,  etc. 
In  order  to  facilitate  construction,  8,058.4  lineal  feet  of  underdrain  were 
constructed  which  were  not  contemplated  in  the  original  estimate. 

Mr.  Baker  visited  South  Framingham  on  June  17,  1892,  and  through 
the  kindness  of  Mr.  Van  Yalkenburgh,  obtained  some  additional  in- 
formation. John  H.  Goodell,  chairman  of  the  Framingham  Sewerage 
Committee  has  since  added  to  this  information,  as  has  Frederick  P. 
Stearns,  chief  engineer  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health.* 

To  June,  1892,  none  of  the  farmers  along  the  line  of  the  outfall  sewer 
had  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  draw  seAvage  from  it 
through  the  eleven  6-incli  branches  provided  for  this  purpose. 

In  1892  corn  was  successfully  raised  on  three  of  thc^.  l)eds. 

The  following  table  gives  an  analysis,  furnished  by  Mr.  Stearns,  of 
the  sewage,  effluent,  and  unpolluted  ground-water  at  South  Fram- 
ingham. 


Analyses  of  Sewage,  Sewage  Effluent,  and  Unpolluted  Ground  Water  from 
THE  Sewage  Field  at  South  Framingham,  Massachusetts. 

(Parts  in  100,000.) 


Color. 

o    . 

Si 

<-  c 
H 

Ammonia. 

a 

o 
s: 
O 

Nitrogen  as 

£ 

'5 

1 
5 
< 

.?T50 
01139 
.(029 
.0008 

a 

.1 

'u 

0  70 
0.0(1 
0.00 
0.00 

28.80 
19.4.T 

4!';o 

1 .7893 
.o:).35 
.00(11) 
.0000 

4.07 
2.5(i 
1.77 
0.20 

.001^0 

.(iOlS 
.2350 
.0083 

.0(01 

Sewage  effluent  at  underdrains  .. . 

.OOUti 
.0000 

Unpolluted  ground  water 

.0000 

Mr.  Stearns  comments  upon  these  figures  and  the  work  of  the  dis- 
posal area  as  follows  : 

In  each  case  the  analyses  are  the  averages  of  several  determinations.  They  rep- 
resent, tirst,  the  sewa.£>e'^  as  it  flows  ont  of  the  carrier  upon  the  bods;  second,  the 
effluent  flowing  from  underdrains  heneath  cei'tain  of  the  beds,  which  afterward  soaks 
into  the  ground  and  iw  filtered  the  second  time  before  reaching  the  brook  into 
which  the  effluent  finally  passes  ;  third,  the  water  of  a  spring  located  near  the 
brook,  which  derives  its  supply  to  a  large  extent  from  the  sewage  effluent,  and 
represents  the  general  character  of  the  effluent  when  it  reaches  the  brook  ;  and, 
fourtli,  the  unpolluted  water  from  a  flowing  well  near  by. 

Only  a  small  part  of  the  sewage  effluent  comes  out  at  the  undeidi'ains.  and  you 
will  notice  that  this  is  purified  to  such  an  extent  that  there  is  only  2',r  of  fi  ee  am- 
monia and  I'i'  of  albuminoid  ammonia  remaining,  while  the  nitrates  have  increased 
greatly.     At  the  spring  the  free  ammonia  is  entirely  removed  and  the  albuminoid 

*  See  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  pp.  137-9  (Aug.  11,  1892). 


SOUTH    FKAMINGHAM,   MASSACHUSETTS.  489 

ammonia  is  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  that  in  the  sewage.  On  one  occasion  an 
analy  is  of  the  spring  water  showed  that  it  contained  neither  free  nor  albuminoid 
ammonia,  while  the  excess  of  chlorine  and  nitrates  over  the  amount  found  in  the 
unpolluted  ground-water,  as  shown  in  the  last  line,  proves  without  doubt  that  this 
si)ring  contains  a  large  proportion  of  sewage  effluent. 

Bacterial  examinations  of  the  sewage  and  of  effluent  collected  from  the  spring 
show  that  nearly,  if  not  all,  bacteria  are  removed  l)y  filtration. 

The  effluent  from  this  sewage  field  flows  into  a  small  brook,  and  although  the 
works  have  been  in  operation  more  than  two  years  the  discharge  of  the  effluent  into 
this  brook  has  not  produced  any  noticeable  eflfect. 

In  the  rei^ort  of  the  Sewer  Committee  for  March,  1893,  it  is  stated 
that  there  were  then  451  houses  and  39  hotels  and  business  blocks 
connected  with  the  sewers — 222  new  connections,  or  nearly  one-half  the 
total,  having-  been  made  in  the  year  1892-3.  At  the  sewage  farm  it  is 
stated  that  400  bushels  of  corn  (probably  in  the  ear),  three-fourths  of 
an  acre  of  cabbages,  and  some  squashes  were  raised  in  1892,  and  sold 
for  a  total  of  $174. 

The  effect  of  frost  and  snow  upon  these  filter  beds  is  given  in  Chapter 
XIV.,  page  284.* 

*  The  chief  source  of  information  in  regard  to  the  South  Framingham  sewage  disposal  is  Re- 
ports of  the  Committee  on  Drainage  and  Sewerage  and  Construction  of  the  Sewerage  System, 
etc.,  Nov.,  1880.  Compiled  by  Wm.  A.  Brown,  Clerk  to  Selectmen.  Also  see  Eng.  News,  voL 
xxii.,  p.  497  (Nov.  3o,  1889) ;  vol.  xxviii.,  pp.  127-9  (Aug.  11,  1892). 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

INTERMITTENT   FILTRATION   AT   MEDFIELD,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

In  the  fall  of  1886  sewerage  and  sewag-e  disposal  works  were  con- 
structed at  Medtield,  Massachusetts,  a  small  town  on  the  Charles 
river,  about  17  miles  from  Boston.  The  sewage  disposal  works,  which 
include  preliminary  sedimentation  and  upward  filtration  throug-h  ex- 
celsior, supplemented  by  intermittent  filtration  through  natural  soil, 
were  projected  by  Eliot  C.  Clarke,  M.  J^m.  Soc.  C.E.,  and  constructed 
under  the  supervision  of  Fred.  Brooks^rM.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.  The  plans 
for  the  sewage  disposal  works  were  approved  by  the  Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Health  in  August,  1886. 

The  chief  manufacturing  enterprise  at  Medfield  is  the  Excelsior 
Straw  Works,  which  employ  for  seven  months  of  the  year  between  six 
and  seven  hundred  operatives,  and  during  the  remainder  of  the  year 
about  half  as  many. 

The  following  account  of  the  Works  is  extracted  and  condensed  from 
a  paper  by  Mr.  Brooks,  Sewage  Disposal  at  Medtield,  Massachusetts, 
in  the  19tli  Annual  Report  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health : 

The  straw-works  drainage,  nearly  half  of  which  comes  from  the  vats  in  which 
straw  is  dyed,  used  to  rnu  into  Vine  brook,  wliich  flows  past  the  works  and  is 
dammed  np  in  a  small  pond  just  below,  whose  level  is  frequently  raised  and  lowered 
for  mechanical  purposes.  This  produced  an  offensive  smell  around  the  pond,  and 
blackened  and  iiolluted  the  water  so  that  some  residents  below,  on  both  sides  of 
the  brook  immediately  west  of  the  railroad  track,  who  had  used  its  water  for  domes- 
tic supply,  were  obliged  to  abandon  it,  and  made  several  complaints.  In  1886  a 
pipe  sewer  was  built  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  keei^ing  the  sewage  from  the  straw- 
works  out  of  Vi:ie  brook,  and  disposing  of  it  so  as  to  avoid  the  nuisance.  The 
sewer  has  been  entered  also  by  the  Central  House  (having  accommodations  for 
about  forty  boarders),  which  formerly  drained  into  the  brook,  and  by  three  private 
dwelling-houses  which  did  not  drain  into  the  brook.  As  a  result  the  channel  of  the 
brook  lias  already  been  washed  so  that  it  is  inoffensive  to  sight  and  smell.  A 
favorable  })lace  was  found  a  little  out  of  the  village  for  the  dischaige  of  the  sewage 
and  its  purification  by  intermittent  downward  filtration. 

Much  ground  dye-wood  is  used  at  the  straw-Avoiks,  and  if  this  in  its  water-logged 
condition  were  admitted  to  the  sewer  it  was  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  sewer 
would  be  self-cleansing  with  the  gradient  available.  It  falls  at  the  rate  of  4  per 
1,000  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  Accordingly  to  exclude  the  spent  dye-wood 
from  the  sewer  there  was  built  adjacent  to  the  dye-house  a  settling  basin  with  a 
filter,  whose  construction  may  be  understood  by  the  aid  of  the  accompanying  draw- 
ing [Fig.  79].  It  is  made  in  two  parts,  side  by  side,  exactly  alike,  in  order  that  one- 
half  may  be  in  use,  if  necessary,  while  the  other  is  being  cleaned  out.  Tlie  dis- 
charge from  the  vats  can  be  turned,  by  a  wooden  gate  in  the  trough  which  brings  it 


INTERMITTENT    PILTRATION    AT   MKDFIELD. 


491 


from  the  dye-house,  into  either  side  of  the  settling  Ijasin  separately.     Entering  by 

the  fonr-inch  openings  the  liquid  flows  generally  in  both  sides,  with  a  total  width  of 

ten  feet  and  a  depth  of  four  feet,  less  the  thickness  of  the  deposit  of  sediment.    The 

velocity  of  flow  is  thus  checked,  and  the  ground  dye-wood 

has  a  chance  to  settle.     To  get  into  the  second  pair  of  w  ' 

compartments  it  has  to  pass  over  the  brick  dividing  wall,  fe,:,:,      ,  m 

whose  elevation   is  the  same  as  the  bottom  of  the  inlet  ^ 

pipe.     Here  is  another  opportunity  for  settlement  to  take  ^ 

j)lace,   but   apparently  very  little    collects   in  the  second  .^ 

compartments  until  the  flrst  are  pretty  well  tilled.     In  the  | 

third  compartments  by  a  tight  board  partition  the  liquid  ,'S 

is  obliged  to  pass  downward,  and  escape  by  upward  tiltra-  !^ 

tion  through  a  mass  of  excelsior  held  between  two  sets  of  ^ 

wooden  slats,  as  exhibited  by  the  drawing  ;  the  ujjward  flow  | 

being  preferi'ed  as  a  precaution  against  choking  the  filter.  -^ 

The  filter  was  in  use  nearly  a  year  before  the  excelsior  "| 

was  changed;  it  worked  very  satisfactorily,  but  the  excel-  ^ 

sior  had  by  that  time  become  so  rotted  that  probably  it  ^ 

would  soon  after  have  gone  to  pieces  and  escaped  through  ^ 

the  sewer.     A  new   supply  was   accordingly  siibstituted.  ^ 

The  sediment  needs  to  be  shovelled  out  and  carted  off  once  I 

or  twice  a  year ;  it  has  a  similar  appearance  to  s:iw-dust,  ^ 

except  for  its  black  color.  g^ 


Qtc 


ifi 


O       fe 


Near  the  lower  end  of  the  sewer  tlie  sewage  passes 
through  a  cesspool  arranged  as  shown  on  the  accompanying 
drawing  [Fig.  80],  so  that  the  outflow  takes  place  from  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  sewage  standing  in  the  cesspool. 
The  effect  is  that  objects  which  either  float  or  sink  are 
held  back  until  they  are  sufficiently  changed  by  chemical 
or  other  action  to  flt)w  uniformly  with  the  rest  of  the  liq- 
uid, and  are  ])revented  from  being  thrown  out  upon  the 
ground  at  the  outlet.  .  .  .  Very  little  sediment  col- 
lects in  the  cesspool — only  about  a  foot  in  depth  in  the 
course  of  a  year ;  when  it  fills  up,  the  sediment  will  have 
to  be  taken  out. 

.  .  .  The  filtering  bed  upon  which  the  sewage  is  dis- 
charged consists  of  one  acre  of  ground  graded  nearly  level. 
It  was  intended  to  be  conical,  sloping  at  the  rate  of  five 
per  thousand  away  from  the  centre,  where  the  outlet  of 
the  sewer  is;  but  owing  to  slight  imperfections  in  the 
work,  unequal  settlement,  etc.,  it  is  a  little  irregular — gen- 
erally flatter.  .  .  .  The  shape  of  the  filtering  bed  was 
made  a  little  irregular  to  adajit  it  to  the  existing  topo- 
grai)liical  conditions  ;  but  it  is  substantially  a  stpiare,  sub- 
divided into  four  small  squares  of  one-quarter  acre  each  by 
little  einl)ankments,  three  of  which  are  about  a  foot  in 
heiglit ;  the  fourth  covers  the  pipe  to  a  depth  of  three 
feet  for  ])rotcction  against  fi-eezing  or  other  injury.     To 

prevent  the  sewage  from  running  off  from  the  filtering  bed  without  penetrating  its 
surfacis  the  filling  was  also  embanked  about  a  foot  above  the  graded  surface  along 
the  north-east  side  of  the  filtering  bed,  the  only  portion  of  the  exfeiior  line  where 
the  graded  surface  was  not  lower  than  the  ground  adjacent.  The  material  is  mostly 
gravel  and  stones  from  the  size  of  a  man's  fist  downward,  and  is  well  suited  for  the 
purpose  of  filtration.  In  grading  tlie  filtering  bed  tlu^  thin  stratum  of  loam  and 
grass  u))on  the  surface  was  not  removed;  it  was  simi)ly  ploughed  u])  and  then 
handled  like  the  gravel.  But  the  narrow  strip  under  the  embankment  through 
whicli  liic  pipe  is  laid  had  its  loam  stii])ped  ofi',  and  the  gravel  with  which  it  was 
replaced  was  carefully  puddled  to  make  an  unyielding  foundation  for  the  ])i])e.  At 
the  middle  of  the  filtering  bed  the  l>ipe  .sewer  ends  [as  shown  by  Fig.  80]  in  a  wooden 


492 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


trough  having  four  outlets — one  to  each  subdivision  of  the  filtering  bed — which  out- 
lets are  closed  by  three  gates ;  so  that  the  sewage  runs  on  to  one  subdivision,  and  is 
shut  off  from  the  other  three.  Every  other  day  the  gate  is  changed  from  one  outlet 
to  the  next,  so  as  to  turn  two  days'  sewage  on  to  a  subdivision,  and  then  give  it 
six  days'  rest,  to  allow  the  sewage  to  pass  off  through  the  ground,  and  let  the  sur- 
face of  that  division  become  dry  enough  for  another  dose. 

No  underdrainage  has  been  jjut  in  at  the  filtering  bed.  The  ground-water 
naturally  is  about  ten  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  filteiing  bed.  Judging 
from  the  visible  indications,  especially  the  contour  of  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
the  natural  drainage  from  the  filtering  bed  must  be  in  the  direction  of  a  little 
depression  leading  down  toward  the  meadow  to  the  northward,  whe^-e  there  is 
a  spring  of  very  good  water  which  is  the  source  of  a  permanent  stream,  as 
shown  on  the  plan  and  profile.  The  artificially  straight  course  of  the  little  stream 
may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  meadow  through  which  it  flows  was  graded 
up  several  years  ago,  so  that  better  crops  could  be  cultivated.  This  stream  being 
a  tributary  of  the  Charles  river,  upon  whose  banks  a  long  distance  below  are  situated 


Fig.  80. — Plan  and  Section  through  Sewage  Outi.ets  and  Cesspool.* 


the  filtering  galleries  from  which  several  municipalities  draw  their  water  supply, 
Medfield  sewage  requires  to  be  purified  before  entering  it. 

The  success  of  this  filtering  bed  during  the  severe  cold  of  winter  has  been 
favored  by  the  fact  that  the  dye-vats  are  kept  at  a  high  temperature.  Daily  obser- 
vations in  October,  November,  December,  and  January,  1887-88,  show  that  the 
temperature  of  the  sewage  as  it  comes  upon  the  filtering  bed  at  the  outlet  is,  while 
business  is  active  at  the  straw-works,  generally  from  60°  to  80'  F.,  falling  at  night 
and  on  holidays  from  that  downward  to  about  the  temperature  of  the  ground- 
water, say  50°  F.  .  .  .  In  January,  1887,  on  a  day  when  the  tliermometer  went 
down  to  26°  below  zero  F.,  the  sewage  was  turned  on  to  a  division  of  the  filtering 
bed  that  was  covered  with  snow  and  ice.  The  writer  visited  it  a  few  days  later 
and  found  that  from  a  strip  five  or  ten  feet  wide,  extending  nearly  across  .the  bed, 
the  snow  and  ice  had  been  melted  away.  The  sewage  had  also  run  underiieath  the 
remaining  snow  and  ice  a  little  way,  so  that  on  digging  with  a  shovel  through  it 
— say  ten  feet  from  this  open  place— moist  and  unfrozen  ground  was  found  beneath  ; 
still  fiirther  away  the  ground  was  frozen. 

With  regard  to  the  quantity  of  liquid  discharged  upon  the  filtering  bed,  it  was 
estimated  in  the  latter  part  of  1887  by  putting  a  little  weir  at  one  of  the  wooden 
trough  outlets  and  observing  at  intervals  the  height  of  water  going  over  it.  It 
fluctuates  a  great  deal,  but  it  is  estimated  that  in  addition  to  the  leakage  of  2,000 
cubic  feet  per  twenty-four  hours  of  clean  water  above  mentioned,  there  comes  in 
on  the  average,  from  straw-works  and  the  house  drains,  about  3,000  cubic  feet  per 
day  for  six  days  in  the  week  for  about  seven  months,  from  November  to  May — that 


INTERMITTENT    FILTRATION    AT    MEDFIELD.  493 

is,  about  half  the  days  in  the  year — but  only  about  1,500  cubic  feet  per  day  for  five 
months,  from  June  to  Octobei',  arid  on  Sundays  in  the  other  seven  months,  i.e.,  the 
other  of  the  year.  That  this  estimate  (though  not  chiiming  to  be  minutely  accurate) 
is  substantially  correct  may  be  judged  by  comparing  such  estimates  as  can  be  made 
from  known  facts  as  to  the  number  of  peoj^le  in  the  buildings  and  the  quantities 
usually  discharged  from  the  dye-house  and  bleachery  ;  also  by  comparing  the 
estimated  quantity  of  water  pumped  from  an  artesian  well  which  is  the  original 
source  of  most  of  the  liquid  that  gets  into  the  sewer.  Most  of  what  is  pumped 
from  this  well  ultimately  finds  its  way  into  the  sewer.  More  has  been  jjumped 
heretofore  than  the  required  water  suj^ply,  and  the  excess  has  been  allowed  to  over- 
flow from  a  tank  and  escape  into  the  sewer,  making  just  so  much  unnecessary 
hindrance  to  the  drying  of  the  filtering  bed ;  whereas,  if  pumped  at  all,  it  might 
better  have  overflowed  into  Vine  brook,  being  pure  water.  For  purposes  of  com- 
parison the  quantity  of  liquid  discharged  upon  this  filtering  bed  of  one  acre  (or 
4,000  square  metres)  may  be  estimated  at  4,250  cubic  feet  (or  120  cubic  metres,  or 
32,000  United  States  gallons)  per  twenty-four  hours  the  year  round,  though  the 
actual  want  of  uniformity  must  make  the  effect  rather  different.  For  the  purpose 
of  comparison  as  to  the  population  provided  for,  we  may  assume,  as  an  approxi- 
mation, that  the  manufacturing  waste  from  the  straw-works  takes  the  place  of  the 
domestic  waste  that  would  ordinarily  go  with  the  number  of  operatives  that  board 
outside  of  the  sewered  area ;  and  thus  counting  operatives  and  residents  alike, 
may  call  the  average  population  provided  for  about  500. 

The  works  were  designed  for  about  3,000  to  3,500  cubic  feet  of  sewage  per 
twenty-four  hours  ;  but  the  town  secured  an  additional  acre  of  ground  around  the 
present  graded  filtering  bed  with  a  view  to  extending  its  area,  if  an  increase  in  the 
quantity  of  sewage  to  be  disposed  of  should  hereafter  make  it  necessary.  At 
present' the  full  area  prepared  is  not  fairly  availed  of,  because  from  the  neglect  to 
grade  the  surface  more  accurately  by  a  little  harrowing  there  are  iwrtions  which 
stand  high  and  dry,  and  have  never  been  touched  by  the  sewage,  which  collects  in 
the  low  places  where,  after  two  days'  discharge,  it  stands  in  a  pool.  The  six  days 
following  hardly  give  sufficient  opportunity  for  it  to  percolate  through  the  soil  and 
for  the  surface  of  the  filtering  bed  to  become  dry.  The  natural  tendency  is  toward 
the  formation  of  a  moist,  pasty  coating  over  the  surface  of  the  lowest  points  of 
the  filtering  bed,  entirely  contrary  to  the  intention  with  which  it  was  laid  out.  In 
spite  of  this  imperfection,  which  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  will  be  allowed  to  con- 
tinue, the  general  working  of  the  scheme  has  been  highly  satisfactory.  No  smell 
is  noticeable  except  just  at  the  outlet  of  the  sewer. 

The  work  for  the  town  was  done  under  a  contract  for  a  "  lump"  sum  ;  the  cost 
of  the  disposal  works  was  probably  about  SI, 000,  including  cesspool,  pipe  from 
cesspool  to  outlet,  earthwork,  engineering,  superintendence  and  profit  to  con- 
tractor, and  the  value  of  land,  whicli  was  given  to  the  town.  The  annual  expense 
of  maintenance  of  the  work  of  disposal  is  insignificant — probably  about  thirty 
dollars.  A  man  has  to  change  the  gate  regularly,  which  is  the  principal  labor  re- 
quired. The  surface  ought  to  be  harrowed  over  when  it  gets  cfbgged  with  sedi- 
ment, the  embankments  repaired  if  they  get  trodden  down  or  washed  ;  the  wooden 
l)arts  will  have  to  be  occasionally  renewed  as  they  decay,  the  cesspool  will  have  to 
be  emptied  sometimes ;  but  a  very  few  days'  labor  annually  will  cover  all  that 
appears  to  be  required. 

No  statements  as  to  recent  cost  of  operation  have  been  made.* 

*  Mr.  IJroDks's  paper  gives  a  series  of  analyses  of  (1)  the  water  of  wells  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
filter  area  ;  (2)  of  a  spring  near  by,  below  the  filter  area,  which  contains  some  of  the  efiiuent ;  and 
(3)  of  the  crude  sewage  ;  together  with  the  results  of  a  few  <leterminations  of  bacteria  bj-  plate 
cultures.  A  record  of  the  temperature  of  the  sewage  for  the  month  of  December,  1887,  is  in- 
cluded. 

Mr.  Brooks's  paper,  in  a  slightly  modified  form,  may  also  be  found  in  the  Jour,  of  the  Assoc. 
of  Eng.  Socs  ,  vol.  vii.,  No.  7,  pp.  235-344  (July,  1888).  Also  see  Eug.  and  Bid.  Reed.,  vol  xviii, 
pp.  27-30  (1888). 


CHAPTEE    XXXV. 

INTERMITTENT    FILTEATION    AND     BROAD     IRRIGATION     AT    THE 
LONDON,    ONTARIO,   HOSPITAL  FOR  THE   INSANE. 

The  sewage  disposal  system  at  the  London  (Ontario)  Insane  Hos- 
pital is  so  interesting-  that  a  short  descriiDtion  of  it  is  included  in  this 
volume,  although  it  is  not  in  the  United  States. 

Previous  to  1889  the  sewage  from  the  hospital  was  delivered  into  a 
small  brook,  tributary  to  the  South  branch  of  the  Thames  river,  which 
Hows  through  the  city  of  London.  This  brook  has  only  a  small  drain- 
age area,  and  frequently  becomes  nearly  dry  during  the  summer 
season.  The  population  of  the  hospital  is  over  1,000  and  the  daily 
amount  of  sewage  about  60,000  gallons.  The  necessity,  therefore,  for 
some  means  of  disposal  other  than  into  the  brook  had  been  for  a 
number  of  years  very  apparent. 

Li  1888  Col.  Geo.  E.  AYaring,  Jr.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  was  requested  to 
examine  the  whole  question  of  sewage  disposal,  and  report  plans  and 
such  information  as  would  be  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  work 
advised. 

As  soon  as  possible  after  receiving  this  commission,  Col.  Waring 
reported  a  project,  which  was  immediately  carried  out,  substantially 
as  follows : 

The  original  system  of  sewers,  which  received  storm  and  roof  water, 
was  left  intact,  and  a  new  system  of  small  vitrified  pipes  laid,  connect- 
ing with  all  fixtures  throughout  the  buildings,  and  flushed  by  auto- 
matic flush-tanks  located  at  the  heads  of  the  several  lines.  The  new 
sewers  all  deliver  into  an  underground  tank,  of  a  capacity  of  100,000 
gallons,  near  the  main  hospital  building.  The  sewage  is  delivered 
from  the  sewers  into  a  screen  chamber  at  one  end  of  the  tank,  and 
passes  through  a  vertical  screen  into  the  tank  proper.  Ventilation  of 
the  tank  is  secured  by  means  of  six  man-holes,  three  at  one  end  having 
perforated  covers,  and  three  at  the  other  end  connected  by  ten-inch 
pipes,  laid  underground,  with  the  chimney  of  the  pump-house. 

The  disposal  area  (Fig.  81),  amounting  to  30  acres,  is  so  situated 
with  reference  to  the  hospital  buildings  as  to  render  delivery  of  the 
sewage  thereto  by  gravity  impossible,  and  accordingly  a  pumping 
station  was  erected  about  30  feet  east  of  the  tank,  containing  an  eight- 
inch  Webber  centrifugal  pump,  driven  by  a  25  horse-power  Westing- 


LOXDOX,   ONTAKIO,    HOSPITAL    FOR   THE    INSANE. 


495 


Louse  automatic  engine.  The  suction  is  a  ten-inch  iron  pipe,  dipping 
into  a  small  sump  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank  at  the  lower  end  in  such 
manner  as  to  admit,  when  necessary,  of  the  sewage  being  entirely- 
pumped  out.  This  pump  has  a  capacity  of  about  G0,000  gallons  per 
Lour  ;  hence,  for  the  present,  aboub  one  hour's  pumping  per  day  will 
be  all  that  is  required.  The  discharge-pipe  is  an  eight-inch  spiral 
riveted  pipe  1,526  feet  long,  which  enters  the  bottom  of  a  brick  dis- 
tributing well,  4  feet  in  diameter,  at  the  disposal  field. 


_^0istrlbu1inqMeri 


ItmieATiNd  Tract 


iftmoATiNd  Tract 


Fio.  81. — Disposal  Auka,  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  London,  Ontario. 

The  method  of  disposal  is  intermittent  filtration  supplemented  by 
broad  irrigation.  For  this  purpose  an  area  of  about  five  acres,  at  the 
liighcst  iiortion  of  the  disi>osal  field,  has  been  levelled  and  laid  out  in 
absorption  ditches  after  the  manner  shown  in  the  cross-section.  Fig. 
82.  The  l)alance  of  the  field,  consisting  of  about  12  acres,  is  provided 
with  a  main  carrier  and  distribution  ditches  for  use  as  an  irrigation 
area  whenever  the  filtration  area  is  ovta"work(nl,  or  whenever  during 
the  growing  season  the  Hewag(>  can  b(>  profitably  utiliztnl  thereon  for 
growing  crops.     The  intermittent  filtration  area  is  divided  into  three 


496  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

parts,  into  one  of  which  the  sewage  is  run  for  one  day,  this  arrange- 
ment giving-  two  da3^s'  rest  for  a  section  after  each  application. 

The  construction  was  begun  in  October,  1888,  and  completed  in 
June,  1889,  the  work  being  done  by  the  Department  of  Public  Works 

l« s'.O     ■>!< -  /O'.O      Ji* <?.'(?     X  ^ 

I  I  '  ' 

w//////////};^         f         ?!ilHifiiii!(Wii/Ujii/iiii/ii//iiin/iiiiff!Z       1^1  ~ "  'yii/Jiwinmii:.., . 

Fig.  82. — Section  of  Absorption  Ditches. 

of  Ontario,  under  the  general  direction  of  the  Architect-in-Chief  of 
the  Department.  F.  W.  Farquhar,  C.E.,  of  the  firm  of  Waring,  Chap- 
man &  Farquhar,  Civil  Engineers,  of  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  acted  as 
resident  engineer. 

The  entire  cost  of  the  work  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  $15,000,  the 
principal  items  of  construction  being  as  follows : 

1  sewage  collecting  tank. 

1  i^ump-honse  containing  boiler,  pump,  and  engine. 
1,526  feet  spiral  riveted  force-main. 

3,865  feet  6-incli  sewers. 
640  feet  4-inch  sewers. 

2  automatic  flush-tanks. 

1  distributing-well.  * 

320  feet  18-inch  channel  pipe. 
2,700  feet  3-inch  tile  underdrains. 
2,700  feet  4-inch  tile  underdrains. 
1,250  feet  6-inch  tile  underdrains. 
3,000  cubic  Yards  grading. 
10,800  feet  settling  ditches. 
2,700  feet  irrigating  ditches. 

The  following  extracts  from  Col.  Waring's  report  to  the  Department 
of  Public  Works  indicate  a  number  of  interesting  details,  which  have 
been  mostly  omitted  in  the  foregoing  general  account. 

The  plan  sent  .  .  .  shows  .  .  .  the  new  drains  recommended  for  the 
collection  and  removal  of  foul  wastes.  These  all  lead  to  an  underground  tank,  to 
be  constructed     ...     to  the  rear  of  the  west  wing  of  the  main  building. 

The  details  of  this  tank  are  shown  in  the  drawings.  (See  Fig.  83.)  Its  interior 
size  is  70  feet  by  40  feet;  walls  16  inches  thick,  with  bottom  of  concrete.  It  is 
covered  by  three  longitudinal  arches,  12.66  feet  sjjan,  12  inches  thick,  which  rest 
on  two  longitudinal  walls  with  arched  openings.  The  floor  of  the  tank  is  graded, 
varying  between  elevation  31.9  and  32.3  resjiectively.  Each  section  has  a  longitu- 
dinal drainage  gutter,  with  its  upper  end  at  32.22  and  its  lower  end  at  31.98,  31.94, 
31.90,  with  a  cross  gutter  leading  to  a  sump  four  feet  in  diameter  with  its  bottom 
at  grade  30,0. 

The  bottom  of  this  sump  is  hemispherical,  and  the  suction  pipe  of  the  jjump  is 
centrally  located,  having  six  inches  space  between  its  mouth  and  the  bottom.  This 
mouth  should  be  bell-shaped,  not  straight  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  The  elevation 
of  the  ground  at  this  point  is  47.5,  making  the  surface  of  the  floor  of  the  tank 
about  15  feet  below  the  surface. 


LONDON,   ONTARIO,   HOSPITAL    FOR   THE   INSANE. 


497 


There  are  three  man-holes  at  each  end  of  the  tank,  with  covers  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  At  the  receiving  end  of  the  tank,  at  the  head  of  the  central  chamber, 
is  a  screening  chamber  reaching  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  with  its  bottom 
at  elevation  34.4. 


!^ssp 


The  opening  from  this  cliamber  into  tlio  tank  is  8.33  feet  wide,  and  it  is  provided 
•with  a  screen  carried  in  slots  in  the  side  walls  4.5  feet  high  in  the  centre.  This 
screen  is  to  be  made  of  wrought  iron  and  galvanizcnl ;  the  vertical  bars  to  be  of 
half-inch  round  iron,  and  the  openings  between  them  one  inch  wide.     'V\to  top  of 


498 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


this  screening 
wooden  cover. 


chamber  is  covered  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  a  hinged 


The  receiving  well     .     .     .     is  to  be  constructed  as  shown  in  the  drawings. 

Its  inlet  is  at  the  bottom,  and  the  force  main  has  a  continuoi;s  rise  from  the 
pump.  The  pump  has  no  valve.  Therefore,  whenever  the  pump  is  stopj^ed  the 
contents  of  the  receiving  well  and  force  main  will  flow  back  into  the  tank,  so  that 
there  will  be  no  trouble  from  freezing. 

At  the  highest  part  of  the  field  a  tract  ...  is  brought  to  an  absolute  level 
at  an  elevation  of  about  45.8. 


4.5ft. 


Fig.  84.— Section  of  Carrier  Ditches. 


This  level  tract  is  laid  off  in  communicating  parallel  ditches  .  .  .  and  is 
tinderdrained.  .  .  .  the  main  outlet  from  the  receiving  [distributing]  well 
has  a  fall  of  one  in  500.  At  its  lower  end  it  delivers  into  a  distributing  ditch, 
which  is  continued  by  a  carrier  parallel  with  the  west  side  of  the  field,  from  which 
carrier  two  distributing  ditches  are  laid  as  shown.  (See  Figs.  84  and  86  for  sec- 
tions of  carrier  and  distributing  ditches.) 


^  r.i 


t 

' 

•$ 

1 

1 

"pi 

'5C 

S: 

.^ 

"C 

!;< 

fe 

y> 

-.-.-'-h_-.-li  5eciionof  Bank  "^ 


Section  of  Absorption  Dtfth 


Underdrain 


Fig.  85. — Details   of   Distributing  Well,  Hospital   for    the  Insane, 
London,  Ontario. 

The  carrier  ditch  has  the  natural  fall  of  the  land  ;  the  distributing  ditches  have  a 
fall  of  one  in  500.  At  a  point  southeast  from  the  level  field  there  is  a  short  level 
catch  ditch,  intended  to  intercept  the  surface  flow  of  sewage  down  the  steep  slope 


LONDON,   ONTARIO,    HOSPITAL    FOR   THE   INSANE.  499 

near  it,  and  distribute  more  evenly  over  the  depression  below.  The  need  for  tlie 
catch  ditch  may  be  avoided  by  such  grading  at  this  part  of  the  tract  as  will  bring 
the  contours  more  nearly  parallel. 

The  main  outlet  from  the  receiving  well  is  to  be  made  of  half  pipes  (vitrified). 
This  pipe  is  to  be  without  sockets,  and  is  to  be  laid  in  vitrified  collars  or  sleeves. 

If  the  flow  through  the  distributing  ditch  is  arrested  at  any  point,  as  it  may  be 
by  sticking  a  wrought-iron  gate  into  the  earth,  making  a  dam  across  the  top,  the 
sewage  will  overflow  for  a  greater  or  less  distance  above  the  dam  according  to  the 
volume  of  the  current.  If  the  dam  is  placed  first  at  the  lower  end  of  the  upjjer 
distributing  ditch  it  will  overflow,  for  example,  200  feet  above  the  dam.  When  the 
ground  to  be  reached  by  this  overflow  has  received  a  sufficient  supply  of  sewage 

'//////''///''////%,  Overflow  Line  

%>^ '~  ~470ft.  ~^millllilllll/llillllllim}J 


'mmfm''' 


Fig.  86. — Section  op  Distributing  Ditches. 

the  dam  is  placed  higher  up  stream,  and  the  overflow  carried  over  the  next  section 
of  200  feet,  and  then  in  like  manner  to  the  third  section.  Should  the  ground  be- 
tween the  two  ditches  not  be  able  to  absorb  all  the  sewage  discharged  upon  it,  the 
overflow  will  he  caught  by  tlie  second  distributing  ditch,  and  if  its  quantity  is  suf- 
ficient can  have  its  distribution  regulated  by  the  placing  of  a  dam  there  as  above.* 

*  The  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  the  sewage  disposal  at  the  London,  Ont.,  Insane  Hos- 
pital are  : — (1)  The  7th  An.  Rept.  of  the  Prov.  Bd.  of  Health  (1888),  which  contains  Col.  War- 
ing's  Rept.  to  the  Dept.  Pub.  Wks.  and  the  Rept.  of  a  Com.  of  Prov.  Bd.  Health,  etc.;  (2)  Eng. 
&  Bldg.  Reed.,  vol.  .xx.  (1^89),  p  119  ;  (;>)  a  paper,  "  Disposal  of  Sewage  at  Large  Institutions," 
in  the  American  Architect  for  April  9,  189:i.     By  Col.  Waring. 


CHAPTEE  XXXVL 

CHEMICAL    PEECIPITATION     AND    INTERMITTENT    FILTRATION    AT 
THE  ROCHESTER,  MINNESOTA,  HOSPITAL  FOR  THE  INSANE. 

The  original  method  of  disposing-  of  the  sewage  of  this  Hospital  was 
by  turning  it  directly  into  Silver  creek,  a  small^  stream  flowing  a  few 
hundred  feet  distant  from  the  buildings.  The  i^ollution  of  the  stream 
had  been  for  a  number  of  years,  however,  the  subject  of  complaint  on 
the  ijart  of  the  riparian  owners.  The  matter  was  finally  referred  to 
the  Minnesota  State  Board  of  Health,  who  directed  Dr.  Charles  N. 
Hewitt,  secretary  and  executive  officer  of  the  Board,  to  examine  the 
case  and  report  thereon.  Dr.  Hewitt  reported  that  the  discharge  of 
crude  sewage  into  the  stream  was  the  source  of  a  serious  nuisance 
which  ought  to  be  immediately  abated. 

The  Controlling  Board  of  the  Hospital  thereupon  employed,  in 
January,  1890,  W.  S.  MacHarg,  C.E.,  of  Chicago,  who  proposed  a 
scheme  of  chemical  precipitation,  supplemented  by  intermittent  filtra- 
tion. Mr.  MacHarg's  plans  were  submitted  to  the  Controlling-  Board 
on  February  5,  1890,  and  accepted  by  them,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  State  Board  of  Health,  which  was  given  on  February  21.     Con- 


FiG.  87.  —Plan  of  Disposal  Works,  Second  Minnesota  Hospital  for 
THE  Insane,  Rochester,  Minnesota. 

struction  was  immediately  begun  and  the  works  put  in  operation  Nov- 
ember 1,  1890.  The  general  arrangement  of  the  works  and  the  creek 
are  shown  by  Fig.  87.  The  detail  of  the  precipitation  tanks  is  shown 
by  Fig.  88. 


EOCHESTEK,  MINNP:S0TA,    HOSPITAL    EOll   THE    INSANE.         501 

The  present  population  of  the  Hospital  is  about  1,050  persons  and 
the  sewage,  amounting-  to  60,000  gallons  a  day,  Hows  to  the  precipita- 
tion tanks  through  a  10-inch  pipe.      The  sewage  consists  only  of  the 


Baffle  Boarc/ 


BaffleBoard, 


Longitudinal  Section. 


OuHei 


Transverse   Section 
Ejector  Pit 
Zcharvber  Circulaiing  Channel 


Influenf  Channel 


To  FiH-raf  ion  Area 

ToSludqePif-  U     Plan 
Fig.  88. — Precipitation  Tank,  Second  Minnesota  Hospital  fou  the  Insane. 

discharge  from  water-closets,  baths,  toilets,  kitchens,  laundries,  etc.  ; 
no  storm-water  is  admitted.  The  tankage  is  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
handle  75,000  gallons  per  day.  The  tanks,  four  in  number,  are  ar- 
ranged for  a  depth  of  sewage  of  4  feet ;  they  are  worked  on  the  con- 
tinuous system,  one  being  cut  out  each  day  and  cleaned  jireparatory  to 
receiving  the  sewage  during  the  night,  when  steam  is  not  available  for 
pumping. 

Shone's  Hydro-Pneumatic  l^'.jector  is  used  for  pumping;    the  air 
compressor  and  air  receiver  are  located  in  the  engine  house,  about 


502  sp:wagp:  disposal  in  the  united  states. 

1,000  feet  from  the  ejector,  the  air  supply  being-  carried  thereto  throug-h 
a  3-inch  pipe.  The  ejector  is  set  low  enough  to  allow  the  sewage  and 
sludge  from  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  to  flow  to  it  by  gravity. 

A  4-inch  main  leads  from  the  ejector  to  the  filtration  area  at  the 
right,  and  also  to  the  sludge  disposal  area,  a  short  distance  to  the 
left.  The  soil  of  the  filtration  area  is  prairie  loam  to  the  depth  of  16 
inches,  below  which  is  sand  and  gravel.  At  about  six  feet  is  found  a 
strong  flow  of  ground-water  in  the  direction  of  the  creek.  At  this 
depth  3-inch  underdrains  are  laid  in  lines  about  25  feet  apart,  with 
the  main  outfall  drain  6  inches  in  diameter,  as  indicated  on  the  plan. 
No  details  of  the  method  of  laying  these  drains  are  furnished.  The 
following  from  Mr.  MacHarg's  report  will  serve  to  indicate  the  other 
essential  features  of  the  project : 

As  a  conseqiience  of  the  reasons  I  have  adduced,  I  recommend  that  a  double 
process  be  used  ;  that  which  is  at  the  present  moment  the  result  of  the  best  judg- 
ment of  the  facts  which  have  accumulated  from  experience  extending  over  many 
years  and  Including  many  processes. 

This  process  is,  first,  the  clarification  of  the  sewage  by  chemical  precipitation  or 
subsidence  in  tanks  ;  and,  second,  the  disposal  of  the  effiuent  by  intermittent  filtra- 
tion upon  land,  and  of  the  sludge  by  mixture  with  earth  as  manure.  The  filtration 
of  the  effluent  water  is  not  essential  excejat  where  a  high  standard  of  purity  is  re- 
quired in  the  stream.  It  may  therefore  be  so  used  advantageously  during  such 
part  of  the  year  as  the  ground  is  not  frozen,  and  during  extreme  cold  weather- or 
during  heavy  rains  may  be  discharged  directly  into  the  stream  without  offence. 

The  advantage  of  this  process  is,  I  think,  obvious  ;  the  clarification  in  the  tanks 
removes  all  suspended  matter,  which  is  the  most  offensive,  and  if  proper  chemicals 
are  used  for  precij^itation  most  of  the  dissolved  impurity  may  be  removed,  and  an 
effluent  be  obtained  which  may  be  discharged  into  any  stream  not  used  for  domes- 
tic water  supply  without  disagreeable  consequences  ;  the  clarified  effluent  water 
may  be  used  in  irrigation  to  the  advantage  of  crojjs,  and  almost  all  the  dissolved  im- 
purity will  be  removed. 

Having  alternative  ways  of  disposing  of  the  effluent,  you  are  thus  made  indepen- 
dent of  climatic  conditions,  and  the  drainage  of  the  hospital  is  continued  without 
offence  to  adjoining  property. 

To  accomplish  this  result  I  provide,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  plans,  a  tank 
large  enough  to  contain  one  day's  flow  of  sewage  for  a  probable  1,200  persons,  or 
about  75,000  gallons  (?)  ;  this  tank  is  to  be  built  of  masonry  or  concrete,  with  par- 
titions and  channels  so  arranged  that  any  one  section  may  be  cut  out,  emjjtied,  and 
cleaned  without  interference  with  the  continuous  use  of  the  tank. 

For  the  disposal  of  the  effluent  water  I  propose  to  underdrain  about  two  acres  of 
land,  and  prepare  it  with  the  necessary  banks  and  channels  on  the  surface.  A  pipe 
is  to  be  laid  from  effluent  end  of  tank  to  the  ejector,  and  from  the  ejector  to  the 
field.  This  pipe  will  be  branched  as  shown,  and  the  sewage  be  allowed  to  flow 
over  one  portion  of  the  field  on  one  day  and  over  another  on  the  next.  By  divid- 
ing the  field  into  four  portions,  each  section  has  one  day  work  and  three  days  rest. 
By  this  intermittent  use  the  extremely  efficient  action  of  eartli  filtiation  is  obtained. 
A  very  ordinary  class  of  attendance  is  required  upon  the  filtration  area.  Certain 
crops  may  be  grown  upon  this  area,  but  this  method  is  not  founded  upon  any  idea 
of  getting  a  money  value  out  of  sewage. 

To  carry  away  the  sludge  deposited  in  the  tanks  an  inlet  pipe  is  connected  to  the 
ejector,  branching  and  connecting  to  the  bottom  of  each  section  of  the  tank,  with 
an  Oldening  at  the  floor  and  with  a  branch  with  a  floating  arm.  The  floor  connec- 
tion is  stopped  with  a  plug  and  the  arm  is  free  to  rise  and  fall  with  the  water. 


ROCHESTER,   MINNESOTA,  HOSPITAL    FOR   THE   INSANE.  503 

and  the  floating  end  covered  with  a  screen.  From  the  outlet  of  ejector  a  pipe  is 
rnn  to  any  jaart  of  the  low  land  near  the  brook.  A  portion  of  land  is  excavated  to 
receive  the  sludge.  The  section  of  the  tank  to  be  cleaned  is  closed  ofi"  at  the  chan- 
nels, and  the  clear  water  allowed  to  flow  through  the  arm  to  the  ejector  and  de- 
livered on  to  the  irrigating  field  ;  when  the  floating  arm  has  fallen  to  the  level  of 
the  sludge,  the  plug  in  the  bottom  is  drawn  out  and  the  sludge  discharged  by 
means  of  the  ejector  through  the  pipe  before  mentioned  upon  the  excavation  pre- 
pared. When  all  the  sludge  is  discharged  the  tank  is  washed  out  and  the  ejector 
disconnected  from  it,  and  the  lauk  pat  again  in  service.  The  .sludge  is  covered  in 
the  excavation  with  fresh  earth  and  allowed  to  solidify  ;  several  layers  may  be  put 
in  each  excavation,  and  when  required  may  be  dug  out  and  used  for  manure. 

As  regards  the  use  of  chemicals  to  precipitate  the  sewage,  and  therefore  render 
the  effluent  more  nearly  pure,  I  think  that  it  will  be  necessary  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  While  the  effluent  is  being  used  upon  the  land,  vegetation  and 
bacterial  action  in  the  aerateel  soil  will  accomplish  all  that  is  necessary  in  the  puri- 
fication of  the  water,  and  you  will  only  need  to  have  recourse  to  the  precipitants 
during  such  jjeriods  as  you  wish  to  discharge  into  the  brook.  This  means  neces- 
sarily through  the  winter  and  possibly  during  long-continued  wet  weather. 

The  chemicals  most  available  are  lime,  sulphate  of  alumina,  and,  under  some 
circumstances,  sulphate  or  perchloride  of  iron.  These  are  all  used  in  the  crude 
form,  as  purity  and  consequent  increased  cost  are  unnecessary.  Clay  is  also  used 
as  an  absorbent  to  facilitate  deposition.  Lime  used  alone  is  efficacious,  but  pro- 
duces a  sludge  which  under  some  circumstances  becomes  off"ensive.  Suli>hate  of 
alumina  with  clay  produces  good  results ;  with  either  mixture  a  small  amount  of 
one  of  the  iron  salts  is  sometimes  used  as  a  deodorizer.  The  experience  with  these 
preparations  is  mostly  English,  and  as  their  sewage  is  less  diluted  than  ours  it  is 
probal)le  that  you  will  need  to  determine  the  mixture  which  will  give  you  the  most 
satisfactory  results. 

The  work  was  largely  constructed  by  tlie  labor  of  the  hospital 
patients,  and  statements  as  to  actual  cost  are  lacking.  For  operating 
the  works  one  man  is  specially  employed,  who  is  assisted  somewhat, 
when  necessary,  by  the  patients. 

A  letter  from  the  superintendent  of  the  hospital,  received  in  April, 
1892,  states  that  no  trouble  has  been  experienced  in  securing  an 
efficient  winter  purification  during  the  two  winters  that  the  disposal 
works  have  been  in  operation.  Both  the  winters,  however,  are  stated 
to  have  been  somewhat  warmer  than  the  average.  The  sewage  prob- 
ably reaches  the  precipitation  tank  in  cold  weather  ^^'ith  a  temperature 
of  at  least  45°  F.* 

*  The  chief  source  of  information  in  regard  to  the  sewage  disposal  at  the  Rochester  Insane 
Hospital  is  the  6th  Biennial  Rept.  of  the  Trustees,  etc.,  for  the  Biennial  Period  Ending  July  31, 
1890.     Also  see  Eng.  and  Bldg.  Record,  vol.  xxiii.,  p.  72. 


CHAPTER  XXX^T:I. 
INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AT   MARLBOROUGH,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

Maelboeough,  Massachusetts,  a  town  with  a  popiihition  in  1890  of 
13,805,  is  situated  on  the  influent  streams  to  Basin  No.  3  of  the  Sudbury 
river  water  supply  of  the  city  of  Boston.  While  the  town  has  only 
just  constructed  a  sewerage  system,  it  has  nevertheless  resulted  that 
Basin  No.  3  has  been  considerably  polluted  by  the  drainage  of  Marl- 
borough . 

In  1888  an  Act  passed  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  authorizing 
the  town  of  Marlborough  to  lay  out,  construct,  and  maintain  a  system 
of  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal.  Xaider  the  provisions  of  this  Act 
the  town  authorities  designated  M.  M.  Tidd,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  of 
Boston,  to  prepare  the  necessary  plans,  which,  after  a  number  of  hear- 
ings, were  finally  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  on  January 
7,  1890.  The  plans  presented  by  Mr.  Tidd  included  the  delivery  of  the 
sewage  completely  outside  of  the  Sudbury  river  water-shed  and  its 
purification  by  intermittent  filtration.  In  consideration  of  carrying 
the  sewage  outside  the  Sudbury  water-shed  the  Boston  Water  Board 
have  agreed  to  contribute  $62,000  toward  defraying  the  expenses  of 
the  work  of  construction.  Desmond  FitzGerald,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E., 
represented  the  city  of  Boston  in  this  connection.  The  sewerage  sys- 
tem, which  is  of  the  separate  tyjie,  was  completed  early  in  1892,  and 
the  disposal  area  shortly  afterward. 

On  June  23,  1892,  there  were  about  350  sewer  connections.  As  the 
total  number  of  water  connections  at  the  close  of  1890  was  1,79-4,  and 
the  population  of  the  town  in  1890  was  13,805,  it  is  evident  that  the 
amount  of  sewage  to  be  purified  is  small  compared  with  what  it  will 
be  in  the  future. 

The  town  introduced  water-works  in  1883,  and  the  consumption  of 
water  in  the  early  part  of  1892  was  about  325,000  gallons  a  day,  but  at 
4.30  P.M.,  Mav  12,  1892,  after  a  dry  spell,  the  flow  through  the  outlet 
sewer  was  at  the  rate  of  330,000  gallons  a  day,  and  on  May  25,  1892,  at 
9  A.M.,  after  heavy  rains,  the  rate  of  flow  was  790,000  gallons  a  day. 
The  measurements  on  each  date  were  made  by  observing  the  time 
taken  to  fill  the  separating  tank  once. 

Ground-water  is  the  only  explanation  for  this  large  flow  through  the 
sewers,  for,  as  has  been  stated,  not  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  water 


i 


FIG.  1.     MAP  OF  MARLBOROUGH  SHOWING  SEWERAGE  SYSTEM 


PLATE  V.    MAP  OF  MARLBOROUGH  TOWN  AND  PLAN  OF  FILTER  BEDS. 


--  D 


Verficai  Seci-ion. 


From  Elevation. 


^ 


PARATING  TANK 


JGH,  MASS. 


l; 


fi 


^IG.  3.     18-iN.  SWINGING  GATE. 


PUTE  VI.    DETAILS  OF  SEWAGE    PURIFICATION  PUNT  AT  MARLBOROUGH,  MASS. 


FIG     6,      lO.IN,  GATE   TO    FILTER  BEDS, 


FIG    J.     18.IN.  INFLUENT  GATE. 


=IG,  3       leiN.  SWINGING  GATE. 


INTERMITTENT    FILTRATION    AT   MARLBOROUGH.  505 

consumers  are  connected  with  sewers.  Unfortunately,  Marlborough  is 
not  the  only  town  Avhere  an  excessive  amount  of  ground-water  finds  its 
way  into  the  sewers.  The  city  of  Boston  would  not  allow  Marlborough 
to  put  in  underdrains  because  it  feared  that  sewage  would  pass 
through  defective  sewer  joints,  and  into  the  drains,  and  thus  finally 
into  the  Boston  water  supi3h\ 

The  filtration  areas  are  located  about  two  miles,  in  an  air  line,  from 
the  outskirts  of  the  village,  as  shown  by  Plate  Y.,  Fig.  1,  and  some  3^ 
miles  from  the  last  house  connection,  measured  on  the  pipe  line.  The 
nearest  house  is  about  1,000  feet  from  the  filter  areas.  There  are  two 
other  houses  about  1,500  feet  away,  and  no  more  within  about  a  mile. 

The  sewage  passes  from  the  village  to  the  disposal  area  through  an 
outlet  sewer  of  vitrified  pipe.  A  separating  or  settling  tank  removes 
the  sludge  from  the  sewage,  after  which  it  passes  through  iron  pipes, 
to  the  several  filter  beds,  of  which  there  are  now  l-l  in  use  besides  the 
six  small  ones  used  for  emptying  the  sludge. 

The  arrangement  and  details  of  the  purification  plant  are  shown  by- 
Plates  V.  and  YI.  Fig.  2,  Plate  Y.,  is  a  plan  of  the  filter  beds.  Only 
20  of  these,  including  the  G  sludge  beds,  were  in  use,  but  it  is  proposed 
to  use  51  beds  eventually.  The  14  filter  beds  now  in  use,  with  their 
dividing  embankments,  cover  about  13  acres.  In  the  whole  tract 
bought  by  the  city  there  are  60  acres. 

The  separating  or  sludge  tank  is  shown  in  plan  and  section  by  Fig. 
1,  Plate  YI.  It  is  of  brick,  in  two  compartments,  with  gates  permit- 
ting sewage  to  be  admitted  to  or  drawn  from  either  one  at  will. 

The  course  of  the  sewage  in  passing  through  the  tank  is  shown  by 
the  drawings.  The  screens  perform  only  a  slight  service,  as  most  of 
the  solid  matter  settles  before  the  sewage  reaches  the  screens. 

The  sludge  can  bo  removed  from  either  taidv  to  tin;  sludge  cnrrier 
by  opening  the  cleaning-out  gate.  The  tioor  over  the  tanks  is  formed 
by  iron  gratings  supported  by  I  beams,  3f  feet  centre  to  centre. 

The  character  of  the  24-in.  influent  gates,  and  the  18-in.  gate,  which 
controls  the  passage  of  sewage  directly  to  the  beds  through  the  pipe 
on  the  partition  wall,  are  shown  by  the  18-in.  lift-gate,  Fig.  2, 
Pl.ite  YI. 

Tliere  is  also  shown  in  Fig.  3,  Plato  YI.,  an  18-in.  swinging  gate, 
whi(-li  is  apparently  used  at  the  effluent  end  of  the  tank. 

Fig.  4,  Plate  YL,  shows  in  detail  the  screen  used  in  the  separating 
tank. 

The  sewage  passes  from  the  top  of  the  tank  through  iron  pipes 
along  the  embankments  to  the  several  beds,  and  discharges  on  to  the 
beds  tlirough  gates  and  sliort  l)ranches,  the  bed  at  the  point  of  dis- 
charges being  |)aved.  Fig.  5,  I'lalo  YL,  gives  a  plan  and  section  of  the 
(jutlot  to  the  beds,  and  Fig.  G,  I'lato  YL,  shows  the  two-way  10-in.  ver- 


506  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

tical  gate  used.     A  single  gate  constructed  on  the  same  principle  as 
the  two-way  is  used  where  only  one  gate  is  needed. 

The  sludge  passes  through  the  cleaning-out  gate,  already  mentioned, 
to  the  sludge  carrier,  shown  in  detail  in  Fig.  7,  Plate  YI. 

Sludge  was  first  removed  from  the  tank  in  April,  1892.  It  remained 
upon  one  of  the  beds  for  a  month,  instead  of  being  speedily  removed, 
iiiul  finally  became  ofi'ensive.  An  adjacent  farmer  removed  it  without 
cost  to  the  town.  On  May  25  the  sludge  was  drawn  from  the  tank 
the  second  time,  and  on  June  11  the  third  time,  in  each  case  a  farmer 
hauling  it  away.  The  tank  filled  full,  or  nearly  full,  of  sludge,  each  of 
the  last  two  times. 

The  crust  that  forms  on  top  of  the  filter  beds,  consisting  of  minute 
particles  of  matter  suspended  in  the  sewage,  is  harrowed  in  from  time 
to  time. 

The  effluent  from  the  beds  discharges  through  underdrains  into  Hop 
and  Wash  brooks,  which  empty  into  the  Sudbury  river.  These  beds 
were  visited  by  Mr.  Baker,  June  17, 1892,  at  which  time  they  seemed,  so 
far  as  casual  observation  could  determine,  to  be  doing  good  work  and 
presented  no  unpleasant  features.  A  strong  breeze  was  blowing  over 
the  beds,  but  even  at  their  leeward  side  only  a  slight  odor  was  noticed. 

The  cost  of  the  tank,  tank-house,  filter-beds,  and  all  appurtenances, 
including  engineering  and  excluding  land,  was  $21,720.  The  outlet 
sewer  was  carried  2|  miles  farther  than  it  would  have  been  had  not 
sewage  purification  been  adopted.  The  total  extra  cost  caused  by  the 
construction  of  this  extra  pipe  line  and  the  filtration  beds  and  appur- 
tenances was  about  $62,000,  which  was  met  by  the  city  of  Boston  in  re- 
turn for  the  removal  of  the  sewage  from  its  water-supply.* 
♦See  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  p.  170  (Aug.  25,  1893). 


CHAPTEK  XXXMII. 

INTERMITTENT  FILTEATIOX  AT  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  SCHOOL  FOR 

THE  FEEBLE-MINDED. 

The  Custodial  "Ward  of  the  Massachusetts  School  for  the  Feeble- 
Miuded,  completed  in  1889,  was  desig-ned  to  accommodate  about  150 
inmates.  It  is  located  near  the  summit  of  a  densel}'  wooded  hill  in 
AValtham.  The  natural  course  of  the  di'ainage  from  the  School  is  into 
the  Charles  river,  which  is  the  source  of  a  municipal  water  supply,  at 
a  point  a  short  distance  below  where  the  drainage  of  the  Custodial 
"Ward  would  naturally  enter  it.  Under  the  laws  of  Massachusetts,  to 
which  we  have  already  referred  (p.  480),  it  therefore  became  necessary 
to  purify  the  sewage  before  allowing"  it  to  flow  into  any  tributary 
stream  of  the  Charles  river.  Frank  P.  Johnson,  C.E.,  of  Waltham, 
w^as  accordingly  directed  to  prepare  plans  for  sewage  disposal. 

The  plan  prepared  by  Mr.  Johnson  and  carried  out  was  as  follows  : 

From  the  Custodial  Ward  building  and  the  laundry  just  south  of  it 
the  sewage  is  conducted  into  a  brick  sludge-trap,  shown  in  detail  by 
Fig.  89,  where  it  halts  until  the  grease  has  risen  in  a  scum  to  the  surface, 
the  insoluble  matter  settled  to  the  bottom,  and  the  paper,  etc.,  become 
broken  up  and  held  in  suspension.  The  6-inch  inlet  enters  about  a 
foot  aJDove  the  surface  of  the  sewage.  From  the  sludge-trap  a  -l-inch 
ventilating  pipe  runs  into  the  boiler-house  chimne}'.  The  5-incli  iron 
overflow  from  the  sludge-trap  to  the  detaining  tank  is  T-shaped,  and  so 
placed  as  to  allow  the  eftluent  to  pass  over  from  below  the  scum  of  the 
grease  on  the  surface  and  from  above  the  sediment  at  the  bottom  of 
the  sludge-trap.  An  8-incli  iron  pipe  and  gate  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sludge-trap  permits  the  grease  and  sediment  to  be  run  off"  to  a  com- 
post heap  as  often  as  may  be  necessary — probably  about  once  in  three 
months. 

From  the  sludge-trap  the  sewage  passes  into  a  brick  detaining  tank, 
13  l)y  20  feet,  capable  of  holding  the  sewage  of  24  hours,  amounting 
to  1(),000  gallons.  The  bottom  of  this  tank  pitches  every  way  to  one 
corner,  where  is  placed  a  -l-inch  gate  through  which  its  contents  may 
be  discharged  when  desired,  and  a  siphon  through  which  the  tank 
automatically  empties  itself  as  often  as  it  becomes  full.  Above,  in  the 
samn  corner,  is  an  overflow  opening  for  use  in  case  the  siphon  be- 
comes clogged,  and  it  is  so  placed  that  the  interior  of  the  detaining 


508 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   TIIP:    UNITP:D    STATES. 


tank  may  be  viewed  through  it  from  the  adjoining-  man-hole.  The 
4-inch  g-ate  and  the  siphon  are  in  this  man-hole,  the  bottom  of  which 
is  one  foot  lower  than  the  lowest  joint  inside  the  detaining  tank,  so  as 
to  facilitate  the  action  of  the  siphon.  The  siphon  is  primed  by  a 
priming  cup  on  its  longer  leg,  and  at  its  top  it  is  provided  with  a 
special  arrangement  for  cleaning  should  it  become  clogged. 

From  this  point  the  sewage  flows  into  and  through  a  small  distrib- 
uting man-hole,  out  of  which  lead  three  earthenware  pipes  controlled 


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Fig.  89. — Details  of  Detaining  Tank,  Massachusetts  School  for  the 
Feeble  MiNDKD,  Waltham. 

by  as  many  gate  valves.  The  sewage,  if  necessary,  may  be  run 
through  one  of  these  pipes  out  over  the  hillside  among  the  dense 
underbrush  of  the  woods  before  mentioned,  but  each  of  the  other  pipes 
supplies  a  filtration  area,  of  which  there  are  two,  so  that  one  may  be 
at  rest  while  the  other  is  in  service.  A  description  of  one  will  answer 
for  both. 

The  subsoil  of  the  hillside  is  gravel  that  would  be  excellent  for 
road-making,  and  is  overlaid  by  about  18  inches  of  loam.  Averaging 
about  six  feet  from  the  surface  is  rock.  This  condition,  while  not  the 
most  favorable,  had  to  be  made  the  best  of,  and  it  was  first  under- 


MASSACHUSETTS    SCHOOL    FOR    THE    FEEBLE-MINDED. 


509 


drained  with  ordiuaiy  2-incli  circular  land  tile,  laid  five  feet  deep  on 
lines  50  feet  apart  following  the  direction  of  quickest  descent,  the  tile 
being"  extended  far  enoug-h  above  the  disposal  area  to  intercept  what 


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storm  water  might  come  from  the  hillside  above.  These  underdrains 
tlischarge  into  Clematis  brook,  a  tributary  of  the  Charles  river,  and 
receive  no  sewage  except  as  the  purified  etfiuent  may  enter  them  after 
filtration.  A  g(MU'ral  i)lan  of  the  disposal  works,  includiug  the  filtra- 
tion area,  is  shown  by  Fig.  90. 


510  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

From  the  distributing  man-hole  the  sewage  passes  into  6-inch  mains, 
which  deliver  into  3-inch  feeders  laid  in  parallel  lines  approximately 
at  right  angles  to  the  contour  lines,  or,  in  other  words,  on  the  lines  of 
greatest  slope. 

Every  three  feet  on  each  feeder  is  a  3-inch  T-branch  connecting  with  a 
n -lateral,  and  set  level,  or  even  slightly  pitching  up-hill,  so  as  to  cause 
each  lateral  to  be  filled  in  succession  before  the  flow  reaches  the  next. 
The  nif^terals  are  approximately  parallel,  and  follow  the  contour 
lines  of  the  surface  about  three  feet  apart.  They  are  covered  just 
deep  enough  to  permit  of  ploughing  the  field  without  disturbing  them. 
About  5,000  linear  feet  of  laterals  have  been  laid  in  each  disposal  area. 

The  several  dotted  lines  on  Fig.  90,  numbered  from  70  to  160,  are 
contours  showing  elevation  of  surface.  For  greater  distinctness  and 
convenience  only  every  other  one  of  the  laterals  has  been  drawn.  The 
filtration  system  is  shown  in  full  lines  and  the  underdrains  in  broken 
and  dotted  lines. 

No  separate  account  was  kept  of  the  cost  of  doing  the  work,  its  exe- 
cution being  mostly  at  odd  times  by  laborers  elsewhere  at  work  on 
the  grounds,  as  it  became  convenient  to  spare  them.  This  was  by  no 
means  to  the  advantage  of  the  sewerage  system. 

The  engineer's  estimate  of  cost  was  $1,500,  and  the  probable  real 
cost  could  not  have  been  far  from  $1,800,  It  is  likely  that  it  could  be 
duplicated  under  ordinarily  favorable  conditions  for  $1,400. 

For  the  sake  of  economy  a  similar  but  slightly  different  device  from 
the  tile  distributors  was  used,  and  a  material  saving  effected. 

The  works  were  first  operated  January  1,  1890,  and  are  reported  as 
giving  good  satisfaction.* 

*  The  foregoing  account  of  the  sewage  disposal  at  the  Mass.  School  for  the  Feeble-minded  is 
derived  from  a  description  by  Mr.  Johnson  originally  contributed  to  Eng.  and  Bklg.  Reed.,  ap- 
pearing in  vol.  xxi. ,  at  page  300.  Mr.  Johnson  has  kindly  revised  the  matter  there  given,  for  use 
here. 

Since  this  chapter  was  v\Titten  permission  has  been  granted  by  the  legislature  to  connect  the 
sewers  of  the  school  with  the  sewerage  system  of  the  city  of  Waltham.  The  legislative  act  was 
approved  March  10,  1«93. 


CHAPTEE   XXXIX. 

SUB-SURFACE  IRRIGATION  AT  THE  LAWRENCEVILLE,  NEW  JERSEY, 

SCHOOL   FOR   BOYS. 

The  Lawi'enceville  School  for  Boys  is  located  at  Lawreiice\dlle,  New 
Jersey,  a  small  town  about  lialf-way  between  Trenton  and  Prince- 
ton. The  late  John  C.  Green  left  the  bulk  of  a  larg-e  fortune  to 
trustees  to  be  used  by  them  for  educational  and  other  purposes.  In 
1882  the  trustees  purchased  the  Lawrenceville  School,  and  proceed- 
ed to  erect  new  building-s  and  make  other  constructions  necessary 
for  placing-  the  institution  upon  a  thoroughly  tirst-class  footing. 
Messrs.  Peabody  <fe  Stearns  were  designated  as  architects  to  desig-n 
and  superintend  the  erection  of  the  buildings  ;  Frederick  Law  Olm- 
sted was  commissioned  to  lay  out  the  grounds  ;  and  to  J.  J.  R.  Croes, 
M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  was  intrusted  the  design  for  the  water  supply,  sew- 
erage, and  sewage  disposal  works,  which  latter  were  constructed  under 
the  personal  supervision  of  Frederick  S.  Odell,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  who 
acted  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Croes. 

The  following  is  the  description,  slightly  condensed,  of  the  sewer- 
age and  sewage  disposal  works  as  given  by  Mr.  Odell  : 

The  necessity  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  within  a  limited  area  of  the  grounds 
made  it  imjierative  that  its  volume  be  limited  to  a  minimum,  and  therefore  all  sur- 
face or  subsoil  drainage  was  excluded  from  the  sewers,  and  disposed  of  as  pre- 
viously related  ;  then,  to  insure  positive  immunity  from  leaky  joints,  it  was  decided 
to  use  six-inch  cast-iron  pipe,  with  leaded  joints,  for  the  sewers. 

There  are  two  branch  lines  of  sewers,  with  a  flnshing  man-hole  at  the  head  of 
each.     .     .     . 

The  two  branch  sewers  unite  near  the  rain-water  reservoir  and  continue  to  the 
boiler-house  and  laundry,  near  which  is  jdacod  the  sewage  tank,  in  which  the  solid 
matter  in  the  sewage  is  allowed  time  to  deposit  itself  on  the  bottom,  and  the  par- 
tially clarified  liquid  is  retained  until  it  is  desirable  to  discharge  it  into  the  sub- 
surface tiles. 

SEWAGE   r>lSPOS.\L   SY.STEM. 

The  sewaire  tank  is  built  of  brick-work  underground,  and  is  in  two  sections.  The 
first  or  retaining  section  is  in  duplicate,  and  contains  six  compartments,  three  in 
each  set.  Each  compartment  is  sixtv  feet  long,  about  three  feet  wide,  and  four  feet 
<leep.     [See  Fig.  91.) 

The  sewage  flows  into  one  end  of  the  first  compartment,  passes  along  its  whole 
length,  and  at  the  other  end  passes  into  the  second  compartment  through  a  quar- 
ter-bend pii)e,  with  the  mouth  turned  down  below  the  level  of  the  outlet,  to  pre- 
vent scum  on  the  surface  of  the  liquid  from  ]iassing  over  into  the  second  comj^art- 
ment,  through  which  the  liipiid  pas.ses  to  its  further  end,  and  in  like  manner  into 


512 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    TIT  K    IXITED    STATES. 


the  third,  at  the  further  end  of  whioh  it  passes  over  a  weir  into  the  receiving  cham- 
ber, which  is  circular  in  form,  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter,  and  eight  feet  deep. 
From  this  it  is  pumped  by  a  pulsometer    pump  as  often  as    necessary.      This 


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chamber  is  ventilated  by  a  pipe  leading  into  the  flue  of  the  boiler-house  chimney* 
It  is  intended  that  whenever  solids  collect  in  such  quantities  tliat  the  settling  com- 
partments require  cleaning,  the  sewage  shall  be  turned  in  the  dujilicate  set  antl 
the  sludge  I'emoved  from  the  first. 

It  is  found  that  nearly  all  the  solids  are  deposited  very  near  the  entrance  in  tha 
first  compartment,  and  to  cause  the  deposit  to  be  distributed  more  evenly  over  the 
bottom  the  water  in  the  first  compartment  has  been  siphoned  into  the  leceiving- 
chamber  two  or  three  times  within  the  past  six  months.  The  vaind  subsidence  <  f 
the  water,  and  the  flow  of  incoming  sewage  during  this  operation,  distribute  the 
Bolids  over  the  l)ottom,  and  enable  the  compartment  to  be  used  longer  without 
cleaning  out  than  would  be  the  case  if  this  distribution  were  not  made. 


THE    LAWRKNX'KVILLE    SCHOOL    FOll    BOYS. 


513 


The  pulsometer  has  been  so  arranged  that  by  attaching  a  suction  hose  the  water 
ia  the  settling  tanks  can  be  ijumped  out  and  carried  300  feet  through  a  hose  to 
farm  land  ploughed  to  receive  it.  In  January,  1887,  the  tanks  were  thus  emptied 
and  the  sludge  then  removed  by  a  farmer  to  whom  it  had  been  sold.  There  were 
about  300  cubic  feet  of  sludge  removed  from  the  first  section  of  each  of  the  set- 
tling tanks. 

The  irrigation  ground  [see  Fig.  92]  comprises  about  one  and  three-quarters  aci'es 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  school  grounds,  between  the  boiler-house  and  the  brook. 
It  is  still  further  limited  in  location  by  the  dam  and  pond  on  the  westerly  side, 
and  an  adjoining  owner  on  the  easterly  side.  It  is  the  lowest  portion  of  the  school 
property,  is  naturally  wet,  and  that  portion  near  the  brook  (before  drainage)  was 
swamjjy.  Its  selection  was  a  matter  of  necessity,  it  being  all  the  land  available 
for  this  purpose. 

The  natural  surface  of  the  ground  was  on  a  quite  uniform  slope  from  the  higher 
portion  to  the  brook,  so  that  very  little  surface  grading  was  necessary,  but  its 
thorough  subsoil  drainage  became  of  the  greatest  imj^ortance. 

To  accomplish  this,  jiarallel  lines  of  2-inch  round  agricultural  tile  were  laid,  40 
feet  apart,  discharging  into  the  brook. 


l^'iG.  92. — Plan  ok  Disposal  Works,  Lawrenceville  School. 


These  drains  were   laid  4  feet  below  the  surface  wherever  the  elevation  of  the 
brook  permitted   this  depth  ;  but,  by  reason  of  the  elevation  of  the  brook,  the 
lower  i)art  of  the  drains  wore  not    deeper  than  from  2  to  2^  feet,  and  probably 
the  average  dei)th  is  not  greater  than  3  feet. 
33 


514  sewagp:  disposal  in  tiik  united  states. 

These  drains  were  effective  in  drying  the  ground  and  preparing  it  to  receive  the 
sewage. 

The  distributing  or  sub-surface  tiles  were  laid  about  eight  inches  below  the  sur- 
face, in  nearly  parallel  lines  5  feet  a23art,  on  uniform  grades  of  9  to  12  inches  in  100 
feet.     [See  Fig.  92.] 

They  are  2  inches  in  diameter  and  12- inch  lengths. 

They  are  laid  on  bed  pieces  of  the  same  material  and  length,  which  cover  the  bot- 
tom joints.  Smaller  pieces  cover  the  top  joint,  leaving  an  opening  on  each  side  of 
f  X  -^  inch,  out  of  which  the  water  escapes  into  the  soil. 

The  water  enters  these  lines  of  sub-surface  drains  from  a  4-inch  carrier  leading 
from  a  chamber  into  which  the  ])ulsometer  discharges,  and  in  wliich  are  the  two  4- 
inch  carrier  pipes  leading  to  different  parts  of  the  ground,  into  either  of  which  the 
sewage  can  be  turned  at  pleasure  and  the  two  sections  of  the  field  used  alternately. 

A  special  branch  joins  the  2-ineh  distributing  tile  with  the  4-inch  carrier,  the  2- 
inch  tile  being  so  attached  that  its  bottom  is  at  the  same  level  as  that  of  the  carrier 
from  which  it  branches,  so  that  if  but  little  sewage  is  flowing  in  the  carrier  each 
line  of  drain  will  get  its  share,  those  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  field  being  pre- 
vented from  surcharge  by  either  flattening  the  grade  or  throttling  the  first  section 
of  drain. 

There  are  about  six  hundred  feet  of  4-inch  carrier  pipe,  and  about  twenty 
thousand  feet  of  2-inch  drains  on  the  If  acres  of  ground. 

The  amount  of  sewage  water  averages  6,000  gallons  a  day. 

This  is  discharged  into  the  irrigation  tile  eiglit  times  in  a  month,  or  from  20,000 
to  25,000  gallons  at  a  time.  The  discharge  from  the  outfall  drains  begins  very  soon 
after  the  tile  is  charged,  showing  the  ground  to  be  very  porous. 

No  complaint  has  been  made  of  any  offensive  odor  or  fouling  of  the  stream. 

The  irrigation  ground  is  not  worked  to  nearly  its  capacity,  as  it  has  been  found 
that  the  sewage  does  not  flush  the  tiles  fully  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  lines ; 
and  while  the  growth  of  the  grass  on  the  upper  end  of  the  lines  is  luxurious  and 
rapid,  the  ground  over  the  further  end  has  remained  bare  or  with  very  scanty  vege- 
tation. 

The  cost  of  the  following  structures  is  made  lap  from  accounts  kept  during  con- 
struction : 

Sewage  tank $2,100 

Irrigation  grounds 2,000 

With  the  exception  of  the  occasional  deficiency  in  the  capacity  of  the  rain-water 
drains,  .  .  .  the  operation  of  the  works  during  the  year  has  been  very  satis- 
factory. 

The  regular  number  of  persons  now  using  the  water  and  contributing  to  the  sew- 
age is  180.     The  works  are  designed  to  accommodate  400  people. 

The  water  supplied  for  all  purposes  aveiaged  8,000  gallons  a  day  in  1886,  varying 
from  6,000  gallons  a  day  in  April  to  25,000  gallons  a  day  during  one  week  in  Octo- 
ber, 1886,  when  the  lawns  were  very  dry  and  a  new  sprinkling  cart  was  put  in  use 
on  the  roads  and  lawns. 

The  amount  of  sewage  at  Lawrenceville  has  gradually  increased, 
until,  in  1893,  it  averages,  during  the  school  terms,  about  20,000  gallons 
per  day.  Some  complaints  having  been  made  for  the  last  two  years 
that  the  effluent  is  insufficiently  purified  as  it  enters  the  brook,  the 
progressive  management  of  the  school  determined  to  extend  the  sew- 
age disposal  facilities.  The  work  was  again  intrusted  to  Mr.  Croes, 
but  in  order  to  obtain  the  views  of  other  engineers,  opinions  were 
asked  from  Mr.  Allen  Hazen  and  Mr.  Kafter.  Both  of  these  gentlemen 
visited  Lawrenceville  and  submitted  short  reports  to  Mr.  Croes  of  the 


THE    LAWKENCEVILLE    SCHOOL    FOR   BOYS.  515 

results  of  their  examinations.  Mr.  Eafter  was  there  on  July  24,  1893. 
At  that  time  the  school  was  not  in  session,  and  the  dailjs  amount  of  sew- 
age averaged  only  live  or  six  thousand  gallons  per  day.  The  original 
disposal  area  appeared  capable  of  still  handling  this  amount,  although 
the  effluent,  as  it  issued  from  the  drains,  gave  some  evidence  of  incom- 
plete purification.  Several  of  the  distribution  tiles  were  removed  and 
found  nearly  clear  from  deposit,  a  result  largely  due,  without  doubt, 
to  the  thorough  settling  which  takes  place  in  the  deposit  chambers. 

Mr.  Croes  had  suggested  for  the  additional  disjjosal  works  the  use 
of  intermittent  filtration  through  specially  prepared  areas,  the  soils  at 
Lawrenceville  being  of  a  heavy  clayey  nature — entirely  unsuited  of 
themselves — and  material  suitable  for  intermittent  filtration  can  only 
be  obtained  at  a  distance  of  about  two  miles  from  the  school.  In  view 
of  this  fact,  Mr.  Hazen,  while  approving  of  the  intermittent  filtration, 
suggested  as  a  considerably  less  expensive  alternative  the  use  of  broad 
irrigation  on  a  field  of  several  acres  included  in  an  area  of  land  which 
the  school  had  recently  purchased.  The  water  of  the  brook  receiving 
the  effluent  is  used  for  watering  cattle  on  the  adjoining  farms,  and  in 
view  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  degree  of  winter  purification  attained 
in  broad  irrigation,  Mr.  Rafter  suggested  that  the  intermittent  filtra- 
tion would  be,  on  the  whole,  preferable  by  reason  of  giving  somewhat 
better  control  of  all  the  conditions. 

All  the  engineers  agreed  that  the  present  sub-surface  irrigation  area, 
which  is  now  considerably  in  need  of  rest,  should  be  retained  for  use  as 
a  relief  area.  With  such  assistance  it  was  considered  that  a  filtering 
area  of  about  22,000  square  feet  of  the  available  material  Avould  be 
sufficient  for  a  number  of  years.  The  matter  is  still  in  abeyance,  but 
it  may  be  stated  that  under  the  conditions,  by  due  attention  to  the  de- 
tail., a  fairly  satisfactory  result  can  be  attained,  whichever  method  of 
treatment  may  be  used.* 

*  The  e.\perience  of  the  past  eight  years  has  showu  that  the  subsoil  tile  were  laid  on  rather  too 
steep  a  grade,  so  that  when  the  system  was  filled  up  with  an  overdose  of  sewage,  the  water  rose  to 
the  surface  at  the  lower  ends  of  the  lines  of  tile.  To  obviate  this,  it  was  considered  best  to  insert 
two  additional  lines  of  carriers  intercepting  the  lines  of  tile  at  half  their  length  and  thus  re- 
ducing the  head  on  the  ends  when  the  system  was  full.  The  outfall  luidei-drains  which,  owing  to 
local  conditions,  as  above  stated,  had  apparently  not  been  laid  deep  enough  below  the  subsoil  tile, 
wi-re  cut  oflf  by  an  intercepting  drain  laid  parallel  to  the  brook  and  20  feet  from  it,  and  continued 
1,000  feet  down  stream,  the  trench  being  partly  Ijaekfilled  with  cinders.  The  eflBuent  sewage 
filters  away  slowly  into  the  brook.  This  portion  of  the  work  was  done  in  August,  1803.  It  is 
contemplated  to  construct  tlie  additional  filtration  area  of  underdrained  gravel  filled  trenches  at 
an  early   lay. 

For  sources  of  information  in  regard  to  sewage  disposal,  etc.,  at  the  Lawrenceville  School,  see 
(1)  Mr.  Odell's  [laper  on  The  Water  Supply,  Drainage,  and  Sewerage  of  the  Lawrenceville  School, 
in  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  vol.  .\vi.  (1887),  pp.  G8-78  ;  (2)  Eng.  &  Bldg.  Reed.,  vol.  xv.  (1880),  pp. 
1~>-18. 


CHAPTEK  XL. 

INTEKMITTENT   FILTEATION  AT   GAKDNEE,  MASSACHUSETTS. 

An  intermittent  filtration  system  was  put  in  oi^eration  in  1891  in 
connection  with  the  new  sewerage  system.  McClintock  &  AVoodfall, 
of  Boston,  were  engineers  for  the  works.  The  plant  has  been  de- 
scribed as  follows :  * 

The  town  of  Gardner  is  situated  in  the  central  part  of  the  State, 
on  the  divide  between  the  Connecticut  and  Merrimac  rivers,  all  but 
a  small  part  draining  into  the  Connecticut  river.  The  population 
of  the  town  in  1890  was  8,424.  It  is  largely  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  chairs.  The  daily  consumption  of  water  is  about  300,000 
gallons. 

The  town  is  made  up  of  four  villages  closely  united — South,  Depot, 
West,  and  Centre.  Of  these  the  West  village  is  the  most  thickly  settled 
and  contains  the  most  factories.  The  South  is  also  thickly  settled  and 
has  a  number  of  factories.  The  Centre  is  strictly  a  residential  part  of 
the  town.     The  Depot  village  is  not  thickly  settled. 

The  State  Board  of  Health,  fearing  that  in  time  the  crude  sewage, 
if  emptied  into  the  brook  leading  to  Otter  river,  might  create  a  nui- 
sance, ordered  the  town  to  purify  the  sewage  before  allowing  it  to  flow 
into  the  river.  Intermittent  downward  filtration  was  adopted.  The 
main  outfall  sewer  is  a  12-inch  pipe.  A  greater  part  of  West  Gardner, 
the  Centre  and  Depot  villages  had  been  sewered  at  the  beginning  of 
1893. 

The  separate  system  was  used  not  only  on  account  of  its  costing 
less  than  the  combined,  but  from  the  fact  that  the  surface  water  can  be 
at  this  place  easily  and  cheaply  drained  into  natural  water-courses 
without  doing  any  harm. 

There  were  in  use,  at  the  close  of  the  summer  of  1892,  5h  miles  of 
sewers,  12  to  6  inches  in  diameter,  128  man-holes  and  23  flush  gates  in 
manholes ;  also  139  sewer  connections,  of  which  100  were  from  houses, 
25  from  business  blocks,  10  from  factories  with  a  total  of  1,500  em- 
ployees, and  4  from  hotels.  At  the  close  of  the  summer  of  1891 
there  was  a  total  of  97  connections.  The  daily  amount  of  sewage 
delivered  at  the  filter  beds  was  about  125,000  gallons  in  February, 
1893. 

*  Condensed  from  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.,  pp.  163-165  (Feb.  16,  189;^). 


INTERMITTENT   FILTRATION   AT   GARDNER. 


51' 


To  reach  the  most  available  ground  for  a  filter  area  it  was  neces- 
sary to  carry  the  outlet  sewer  down  through  a  small  valley  and  up 
on  to  a  hill.     This  was  effected  by  making-  the  last  1,050  feet  of  the 


'-  El  <}94. 


u<m. 


OateChamber 
with  Irvn  batei 
and  10  "Vif  Pipe 
Out/e/stD  F,/fcr- 
Bec/i 


l»^f«^ 


3 


u  t>J — 

Fio.  93  —Plan  ami  Section  of  Settling  Tank,  Gaudneu,  Ma!>sa(  iusetts. 

outhit  sower  of  iron  pipe,  with  a  sag-  near  the  middle  of  24  feet. 
A  blow-off,  discharging-  on  to  filter  bed  No.  50,  Fig.  •)(],  used  only  in 
this  coniu  ction,  was  placed  at  the  lowest  point  in  the  iron  pipe. 
This  is  to  be  used  only  in  case  of  stoppage.     In  February,  1893,  this 


518 


SEWAGE    DIS;PORAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


g-ate  had  not  been  open  for  over  a  year,  and  no  trouble  had  arisen 
from  solids  collecting-  at  this  point  and  stopping-  the  sewer. 

The  blow-off  g-ate  used  is  an  8-inch  vertical  lift  gate,  exactly  like 
the  10-inch  in  use  at  the  filter  beds  at  Marlborough,  Massachusetts, 
shown  on  Plate  VI.,  Fig.  6. 

The  outlet  pipe  discharges  into  a  settling  tank,  shown  in  plan  and 


tMillbehrten 


Fig.  94. — Inlet  to  Settling  Tanks. 


section  by  Fig.  93.  The  tank  is  built  of  brick,  with  walls  12  inches 
thick.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  12-inch  wall,  built  through 
the  centre,  thus  giving  two  compartments,  each  20  feet  long,  7  feet 
wide,  and  5  feet  deep.     The  sewage  first  flows  into  a  wooden  box, 


Fig.  95. — Gates  on  Outlet  Pipe  from  Tank. 

shown  in  plan  by  Fig.  94,  and  also  by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  plan 
of  the  tank.  Fig.  93,  and  is  diverted  into  either  tank  by  means  of  a 
swinging  door.  Stop  planks  to  prevent  floating  matter  from  reach- 
ing the  gate  chambers  are  placed  near  one  end  of  the  tanks.  The 
sewage  is  drawn  off  at  the  surface  by  means  of  pipes  leading  into 
the  gate  chamber.  The  flow  into  these  pipes  is  controlled  by  iron 
gates,  a  sketch  of  which  is  shown  by  Fig.  95.     The  sludge  is  drawn 


INTER.MITTKXT    FILTRATION    AT    GARDNER. 


519 


off  by  opening  similar  gates,  shown  in  plan  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank,  Fig.  93,  crude  sewage  being  used  to  wash  out  the  tanks.  Extra 
pipes  for  future  use  have  been  built  into  the  tank  and  gate  cham- 
ber. 

The  tiow  from  the  gate  chamber  into  the  main  carrier  is  also  regu- 
lated by  means  of  iron  gates  like  the  above.  The  gates  are  raised  or 
lowered  by  means  of  chains,  which  pass  over  pulleys  and  through 
the  wall  of  the  tank,  and  are  worked  inside  the  tank  house.  The 
solid  matter  which  settles  in  the  tanks  is  discharged  on  to  the  sludge 
bed  through  the  sludge  pipe,  as  shown  in  Figs.  93  and  96. 


Tile Uncferara/hs^ 4  -S 'deep 

Vilrifjed  Distnbuhnq  P,p^ 

Out/erP/pefromBedi 
l/v/7  Setver  P,pe 


Fin.  !»n  — Pr,AN  OP  Fti.tku  Arkas,  G.\rdner,  Massaciidsetts. 


In  constructing  the  filter  beds  the  surface  was  first  levelled,  the 
surplus  dirt  being  used  to  make  the  banks,  and  the  bottoms  of  most 
of  the  ])eds  being  formed  in  clav.  They  were  then  covered  in  gravel 
to  the  depth  of  from  4  to  5  feet,  carted  on  from  a  bank  south  of  the 
settliiiLT  t;nik.  after  which  the.ontlets  for  the  effluent  and  the  tile  drains 
leading  into  tluMu  w(M-e  laid.  Then  the  banks  subdividing  tli(>  binls 
Avere  built.  Tlie  l)()ttoms  of  tliese  banks  extend  1  foot  below  the  sui-face 
of  the  beds.  .Ml  of  tlie  banks  were  then  sodded.  The  10  inch  dis- 
tributing pipes  were  then  laid  and  connected  with  S(piare  wooden 
troughs,  firmly  fastened  to  cedar  posts  set  in  the  edge  of  the  bed. 
These  troughs  are  covered,  but  every  other  cov(n-  is  hinged,  so  that 
the  int(>rior  of  the  troughs  can  be  examined  at  will.     The  troughs  have 


520  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IX    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

au  opening  at  each  bed,  and  by  means  of  a  board  sliding-  in  grooves 
the  sewage  can  be  directed  on  any  bed,  as  desired.  These  troughs 
are  from  21  to  3  feet  above  the  beds,  and  the  sewage  falls  on  to  a  piece 
of  stone  pavement  which  prevents  the  washing  of  the  beds.  The  tile 
drains  are  from  4  to  5  feet  deep  and  20  feet  apart,  and  the  banks  are 
2  feet  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  beds.  The  surfaces  of  the  beds 
are  level.  Beds  A  and  B  were  constructed  by  simply  levelling  the 
bottom  and  building  the  banks.  No  tile  or  outlet  pipe  was  laid,  and 
the  effluent  simply  soaked  through  the  ground.  An  examination  of 
the  jjlan  of  the  filter  beds,  Fig.  96,  will  show  clearly  their  general 
arrangement.  All  of  the  beds  except  No.  51  discharge  their  effluent 
directly  into  the  brook.  The  effluent  from  No.  51  is  discharged  into 
the  woods,  and  is  allowed  to  flow  over  the  ground.  The  effluent  is 
practically  colorless  and  odorless,  and  has  caused  no  trouble  in  the 
brook. 

Overflows  have  been  built,  so  that  the  sewage  cannot  flow  over 
the  banks  in  any  case.  Very  little  trouble  has  been  caused  by  the 
extreme  cold  weather,  as  the  sewage  finds  its  way  under  the  snow  and 
ice  and  is  filtered  through  the  gravel.  The  road  from  Broadway  was 
built  and  the  hill  graded,  greatly  improving  the  general  appearance 
of  the  field. 

The  areas  of  the  several  beds  are  as  follows : 


S'o.  of 

Area, 

No.  of 

Area, 

No.  of 

Area, 

No.  of 

Area, 

bed. 

sq.  ft. 

bed. 

sq.  ft. 

bed. 

sq.  ft. 

bed. 

sq.  ft. 

1 9,520  5 4,300        9 3,240      51 2,300 

2 8,570  6 4,400      10 3,850      52   3,370 

3 8,790  l'. 4,000      11 3,850      A 5.000 

4 4,400  8 3,240      50 2,500      B 11,000 

Total,  82,330  square  feet,  or  nearly  two  acres. 

The  above  area  does  not  include  the  space  occupied  by  the  main 
banks,  but  does  include  the  division  banks,  the  bottoms  of  which  are 
only  1  foot  below  the  surface  of  the  beds. 

Bed  No.  51,  Fig  96,  was  at  first  used  as  a  sludge  bed,  but  the  odor 
arising  from  the  sludge  while  drying,  as  well  as  from  that  which  had 
previously  been  taken  off  and  piled  up  near  the  bod,  led  to  this  bed 
being  converted  into  a  filter  bed  and  the  construction  of  bed  No.  52 
for  a  sludge  bed.  Since  this  change  no  trouble  has  been  caused  by 
the  odor,  as  this  bed  is  farther  away,  and  is  over  the  brow  of  a  hill  and 
surrounded  by  woods.  No  trouble  has  been  caused  by  the  filter  beds, 
as  there  is  no  odor  arising  from  them  that  can  be  detected  a  few  feet 
away. 

The  sludge  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  sludge  bed  until  it  is  dry, 
when  it  is  removed  and  placed  in  piles  and  covered  with  dirt.  The 
sludge  is  discharged  from  the  tank,  and  the  filter  beds  are  cleaned 


INTEIIMITTEXT    FILTllATIOX    AT    GARDNER.  521 

every  two  to  three  weeks.     The  sewage  is  discharged  on  to  the  filter 
beds  in  the  following  order : 

First  day. 

Bed  No.   1,  from 7  a.m.  to  10  a.m. 

"     "      2,     "     10  A.M.  to    1p.m. 

"     "      3,     "     I  P.M.  to    5  p.m. 

"     "      4,      "     5  P.M.  to    7  p.m. 

"     "      A  and  5,  from 7  p.m.  to    7  a.m. 

Second  day. 

Bed  No.  6,  from 7  a.m.  to  9  a.m. 

"     "      7,     "     9  a.m.  to  11  a.m. 

"     "      8,      "      11  A.M.  to  1  P.M. 

"     "      9,      "      1  p.M   to  3  P.M. 

*'     "    10,     "     3  p.m.  to  5  p.m. 

"     "    11,      "     5  P.M.  to  7  P.M. 

*'     "    51  and  B,  from 7  p.m.  to  7  a.m. 

This  has  been  found  to  give  satisfactory  results. 
The  cost  of  the  filter  beds  and  accessories,  not  including  engineer- 
ing and  superintendence,  is  stated  to  have  been  as  follows : 

Lal)or ^8,766 

Vitritied  pipe §684 

Tile  pipe 238 

Wooden  troughs 305 

Total  cost  of  carriers  and  drains 1,227 

Carting 26 

Freiglit 13 

Wood  dams  at  Beds  A  and  B '. 13 

Iron  gates  and  gate  chamber ; 99 

Tank   GOO 

Tank  house 344 

MisceHaneous 105 

Total Sll,193 

The  cost  of  iireparing  the  beds,  with  piping,  was  $10,046,  or  12  cents 
per  square  foot,  the  area  being  82,330  square  feet.  The  total  cost  of 
the  beds,  tanks,  and  all  accessories,  was  14  cents  per  square  foot  of  fil- 
tering area. 

The  general  pipe  system  in  place  cost  $40,530,  including  $1,719  for 
the  1,050  feet  of  iron  pipe  in  the  outlet  sewer,  making  the  total  cost  of 
the  system  $51,723,  not  including  engineering  and  superintendence. 


CHAPTER   XLI. 

INTERMITTENT  FILTRATION  AT  SUMMIT,   NEW  JERSEY. 

A  SEWAGE  system  was  built  at  Summit,  New  Jersey,  in  1892,  with  C. 
Ph.  Bassett,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  as  eng-ineer.  The  natural  outlet  was  to 
the  Passaic  river,  but  before  discharging-  the  sewage  into  the  river  it 
was  deemed  best,  to  purify  it  by  means  of  intermittent  filtration.  The 
filtration  area  was  put  in  operation  on  August  2,  1892. 

In  November,  1892,  there  were  nine  miles  of  separate  sewers,  20 
flush-tanks,  and  180  house  connections.* 

The  filter  beds  are  located  about  a  mile  from  the  village,  within  the 
township  limits.  One  end  of  the  disposal  area  borders  on  the  Passaic 
river,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  Fig.  97.  The  township  owns  26  acres  of 
land,  only  10  acres  of  which  have  been  laid  out  in  beds.  Deducting 
the  area  occupied  by  embankments  and  a  road,  there  are  about  eight 
acres  of  land  available  for  filtration.  There  are  only  a  few  houses  in 
the  vicinity,  and  those  are  at  some  distance  from  the  beds. 

A  public  road  passes  through  the  disposal  area.  The  land  on  the 
side  of  the  road  nearest  the  river  slopes  toward  the  river,  and  the 
beds  are  laid  out  in  terraces,  as  shown  by  Fig.  98,  which  is  a  reproduc- 
tion of  a  photograj)!!  taken  near  the  lower  edge  of  the  tract.  The 
beds  are  separated  by  earth  embankments.  The  lowest  beds  are  some 
20  feet  above  the  river.  The  efliuent  is  discharged  at  the  top  of  the 
abrupt  river  bank,  and  finds  its  way  down  the  bank  into  the  river. 

Mr.  Baker  visited  the  beds  on  Nov.  28,  1892,  and  found  the  effluent 
with  only  a  slight  cloudiness  and  but  very  faint  musty  odor.  The  river 
showed  no  sign  of  pollution,  and  there  was  nothing  about  the  disposal 
area  which  indicated  to  smell  or  by  offence  to  sight  the  use  to  which 
it  was  put,  except  on  raising  a  man-hole  cover,  when  a  very  slight  odor 
was  observed. 

Regarding  the  care  of  the  beds,  the  attendant  stated  that  their  sur- 
face was  raked  up  occasionally.  He  also  stated  that  no  fixed  rule  was 
observed  as  to  the  length  of  application  of  sewage  to  the  beds,  judg- 
ment being  used  in  that  respect. 

The  general  arrangement  of  the  beds,  sewage  carriers,  outlet  cham- 
bers, man-holes,  sub  and  main  underdains,  and  tile  man-holes  to  give 

*This  description  of  the  filtrstion  area  ia  condensed  from  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  pp.  544-546 
Pec.  8,  1893). 


Surface  Camers 
5u6cfra/rf     " 
Ti/es 
Seiyage  Oi/r/efs 
■T/Je  Otambers 
Manho/es 


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ROAD 


Fni.  07. — Plan  ok  Fii.tku  Aueas  at  Summit,  New  Jehsey. 


524 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


access  to  the  latter,  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  tlie  plan  and  the 
accompanying  explanatory  symbols,  Fig-.  97.  The  underdrains  are 
placed  with  their  centres  at  a  depth  of  3  feet  below  the  surface  of  the 
beds. 


y   V. 


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The  sewage  is  distributed  to  the  beds  through  pipe  carried  in  the 
tojDS  of  the  embankments,  from  which  it  is  drawn  through  chambers 
and  short  lengths  of  pipe  at  the  corners  of  the  beds,  all  located  as 
shown  in  the  plan,  Fig.  97.  The  details  of  the  main  carrier  and 
branches,  including  the  plugs  used  to  divert  the  sewage  as  may  be 


INTERMITTENT   J^ILTRATION    AT   SUMMIT. 


525 


CKOSS    SECTION   THROUGH    BRANCH. 


.J. 


PLAN    AND    HORIZONTAL    SECTION. 


=^<f^f^m- 


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LONr.ITITDINAI,    SF.(  TTON. 

Fig.   yj— Dktaii.s  of  Sewagk  CAintiER. 


526 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


desired,  are  sliown  by  Figs.  99  and  100.     Where  the  beds  to  be  served 

are  at  a  lower  level  than  the  outlet 
chambers,  half-tile,  flat  stone,  and 
V-shaped  troughs  are  used  to  carry 
the  sewage  down  or  to  protect  the 
embankment.  All  the  brick  cham- 
bers and  manholes  are  lined  inside 
and  i)lastered  outside  with  cement, 
and  the  brick  manholes  and  some  or 
all  of  the  outlet  chambers  have  board 
covers,  painted. 
At  the  intersection  of  sub  and  main  underdrains  tile  chambers  are 

placed,  as  shown  in  plan  and  section  by  Figs.  101  and  102.     Fig.  102 


Fig 


100. — Plan  and  Elevation 
Plug  for  Carrier. 


SECTION. 


./■■■/I 


--       ^     I - ' 


\ 


/    / 


PLAN. 

Fig.  101. — Plan  and  Section  through  Tile  Chambek. 


INTERMITTKNT    FILTRATION    AT   SUMMIT. 


527 


shows  the  underdrains  at  chang'es  of  grade  at  embankments,  where  ad- 
jacent beds  are  on  different  levels.  There  are  but  two  or  three  of  the 
special  sections,  shown  in  Fig.   102,  they  being  placed  only  at  points 


usual  section. 

Fig.  103.— Sections  through  Tile  Chambers  and  Underdrains  at  Changes  of 

Grade   at  Embankments. 

where  the  nnderdrain  beneath  a  bed  is  at  least  2  feet  higher  than  the 
surface  of  the  bed  below.  The  tile  chambers  have  iron  covers,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  lUl. 

The  cfFect  of  snow  upon  these  tilter  beds  during  the  winter  of  1892-3 
is  referred  to  in  Chapter  XIV.,  p.  285. 


CHAPTEE  XLII. 

LAND    DISPOSAL    AT    HASTINGS,    NEBEASKA. 

The  following  description  of  the  sewag-e  i^urification  plant  at  Hast- 
ings, Nebraska,  where  intermittent  filtration  has  been  practised  for  two 
years,  and,  as  designed,  will  be  combined  with  sewage  farming,  was 
prepared  by  the  engineer  of  the  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  systems, 
Mr.  J.  M.  Wilson,  of  Omaha,  Nebraska.* 

Hastings,  Neb.,  is  a  thriving  young  city  of  some  15,000  (13,584  in  1890)  inhab- 
itants, sitiaated  on  the  plateau  between  the  Platte  river  and  the  Republican.  The 
Platte,  about  16  miles  to  the  north,  is  a  broad,  .shallow  stream,  carrying  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer  a  large  volume  of  water  from  the  melting  snows  in  the 
mountains  of  Colorado  and  "Wyoming  ;  but  in  the  late  summer  and  winter  the 
stream  is  largely  lost  in  the  sands  of  its  many  broad  channels. 

The  Bhie,  a  tributary  of  the  Kansas  river,  about  ten  miles  to  the  south,  is  a 
much  smaller  stream,  but,  being  confined  to  a  narrower  channel,  is  more  perma- 
nent in  its  flow. 

These  were  the  nearest  and  the  only  streams  that  could  possibly  be  used  for  the 
discharge  of  sewage.  Higher  lands  to  the  north  cut  off  the  outlet  to  the  Platte. 
To  reach  the  Blue  would  require  that  the  line  should  follow  the  windings  of  some 
of  the  draws  or  valleys  leading  from  the  vicinity  of  Hastings  to  that  river.  This 
would  so  lengtlien  the  line  and  increase  the  cost  that  all  thought  of  reaching  a  run- 
ning stream  with  the  sewage  was  abandoned. 

The  only  available  method  of  disposal  was  a  sewage  farm.  UiJon  investigation, 
the  conditions  at  Hastings  were  found  to  be  very  favorable  foi-  the  success  of  such 
a  plant.  Below  the  surface  no  water  is  found  until  a  depth  of  about  100  feet  is 
reached,  at  which  depth  permanent  watei'  is  found  in  sand  and  gravel.  The  sub- 
soil here  is  quite  pervious  to  moisture  ;  after  the  heaviest  rains  the  water  disap- 
pears quickly  from  the  surface,  being  absorbed  by  the  100  feet  or  more  of  po- 
rous  subsoil,  without  producing  that  condition  of  complete  saturation  which  is  so 
often  found  where  the  underlying  strata  are  imj^ervious  or  the  permanent  water 
level  is  near  the  surface. 

In  many  cases,  in  the  lands  which  must  of  necessity  be  selected  for  sewage 
farms,  these  favorable  conditions  do  not  exist,  and  only  a  few  feet  of  the  u^iper 
strata  can  be  made  available  by  artificial  drainage.  The  amount  of  sewage  that 
such  lands  will  absorb  without  saturation  is,  of  course,  very  limited,  and  the  con- 
dition of  permanent  moisture  so  near  the  surface  gives,  by  capillary  attraction,  all 
the  moisture  in  most  cases  that  crops  grown  on  the  land  can  ai)pro])riate.  The 
additional  moisture  supplied  by  the  sewage  is  just  so  much  excess.  The  result  is 
that  on  most  sewage  farms  where  crops  are  raised,  very  little  of  the  sewage  is  ap- 
plied to  the  crops,  or  only  such  croi)S  are  raised  as  will  endure  excessive  moist- 
ure. The  profitable  crops  that  will  endure  such  conditions  are  very  few  indeed. 
On  the  contrary,  in  this  plains  region,  with  its  great  depth  of  porous  subsoil  and 
its  moderate  rainfall,  the  conditions  for  disposing  of  sewage  successfully,  either 
by  discharging  it  intermittently  on  limited  areas  or  by  applying  it  to  crojjs,  were 
peculiarly  favorable. 

The  general  surface  of  this  part  of  Nebraska  is  a  gently  undulating  plain,  rising 

*  Condensed  from  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.  (March  9,  18t).3),  pp.  218-20. 


LANT  AT  HASTINGS,  NEBRASKA. 


Fiq.  3  .  Four-  Way  Outlet. 

PLATE  VII.     SEWAGE   PURIFICATION   PLANT  AT  HASTINGS,  NEBRASKA. 


LAND    DISPOSAL    AT    HASTINGS,   NP:BMASKA.  529 

to  the  westward  at  the  rate  of  say  7  to  10  feet  per  mile.  In  the  vicinity  of  Hast- 
ings the  rate  is  9  feet  per  mile.  The  plain  is  broken  by  draws  or  valleys,  down 
which  the  water  passes  to  the  permanent  streams  when  there  is  any  surplus.  After 
heavy  rains  the  draws  are,  for  a  few  hours,  quite  respectable  creeks  ;  but  ordinarily 
they  are  dry,  and  the  surface,  where  it  has  not  been  disturbed  by  the  plough,  is 
covered  with  a  thick,  strong  sod.  Along  the  sides  of  these  draws  the  land  has  been 
lowered  by  the  action  of  the  water  considerably  below  the  general  level  of  the  sur- 
rounding jjlain,  and  yet  left  high  enough  above  the  bottom  of  the  draw  to  insure 
adequate  drainage. 

With  a  pumping  plant  that  would  raise  the  sewage  15  feet,  any  one  of  the  many 
smooth  farms  lying  to  the  east  was  available  for  a  sewage  farm,  practically  graded 
and  ready  for  the  reception  of  the  sewage.  The  objections  to  this  arrangement 
were  : 

(1)  The  cost  of  erecting  and  maintaining  the  pumping  plant ;  and  (2)  the  difficulty 
that  might  arise  in  draining  such  a  tract  in  case,  as  was  likely,  it  should  need  drain- 
age after  tlie  sewage  was  applied. 

If  the  sewage  was  to  be  disposed  of  by  gravity,  the  only  availal)le  fields  were  the 
lands  before  mentioned,  lying  adjacent  to  the  draws.  These  were  somewhat  ir- 
regular in  outline  and  elevation,  and  would  require  considerable  grading  to  put 
them  in  shape  for  the  application  of  the  sewage  ;  but  they  were  so  situated  that 
good  surface  drainage  was  insiared,  and  if  it  should  become  necessary  to  tile  the 
farm  later,  the  draw  would  atford  a  ready  outlet  for  such  drainage. 

A  small  draw,  heading  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  city,  leads  ofif  toward  the 
northeast  about  li  miles,  where  it  intersects  w'ith  a  much  larger  draw  from  the  north- 
west. Along  the  borders  of  this  larger  draw  there  are  considerable  areas  which, 
while  elevated  enough  al)Ove  the  l)ottoni  of  the  draws  for  drainage,  are  low  enough 
to  make  it  possible,  by  careful  economy  in  grades,  to  reach  them  by  gravity  from 
every  i:)art  of  the  city.  It  was  found  that  the  storm  water  could  be  sent  oif  through 
the  natural  waterways  by  using  short  runs  of  large  pipe  at  moderate  dei)ths,  and 
with  better  fall  than  it  was  possible  to  secure  for  the  sewer  line  to  the  farm. 

Tliis,  with  tlie  limited  areas  available  for  receiving  the  sewage  and  the  difficulty  of 
taking  care  of  the  storm  water  on  such  a  farm,  settled  the  question  in  favor  of  the 
sejiarate  system  of  sewerage. 

The  nearest  laud  available  for  a  disposal  area  was  a  tract  of  70  acres,  somewhat 
broken.  To  find  smoother  land  upon  which  the  sewage  could  be  deposited  by 
gi'avity  would  have  necessitated  a  lengthening  of  the  main  pipe  from  3,000  to  5,000 
feet  and  the  crossing  of  several  small  draws.  The  additional  cost  of  this  part  of  the 
line  would  have  more  than  overbalanced  the  necessary  ex])ense  of  grading,  not 
to  mention  the  extra  cost  of  caring  for  and  maintaining  the  additional  line. 

Tlie  70-acre  tract  selected  for  the  sewer  farm  is  shown  by  Fig.  1,  Plate  YII.  The 
southwest  2>art  of  the  tract  is  too  much  elevated  to  receive  sewage,  biit  is  valuable 
farming  land  and  will  furnish  a  desirable  building  site  for  the  residence  of  a  super- 
intendent. 

The  northwest  portion  of  the  area  north  of  the  di'aw  is  very  rough  and  cannot  be 
utilized  for  sewage,  except  at  heavy  expense  for  gi-ading  and  ])iping.  The  central 
part  of  the  western  half  of  the  area  has  been  graded  into  areas,  as  shown  on  the 
map,  each  having  its  own  level  and  sejiarated  from  the  adjacent  areas  by  a  low 
ridge  of  earth.  The  cross  section  at  the  foot  of  Fig.  1,  Plate  VII..  shows  the  ar- 
rangement of  these  ridges  and  sloi^es.  The  elevations  selected  and  the  forms  of 
these  ai-eas  were  determined  largely  by  the  question  of  economy  in  moving  the 
earth. 

These  areas  were  brought  to  a  uniform  grade,  except  at  the  points  where  the 
sewage  is  received  from  the  distributing  gutters.  Here  the  surface  was  slightly 
elevated,  to  secure  a  better  distribution  over  the  surface  when  the  sewage  is  fiist 
discharged  on  an  area.  The  sewage  is  discharged  first  into  a  settling  tank,  shown 
in  plan  and  section  by  Fig.  2,  Plate  VII. 

This  taidv  is  provided  with  east-iron  gates  for  controlling  the  flow  of  the  sewage. 

It  was  tlie  intention  to  ])rovide  a  screen,  but  is  was  found  that  it  was  not  necessary, 

as  the  ])ai)er  and  the  small  amount  of  solids  which  would  make  trouble  by  clogging 

the  drains  were  all  deposited  in  the  lower  part  of  this  tank,  from  which  it  could  be 

34 


580  SKWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX    TIIP:    UNITED    STATES. 

drawn  off  on  the  lower  area,  No.  8,  where  it  could  be  readily  collected  and  disposed 
of  when  the  water  was  drained  out  of  it. 

From  this  settling  tank  the  sewage  is  conducted  to  distributing  or  outlet  gutters, 
so  situated  as  to  distribute  the  sewage  on  two  or  more  adjacent  areas.  These  gut- 
ters are  built  of  brick  laid  in  cement  mortar  and  plastered  with  Portland  cement,  as 
shown  by  Figs.  3  and  4,  Plate  VII.  The  gates  which  regulate  the  flow  are  of 
^\-inch  plate  iron,  faced  with  sole  leather  and  set  at  an  angle  from  the  vertical,  so 
that  their  weight,  which  is  increased  by  a  heavy  cast-iron  disk  bolted  to  the  back, 
acts  with  the  sewage  to  shut  the  gate  snugly  against  the  seat.  The  seating  face  is  2 
inches  wide  and  built  up  of  cement.  The  gate  is  opened  by  revolving  it  upwaid 
and  backward  till  it  rests  on  the  top  of  the  gutter. 

Areas  Nos.  1  and  8  receive  sewage  from  short  lines  of  pipe  leading  from  the 
settling  tank,  as  shown  by  Figs.  1  and  2,  Plate  VII.  Areas  Nos.  '2,  3,  4,  and  5  are 
supplied  by  an  18-inch  pipe  from  the  settling  tank,  the  sewage  being  distributed  to 
each  of  the  four  beds  by  the  four-way  gutters  shown  in  Fig.  3.  A  12-inch  continu- 
ation of  the  18-inch  jiipe  from  the  settling  tank  carries  the  sewage  to  areas  Nos.  6 
and  7,  the  two-way  outlet  gutter  here  being  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  4.  An 
ordinary  wooden  sluice  gate  is  the  only  means  provided  for  supplying  sewage  to- 
area  No.  9.  This  gate  is  shown  in  plan  and  section  by  Fig.  5,  Plate  VII.  Area  No. 
10  is  supplied  by  one  of  the  branches  of  the  two- May  gutter  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The 
other  branch  of  this  two-way  gutter  is  designed  to  discharge  sewage  on  to  a  part  of 
the  irrigable  land  nearest  to  the  distributing  basin,  the  remaining  part  of  this  sec- 
tion being  provided  for  by  the  8-  and  12-inch  outlets  on  the  south  side  of  the  basin, 
all  as  shown  in  the  plan,  Fig.  1.  The  18-inch  main  outlet  is  extended  across  the 
draw  to  the  most  distant  part  of  the  disposal  area,  this  section  being  suitable  for 
irrigation. 

The  farm  is  under  the  care  of  a  superintendent  of  sewers  and  water-works.  He 
visits  the  farm  once  a  day,  or  as  often  as  may  be  necessary  to  change  the  flow  from 
one  area  to  another.  The  time  of  discharge  on  any  given  area  is  determined  largely 
by  the  season  and  the  amount  of  rainfall,  and  must  be  regulated  by  the  experience 
and  intelligence  of  the  su])erintendent.  Occasionally  the  areas  are  ploughed  to 
facilitate  absorption  and  to  cover  up  deposits,  which,  with  the  carting  away  at  inter- 
vals of  the  sludge  discharged  from  the  settling  tank,  is  all  the  attention  the  farm 
receives. 

The  works  have  now  been  in  oiieration  about  two  years.  The  first  year  was  an 
unusually  wet  season,  and  the  capacity  of  the  soil  for  receiving  sewage  M'as  for  this- 
reason  much  reduced,  but  it  was  all  discharged  in  rotation  upon  the  areas  that  had 
been  graded.  No  offensive  odors  were  percejitible  from  the  fields,  as  everything- 
■was  distributed  before  decomposition  set  in,  and  the  sewage  was  not  allowed  to  dis- 
charge or  remain  on  one  area  long  enough  to  become  putrid.  The  only  time  when 
any  odor  is  perceived  is  when  the  settling  tank  is  opened  to  discharge  the  collected 
solid  matter.  At  such  times  for  a  short  interval  there  is  a  little  odor  when  the  dis- 
charge is  first  made  ;  but  it  is  only  perceived  in  its  immediate  proximity. 

Up  to  Jan.  1,  1893,  the  number  of  sewer  connections  that  had  been  made  was 
119,  mostly  from  the  business  part  of  the  city  and  the  larger  residences.  Outside 
of  the  business  portion  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  compel  the  making  of  connec- 
tions. 

The  lands  marked  on  the  plan  as  suitable  for  irrigation  cultivation  are  all  avail- 
able for  absorption  fields  ;  and  if  a  larger  area  is  needed,  the  lands  along  tbe  valley 
to  the  eastward  will  afibrd  opportunity  for  increasing  the  areas  to  any  extent  de- 
sired. By  means  of  shallow  ditches  and  furrows  along  the  slopes,  the  sewage  mv.y 
be  conducted  over  these  lands  and  used  for  irrigating  crops,  as  with  the  water  horn 
irrigating  canals  in  the  arid  regions  of  the  West.  No  attempt  as  yet  has  been 
made  to  use  it  in  this  way,  but  at  intervals  the  sewage  is  allowed  to  flow  over  the 
meadow  land  of  this  portion,  as  far  as  it  can  do  so  without  special  direction  and  yet 
not  escape  into  the  draw. 

The  absorption  areas  now  in  use  are  not  underdrained,  but  depend  entirely  uiion 
the  capacity  of  their  soil  for  absorption.  Ultimately  tiling  will  be  necessary,  and 
this  will  convert  them  into  filtering  beds  discharging  their  effluent  into  the  draw. 
When  the  farm  was  first  put  in  use  it  had  been  freshly  graded,  and  it  was  not 


LAND   DISPOSAL   AT   HASTINGS,   NEBRASKA.  531 

thought  best  to  put  in  tile  until  all  settlement  of  the  fills  had  ceased.  We  also 
wished  to  test  the  capacity  of  these  areas  without  the  tiling.  With  the  amount  of 
sewage  now  disposed  of  the  results  are  satisfactory,  but  I  have  no  doubt  that  in 
time  they  will  all  require  drainage. 

In  arranging  this  farm,  while  keeping  in  view  the  desirability  and  the  possibility 
of  using  the  sewage  in  the  cultivation  of  crops  and  arranging  for  its  use  when  the 
quantity  of  sewage  would  make  such  use  jjrofitable,  these  two  facts  have  been  kept 
steadily  in  mind :  (1)  That  with  all  crops  of  value,  the  amount  of  sewage  that  can  be 
used  with  profit  has  very  definite  limits  ;  (2)  that  the  time  during  which  it  can  be 
applied  to  any  crop  is  ordinarily  confined  to  only  a  limited  portion  of  the  growing 
season.     To  apply  in  greater  quantities  and  at  other  times  is  to  ruin  the  crop. 


CHAPTEE  XLin. 

SURFACE   IRRIGATION   AT   WAYNE,   PENNSYLVANIA.* 

Wayne  is  a  surburban  residence  village  about  15  miles  from  Phila- 
deliihia,  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  It  has  been  built  up  by 
Messrs.  A.  J.  Drexel  and  Geo.  W.  Childs,  who  bought  the  Wayne  estate 
some  years  ago.  In  June,  1890,  its  population  was  997.  Two  years 
later  a  population  of  2,000  was  claimed.     There  are  no  manufactories. 

Water- works  were  built  by  Drexel  &  Childs  in  1881.  Shortly  after, 
Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  was  engaged  to  extend  the 
sewerage  system  of  the  village,  which  then  conveyed  the  wastes  and 
roof  M'ater  of  a  few  buildings  into  a  brook  flowing  through  the  valley. 

Col.  Waring  extended  the  system  on  the  strictly  sej^arate  plan,  col- 
lecting the  sewage  in  a  large  flush  tank,  from  which  it  was  discharged 
into  the  brook  through  an  8-inch  pipe  2,925  feet  long,  having  a 
fall  of  1  foot  in  400.  An  additional  area  being  secured  later,  a  12-inch 
outlet  was  laid  parallel  to  the  lower  part  of  the  first  outlet. 

The  brook  which  received  the  sewage  had  a  copious  flow  and  dis- 
charged into  Darby  creek,  a  stream  polluted  by  manufactories.  The 
brook  gradually  became  fouled,  to  prevent  which  the  sewage  was 
finally  delivered  into  a  settling  basin  before  passing  to  the  brook. 
The  effluent  not  being  sufficiently  cleared  by  this  settlement,  it  was 
discharged  into  a  second,  and  later  into  a  third  settling  basin. 

The  farm  land  along  the  brook  gradually  being  taken  up  for  resi- 
dences, complaints  regarding  the  fouling  of  the  stream  increased,  and 
finally  an  injunction  to  prevent  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  the  brook 
was  threatened.  When  the  works  described  below  were  recommended 
by  Col.  AVaring,  in  the  spring  of  1891,  the  move  for  an  injunction  was 
stopped  under  verbal  protest. 

Surface  irrigation  on  somewhat  isolated  land  at  the  lower  side  of  the 
estate  was  decided  upon.  The  disposal  area  is  thus  described  by  Col. 
Waring  in  an  article  in  the  of  American  Architect  July  2,  1892,  from 
which  much  of  this  information  has  been  taken : 

The  tract  to  be  used  was  of  unfavorable  character,  but  it  was  the  only  one  avail- 
able. It  consisted  mainly  of  an  old  pond  surrounded  by  ancient  pollard  willows, 
a  large  area  of  swamp  through  which  the  brook  meandered,  about  four  acres  of 
slightly  sloping  cleared  land,  and  a  very  steep,  thickly  wooded  and  rocky  hillside, 

*  Condensed  from  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  pp.  423-4  (Nov.  3,  1892). 


SURFACE    IRRIGATIOX    AT    WAYXE. 


533 


rising  about  100  feet  from  the  level  of  tlie  brook  to  one  corner  of  the  nearly  square 
tract. 

The  pond  was  obliterated,  the  willows  and  much  other  vegetation  were  cleared 
away,  the  brook  was  confined  within  stone  walls,  and  all  excej^t  the  steep  hillside 
was  thoroughly  uuderdrained. 

The  disposal  area  includes  eleven  acres,  divided  by  the  creek  as 
shown  in  Fisr.  103.     Along-  the  lower  course  of  the  brook  much  of  the 


Fu;.  KK?. — Plan  of  Disposal  Wouks,  Waynk,  Pennsylvania. 

land  was  a  nearly  level  tussock  swamp.  All  growth  less  than  eight 
inches  in  diamc^ter  was  removed  from  the  tract.  The  creek  was 
straightened  and  deepened,  and  the  banks  slojied  back  from  the  walls 
of  the  creek  and  sodded,  lint  little  grading  was  necessary  on  the  left 
or  south  side  of  the  creek,  l)ut  the  whole  area  on  the  other  side  was 
grad(Ml.  The  header  drain  of  six-inch  pipe  on  the  left  side  of  the  creek 
was  laid  to  cut  off'  the  effluent  from  some  slighth'  wet  land.  The  stone 
drain  is  for  the  protection  of  the  pumping  station. 

The  land  on  the  south  side  of  the  creek  was  divided  into  three  nearly 


534 


SEV\^\GK    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


d" 


equal  tracts  by  embankments  about  one  foot  big"!!,  which  converge  at 
the  distiibutiuo'  welL  A  road  to  the  pumping-  station  divides  the  laud 
CD  the  north  side  of  the  creek  into  two  sections. 

The  outlet  sewers  already  de- 
scribed were  intercepted  just 
above  the  old  settling  basins,  from 
which  point  a  1 2  -  i  n  c  h  vitrilied 
pipe,  with  a  fall  of  1  in  125,  ex- 
tends to  the  edge  of  the  disposal 
field.  About  400  feet  above  the 
edge  of  the  field  an  8-inch  branch, 
with  a  fall  of  1  in  250,  extends  to  a 
screening-  chamber.  From  this 
chamber  the  sewag-e  is  delivered 
at  will  on  to  tract  D  or  E,  first 
passing  over  a  bed  of  broken 
stone. 
The  main  outlet  sewer  is  of  vitrified  pipe  where  in  earth,  and  of  iron 
and  cement  where  on  piers.  It  ends  in  a  brick  screening  chandler 
with  a  concrete  bottom   near  the  jjumping  station,  shown  in  pliiii  and 

5/x  6  "Overf/oi-/ 
Pipes 

oimiL 


Longitudinal  Section 

Fig,   104      Scherning  Chamber. 


Overf/oiv-- 


Recewncf 


ro 


Tank 


Plan. 


VTT' 


3: 


[         £*   Pump  Bea 


4"Aerai  inq 
Pioe 


4iii/ye 


3==l: 


'  Pump  Be  J 


Boiler 


Chimnef 


4"Va/ye     Barr Duplex  Pump 


Fig.  105.— Receiving  Tank  and  Pump  House. 


SURFACE    IRRIGATION    AT    WAYNE. 


535 


section  by  Fig.  104.  After  passing  through  the  screens  the  sewage 
flows  into  the  receiving  reservoir,  shown  in  plan  and  longitudinal  sec- 
tion by  Fig.  105.  This  reservoir  has  a  capacity  of  90,000  gallons  to  the 
mouth  of  the  inlet  pipe.  Its  bottom  is  of  concrete  and  slopes  toward 
the  sump  into  which  the  suction 
pipes  extend.  Six  6-inch  pipes 
at  the  top  of  the  tank  lead  to 
the  creek  as  an  overflow. 

Two  Barr  duplex  pumps,  with 
a  capacity  of  about  22,000  gal- 
lons each  per  hour,  or  525,000 
gallons  per  day,  force  the  sew- 
age up  the  hill  on  the  left  of 
the  creek  to  the  distributing 
well.  This  12-iuch  force  main 
is  of  si^iral  weld  steel  pipe,  is 
480  feet  long,  and  has  a  rise  of 
about  100  feet.  The  lower  end 
of  the  force  main  was  placed 
above  ground,  to  obtain  a  grade 
that  would  allow  it  to  drain  dry 
through  the  aerating  pipe,  men- 
tioned below. 

Both  pumps  are  started  when  the  screening  reservoir  is  nearly  full, 
and,  as  designed,  the  sewage  is  first  delivered  back  into  the  receiving 
tank  through  a  4-inch  aerating  pipe,  the  object  being  to  deodorize 
the  sewage  and  increase  its  oxygen.  Aeration  is  maintained  for  from 
60  to  90  minutes,  after  Avliich  the  valve  in  the  aerating  pipe  is  closed 
and  the  sewage  is  delivered  into  the  well. 

The  distributing  well  is  show^i  in  plan  and  section  by  Fig.  106.  It 
is  of  brick  with  a  concrete  bottom,  and  is  covered  by  a  small  building 
shown  in  the  distance  in  the  view,  Fig.  108.     Lift  gates,  working  in 

the  masonry  of  the  well,  are  provided  to 
regulate  the  discharge  of  the  sewage 
upon  the  tracts. 

A  bed  of  broken  stone,  about  8  inches 
deep  and  50  feet  wide,  extends  across  the 
tract  below  th<'  distributing  well.  Sew- 
age is  discharged  into  a  depression  along 
the  upper  edge  of  the  stone  bed.  AVlii>n  this  de^iression  is  filled  the 
sewage  flows  down  the  bed,  which  has  a  fall  of  about  1  to  4,  to  a 
catch  wall  of  broken  stone  designed  to  check  the  somewhat  rapid 
flow  of  the  sewage  and  to  distribute  it  evenly  over  the  land  below. 
Tlie  cinder  banks  shown  in  Fig.  107  are  laid  on  graded  strips  follow- 


FiG.  106. — Distributing  Well. 


Fig.    107.— Cross   Section 
THUOOGH  Cinder  Bank. 


536 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


ing-  contours.     The  cindei-s,  mostly  from   locomotives,  are  backed,  to 

prevent  washing.     These  banks  are  designed  to  catch  the  sewage  in 

its  irregular  iiow^  down  the  steep  hillside  and  start  it  again  uniformly. 

The  receiving  reservoir  tills  in  from  (5  to  12  hours,  and  is  emptied  in 


Fio 


108, — General  View  of  Wayne  Disposal  \Vork8,  from  North  Side 
OF  Creek. 


about  5  hours.  The  sewage  disappears  from  the  surface  of  the  land  in 
about  a  half-hour  after  the  pumps  are  stopped. 

The  field  on  the  left  side  of  the  creek  was  i:)ut  in  operation  in  Sep- 
tember, 1891.  The  field  at  the  right  of  the  creek  was  put  in  use  later, 
before  well  covered  with  vegetation.  Col.  Waring  states  that  if  the 
aeration  of  the  sewage,  as  described  above,  proves  sufiiciently  bene- 
ficial, a  force  main  will  be  constructed  to  the  field  at  the  right,  and 
sew^age  delivered  to  it  by  pumping",  instead  of  by  gravity,  as  now. 

Figs.  108  and  109  present  views  of  the  disposal  works  from  two  dif- 
ferent points. 

Oct.  27,  1892,  Mr.  Baker  visited  the  Wayne  purification  works,  and 
through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Frank  Smith,  manager  of  the  Wayne 
estate,  and  Mr.  C.  D.  Slaw,  superintendent  of  the  sewerag-e  system, 
obtained  the  additional  information  which  follows. 

There  are  now  about  600  acres  in  the  estate.  All  buildings  on  the 
property  are  connected  with  the  sewerage  system,  there  being  about 
275  connections.  The  average  daily  consumption  of  water  in  Wayne 
is  stated  to  be  about  200,000  gallons.  The  average  sewage  pumpag"e 
w^as  given  as  about  the  same,  but  from  all  the  data  at  hand  it  would 


SUKFACK    ir.KUiATION    AT    WAYNE. 


537 


seem  to  be  higher.  Two  days  out  of  five,  according-  to  the  informa- 
tion given,  the  sewage  flows  by  gravity  on  to  the  north  part  of  the 
area. 

The  lirst  screens  used  at  the  screening  chamber  at  the  receiving- 
reservoir  had  a  2-inch  mesh.  This  mesh  proved  to  be  too  coarse,  and 
screens  with  1-inch  mesh  are  now  used.  The  rakings  from  the  screens 
average  about  two  barrels  a  day,  there  being  more  on  Saturdaj',  Sun- 
day, and  Monday  than  on  other  days.  Lime  is  put  upon  the  rakings 
as  the}'  accumuhite  beside  the  chamber  before  removaL 

The  pumping  station  is  kept  open  throug-hout  the  24  hours,  and  the 
pumps  are  run  from  16  to  18  hours  a  day,  requiring-  about  110  pounds  of 
buckwheat  coal  per  hour.  Two  engineers  are  employed  at  the  station, 
and  the  superintendent  divides  his  time  between  it  and  the  part  of 
the  sewerage  system  within  the  village.  In  addition,  laborers  are  em- 
ployed wdieu  necessary,  which,  it  would  seem,  is  not  often.  Sewage 
is  turned  upon  each  tract  for  only  one  day  at  a  time,  so  that  each 
tract  has  a  rest  of  five  days. 

The    material    in    the    baiiiers   has    never   been    changed,  and   the 


Fi<;.   10!). — Oem:i!.\l  Vikw  ok  Wouks  from  South  Side  of  Creek. 


broken  stone  at  ilw  top  of  the  hill  on  the  south  side  of  the  creek,  Mr. 
Slaw  stated,  has  never  been  cleaned,  except  that  one  section  has  had 
one  cleaning.  The  broken  stone  at  the  head  of  the  areas  on  both  sides 
of  the  creek  showed  oulv  a  small  amount  of  rags  and  paper  which  had 
been  caught.  At  the  tlani  of  broken  stone  at  the  to])  of  the  sttM-])  hill- 
side, and  at  the  first  barrier  below,  sludge  accumulates  and  has  to  be 


588  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

shovelled  out.  Except  at  the  first  or  stone  barrier,  the  sewage  rarely 
runs  over  the  top  of  the  banks,  unless  they  are  stopped  by  leaves,  as 
is  likely  to  be  the  case  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  The  sewage  has  a 
tendency  in  the  first  part  of  its  course  to  run  down  the  steep  hillside 
in  channels,  and  to  some  extent  this  has  been  encouraged,  or  rather 
several  small  channels  have  been  formed  in  order  to  keep  the  sew- 
age from  flowing  down  in  one  large  one. 

There  was  scarcely  any  trouble  from  frost  during  the  winter  of  1891- 
2,  and  that  at  only  one  corner  of  the  field. 

As  the  sewage  came  from  the  middle  gate  of  the  distributing  well  at 
the  top  of  the  hill  it  was  cloudy,  and  like  any  sewage  not  affected  by 
manufacturing  wastes.  At  the  second  barrier,  counting  the  dam  of 
broken  stone  as  one,  little  change  was  noticed,  perhaps  because  the 
sewage  came  quite  directly  and  rapidly  from  the  first  through  two  or 
three  channels.  At  the  third  barrier  the  sewage  was  clearer,  and  a  dog 
drank  freely  of  it.  Behind  the  fourth  barrier  a  clear-looking  liquid 
four  or  five  inches  deep  was  found.  Below  the  last  barrier  no  sewage 
could  be  seen.  At  Iphan  creek,  which  flows  through  the  grounds, 
there  was  evidence  of  some  seepage  through  the  walls  of  the  creek 
below  the  section  which  was  receiving  sewage,  but  the  seepage  was 
slight  and  might  have  been  natural.  At  the  ends  of  the  drain  and 
trench  of  broken  stone  no  effluent  was  discernible.  The  creek  showed 
no  signs  of  pollution  by  the  effluent,  and  small  fish  were  observed 
in  it. 

At  least  five  crops  of  grass  were  raised  on  each  side  of  the  creek  in 
1892.  and  a  man  was  engaged  in  raking  up  a  fair  crop  of  grass  from 
the  field  north  of  the  creek  on  the  day  of  Mr.  Baker's  visit. 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 
THE   USE  OF   SEWAGE  FOR   IRRIGATION  IN  THE  WEST.* 

Considering  the  g-eneral  development  of  the  two  sections  of  the 
country,  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  is  about  as  far  advanced 
in  the  purification  of  sewage  as  the  eastern.  This  is  accounted  for  in 
three  ways  :  (1)  The  very  low  stage  of  western  streams  during  the  hot, 
dry  season  often  renders  sewage  discharged  into  them  an  unbearable 
nuisance,  or  there  may  be  no  natural  stream  near  by  of  sufficient  size 
to  receive  sewage ;  (2)  the  familiarity  of  the  people  with  irrigation  ; 
and  (3)  the  value  of  all  available  water  for  this  purpose  naturally  leads 
to  the  application  of  sewage  to  crops  when  any  method  of  purification 
is  necessary. 

For  the  foregoing  reasons  all  but  two  of  the  sewage  purification 
plants  west  of  the  Mississippi  river  employ  irrigation,  and  one  of  the 
two  exceptions,  Hastings,  Nebraska,  uses  intermittent  filtration  and 
will  probably  raise  crops  eventually,  while  the  other,  Leadville,  Colo- 
rado, only  strains  the  sewage  through  a  small  area  of  sand. 

As  shown  below,  eight  western  towns  are  prepared  to  apply  sewage 
to  land  for  irrigation  in  the  season  of  1893.  In  addition,  Los  Angeles 
may  also  be  ready  to  so  dispose  of  its  sewage  in  1893,  and  until  three 
years  ago  had  been  so  doing  for  some  time  ;  while  at  Cheyenne, 
AVyoming,  sewage  was  for  a  period  of  seven  or  eight  years  delivered 
into  an  irrigating  ditch  and  used  for  irrigation,  this  use  being  stopped 
only  l)y  a  change  in  the  outlet  sewer. 

Some  of  the  leading  points  regarding  these  sewage  farms  are  given 
in  the  accompanying  table,  from  which  it  appears  that  sewage  was 
first  used  for  irrigation  at  Cheyenne,  Wyoming,  probably  in  1883. 

Colorado  Springs,  Colorado. 

The  population  of  this  city  increased  from  4,226  in  1880  to  11,140  in 
1890.  Water-works  were  built  in  1879  and  a  sewerage  system  in  1888. 
Sewage  was  first  used  for  irrigation  in  1889.  January  1,  1893,  there 
were  in  use  20.4  miles  of  separate  sewers,  239  man-holes,  G83  house 
connocti(His,  and  18  flush  tanks. 

A  statement  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the  use  of  sewage  for  irriga- 

*See  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.,  pp.  183-6  (B'eb.  23,  1893). 


540 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


General  Information  Regarding  the  Use  of  Sewage  for  Irrigation  in 

THE  West. 


Popu-     Ready     T_-i„„t:„_  a^nntpd  on    O^nPrship  Crops  raised  or 

'l-«r'       !Z  accou'tf-  of  irrigated  Rental.  proposed     to 

If-ao.        use.  land.  be  raised. 

Colorado  Springs,  I  1 1  ■.  .,1    1  ceo       i  Litigation  on  account  (  „  .     .  «,.>An*  ,.  (  Alfalfa   hav 

Colo..... f"'^-^"    1889. .-j      „fpo,i„tion [Private.  «^00*  per  year,  5  years  ]  ^^.^^^^^^^ 

(    Paii      (  To  prevent  pollution  1 

Trinidad,  Colo.  . .       5,52a  J    igya    ^      of  water    used  for  [-        •'  $500*         "  Blue  prass  pro- 

'  "  (     domestic  purpo.ses ,  j  '      poM'o . 

Fresno,  Gal 10,818  ■*   ^onn'    ^  Best  avTble  method  "  $5,000*  j  Chinese     truck 

(    loJU. .  i  *  '  )      gardens. 

Pasadena,  Cal . . . .       4,883    1893. . .  )  Evidently  some  puri-  j  j  ^';l^^;j!'^ 

I      fication  necessary ..)        ■* 1      veg  l  uitspro 

I  To  prevent  pollution  |  «onn*  «,=!.   ,.„„,.  +  „„  ,  (  Grain,  potatoes,. 

Redding,  Cal  ... .       1,821     1SS8...^      Sacramento     water  V  Private.  -  *"™    ,^™*   >''="•+  '""^'      vegetables 

I      supply i  '      yearly  increase.  |      ^^J^^       "  ««' 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.      ^0,3il5\   ^_     '^'[^;^;^^;^;^^'^' >^         "  No  rental  fonnerly.t         Miscellaneous. 

Santa  Rosa,  Cal..      5.220  \  ^|^fj-    ^'^^i^Z^^''°'"''  \  City..   .     Leased  without  rental.     Garden  truck. 

Helena,  Mont....     13,834     1SS9.     J  M.uis    of    pnividing  ,         ,.       i  ^I^Sov^r  "^j  Veg  e  t  a  bles. 

'      ''''' "^  *  (      cash  payment.  )      nursery  stock. 

r'v,..ro.i„o    \v,r.        11  Ran  *  l'i">j'>-        To  provide  water  for  I  „  .     ^         ,,  ^  , 

Cheyenne,  Wyo..     n,biiO-^    ,^^^3  irrigation  j- Private.     No  rental.  

Stockton,  Cal ... .     14,424  \  ^^^..f    "^^  P.'""^'.'^'"  '^^ter  for  (         .. 

'  I    Ib'Ji. .         irrigation )  

*  Paid  by  the  o  ty.     t  Increase  yearly  proportionately  with  assessment  roll,      i  City  may  exact  a  rental  of  $3 
per  acre  for  land  covered  by  new  outfall. 


tiou,  and  a  description  of  the  sewage  farm,  have  been  furnished  by  Mr. 
H.  I.  Reid,  city  engineer  and  eng'ineer  of  the  disposal  pkmt,  as  fol- 
lows : 

In  the  utilization  of  sewag-e  for  irrigation  purposes  at  Colorado 
Springs  no  attempt  is  made  toward  treatment  or  purification  other 
than  by  natural  means  and  in  a  rather  primitive  manner.  The  system 
was  adopted  as  a  coinj^romise  measure,  to  avoid  suits  fin*  damages  for 
the  alleged  pollution  of  the  stream  into  which  the  outfall  sewer  orig- 
inally emptied,  "  Fountain  Qui  Bouille,"  commonly  known  as  Fountain 
creek.  This  stream  has  a  normal  flow  at  the  sewer  outlet  of  50  cubic 
feet  per  second,  but  at  times  during  the  irrigating  season  this  is 
reduced  to  almost  nothing,  although  during  the  same  season  floods 
may  be  expected,  when  for  a  few  hours  or  days  the  creek  becomes  a 
swift-flowing  river,  with  a  fall  of  30  to  40  feet  per  mile. 

The  original  sewerage  system  was  put  in  operation  in  1888.  The 
following  year  a  ranchman,  living  some  two  miles  below  the  outlet 
point,  shown  in  Fig.  110,  instituted  injunction  proceedings  to  prevent 
the  sewage  from  being  turned  into  the  stream,  claiming  that  his  well, 
situated  near  the  stream,  was  so  polluted  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  drink- 
ing purposes,  and  that  the  water  in  his  irrigating  ditch,  the  head  gate 
of  which  is  f  mile  below  the  sewer  outlet,  was  so  foul  that  stock  would 
not  drink  it.  Before  the  suit  came  to  trial  the  city  council  appointed 
a  committee  to  try  and  arbitrate  the  matter.  This  was  done  and  the 
suit  was  withdrawn,  the  city  paying  all  costs  of  proceedings  to  that 


COLOKADO    SPRINGS,   COLORADO. 


541 


date,  and  agreeing  to  divert  tlie  sewage  at  some  point  on  the  outfall 
and  utilize  it  for  irrigation  on  the  lands  designated  on  the  accompany- 
ing map,  Fig.  110. 

A  contract  was  made  between  the  city  and  the  owner  of  this  land, 
whereby  the  city  was  to  deliver  the  sewage  at  the  point  B,  Fig.  110,  by 

the  line  A  B,  and  to  pay  annually  §300 

i  I  I  I  I  I  II  I  .  for  five  years,  the  owner  to  receive  the 
I  I I! I  I II 1^^  /L\\ — 1^ — I  sewage  at  this  point  and  use  the  same 
. '    La5  Animas  St..     li  . 

for  irrigation  purposes  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  he  deemed  best,  provided,  how- 
ever, that  he  prevent  tlie  sewage  from 
flowing  directly  into  the  creek,  and 
provided,  further,  that  if  the  method 
of  irrigation  was   not   satisfactory   to 


Fig.  110.— Plan  of  Sewage  Farm  at  Colorado  Springs,  Colorado. 


the  ranchman  bringing  the  suit,  or  to  the  city,  then  the  city  sliould 
have  possession  of  the  land  and  use  such  methods  as  it  thought  best. 
At  the  cxiuratioii  of  the  contract  the  city  has  the  option  of  buying  the 
hind  at  a  stipulated  sum,  and  probably  will  l)uy  it,  although  th(>re  are 
now  many  parties  who  would  pay  for  the  sewage  delivered  to  their  land. 

The  city  tapi^ed  the  outfall  at  the  point  A,  Fig.  110,  and  by  means  of 
an  underground  wooden  conduit  on  a  less  gradient  than  the  original 
outlet  delivered  sewage  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  point  B, 
whence  the  lessee  takes  charge  of  it  and  delivers  it  to  grounds  by  the 
ditches  B  E  and  BCD,  and  thence  by  laterals  to  any  desired  ]>oint. 

The  map  shows  that  many  years  ago  the  stream  followed  a  diflerent 
channel  than  the  present  one,  the  de]iression  of  which  extends  through 
the  entire  tract  from  west  to  east,  and  is  from  3  to  4  feet  lower  than 


542  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

the  north  bank  of  the  creek  at  corresponding  points  at  right  angles 
thereto.  The  old  channel  is  the  medium  whereby  the  surplus  sewage 
is  carried  off  without  flowing  directly  into  the  creek. 

The  sewage  is  distributed  by  means  of  small  ditches  or  furrows 
through  the  garden  tract,  whence  all  liquid  matter  not  absorbed  by 
the  earth  flows  back  into  this  old  channel,  and  thence  into  the  depres- 
sions, forming  small  reservoirs  at  H,  I,  L,  Fig.  110.  The  small  laterals 
radiating  from  the  main  ditch  irrigate  the  northern  portion  of  the 
lands,  and  in  a  similar  manner  any  surplus  flows  into  the  same  reser- 
voirs. During  the  irrigation  season,  which  in  this  instance  is  from 
March  1  to  Nov.  1,  there  is  but  little  surplus,  the  character  of  the  soil 
being  such  that  the  greater  portion  is  absorbed  or  carried  off  by 
underflow. 

In  constructing  the  outlet  sewer,  throughout  this  entire  tract  of 
valley  land,  from  the  surface  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  feet,  loose  black  loam 
was  found,  then  a  2 -foot  stratum  of  sand,  below  which  was  coarse 
gravel  and  sand,  through  which  water  was  flowing  with  considerable 
velocity,  so  that  at  a  depth  of  6  feet  it  was  found  necessary  to  dig  a 
parallel  and  deeper  trench  to  carry  off  the  water,  in  order  to  facilitate 
pipe-laying.  This  probably  explains  the  rapidity  with  which  the  sew- 
age is  absorbed  when  applied  for  irrigation.  As  soon  as  sufficiently 
dry,  after  each  application  of  sewage,  the  soil  is  thoroughly  pulver- 
ized and  any  accumulation  of  solid  matter  turned  under  before  receiv- 
ing another  apj)lication. 

When  irrigation  is  not  in  progress  the  entire  flow  is  carried  through 
the  main  ditch  and  emptied  into  the  old  channel  and  depressions  men- 
tioned. The  upper  pools  or  reservoirs,  Fig.  110,  were  ploughed  out  by 
the  action  of  surface  water ;  the  lower  or  most  easterly  one  is  a  reser- 
voir, the  dam  of  which  was  built  up  through  a  similar  agency.  Imme- 
diately north  of  the  railway  tracks  are  sand  and  gravel  hills,  some  200 
feet  higher  than  the  valley  and  very  steep.  During  the  rainy  season 
flood  water  flows  into  Fountain  creek,  across  the  valley  at  right  angles 
to  the  old  channel.  At  such  times  the  debris  brought  down  has  been 
deposited  upon  the  lower  level  of  the  valley,  and  a  sand  dike  several 
hundred  feet  wide  and  5  or  6  feet  higher  than  the  lowest  portion  of  the 
valley  has  been  formed,  thus  converting  the  valley  at  this  point  into 
the  basin  K,  Fig.  110,  the  area  of  which  is  some  three  or  four  acres. 
All  surplus  sewage  collects  in  this  basin  and  rapidly  seeps  away  into 
the  underflow  and  finally  into  the  creek.  The  solid  matter  is  deposited 
in  the  basin,  and  that  it  will  in  time  cement  the  bottom  and  fill  it  up  is 
very  probable  ;  but  no  trouble  of  this  kind  has  been  experienced  to 
this  date,  and  to  all  appearances  there  is  very  little  deposit  of  any 
kind.  It  is  said  that  no  unpleasant  odor  is  experienced  on  any  por- 
tion of  the  farm  at  any  time. 


TRINIDAD,   COLORADO.  543 

So  far  as  practical  results  are  concerned  the  disposal  area  is  sucess- 
ful,  inasmuch  as  the  city  is  relieved  of  costly  litigation  and  also  from 
the  care  and  maintenance  of  the  outlet  lines.  The  lessee  is  well 
pleased  because  of  the  enormous  crops  raised  and  lack  of  trouble  from 
the  vexatious  problem  of  "  priority  of  water  rights."  As  illustrating- 
the  demand  for  water  in  this  section,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  ranch- 
men several  miles  below  the  outlet,  seeing  the  sewage  farm  well  sup- 
plied with  water  at  times  when  they  have  none,  threaten  to  enjoin  the 
city  from  using  the  sewage  for  this  purpose,  and  to  compel  it  to  turn 
the  sewage  into  the  stream  for  their  benefit. 

The  sewage  farm  comprises  at  present  an  area  of  about  35  acres,  but 
may  be  added  to  as  future  needs  require.  In  1892  the  sewage  was 
used  on  25  acres — 15  in  meadow  and  alfalfa  and  10  acres  in  vegetables  ; 
but  a  larger  acreage  could  be  covered  with  the  present  amount  of  sew- 
age. The  crops  produced  are  enormous,  and  owing  to  close  jDroximity 
to  the  market  the  farm  is  a  paying  investment.  As  already  stated,  at 
present  the  city  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  management  of  the  farm, 
but  the  probabilities  are  that  when  the  lease  expires  the  city  will  buy 
the  farm  and  enlarge  the  system. 

I'nder  date  of  Jan.  24,  1893,  Mr.  Eeid  ^yYote  that  he  had  recently 
visited  the  sewage  farm,  and  found  the  sewage  running  directly  into 
the  creek  through  a  ditch  cut  from  the  reservoirs,  shown  in  Fig.  110. 
This,  he  states,  is  in  direct  conflict  with  the  terms  of  the  agreement, 
but  that  possibly  it  was  done  to  flood  the  lands  of  ranchmen  below, 
who  have  recently  been  willing  to  take  all  the  sewage  they  can  get. 


Trixtdad,  Colorado. 

The  city  of  Trinidad  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Las  Animas 
river,  a  comparatively  small  stream  during  much  of  the  year.  The 
farmers  below  the  city  depend  upon  ditches  leading  from  the  river  for 
water  for  domestic  use,  which  makes  some  form  of  sewage  purification 
especially  necessar\\  Following  the  advice  of  Mr.  Norval  AV.  Wall, 
city  engineer,  it  was  decided  to  purity  the  sewage  by  irrigation.  A 
contract  was  therefore  made  witli  Mr.  Jas.  M.  John,  wlio  was  mayor  at 
the  time,  to  receive  and  dispose  of  the  sewage  on  land  owned  by  him, 
th<^  city  paying  $,500  per  year  and  delivering  the  sewage  upon  the  land. 

The  population  of  Trinidad  in  1880  was  2,226,  in  1890  it  was  5,523. 
A  public  water  supply  was  introduced  in  1879  by  the  Trinidad  Water- 
Works  Co.  A  sewerage  system  was  put  in  operation  in  1892,  the  out- 
fall sewer  having  been  completed  about  three  months  before  the  close 
of  the  year.     Mr.  Wall  was  engineer  of  the  system. 

On  Jan.  1,  1893,  there  were  in  use  two  miles  of  separate  sewers,  18 


544 


sp:wagk  disposal  ix  the  united  states. 


man-holes,  two  ilush-taiiks,  and  12  house  connections,  mostly  to  public 
buildings. 

An  18-incli  vitrified  outlet  sewer  7,100  feet  long  leads  from  the  city  to 
the  sewage  farm.  This  outlet  has  a  theoretical  velocity,  when  running 
full,  of  2.58  cubic  feet  per  second. 

At  the  farm  end  of  the  outlet  there  is  a  masonry  settling  tank  50  feet 
long,  5  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  deep. 

The  sewage  farm  slopes  toward  the  Las  Animas  river  at  the  rate  of 
from  2|  to  S^  feet  per  100,  and  is  laid  out  with  embankments  following 
natural  contours,  as  shown  in  Fig.  Ill,  except  that  a  total  of  15  em- 


FiG.  111.— Sketch  Plan  op  Sewage  Farm,  Trinidad,  Colorado. 

bankments  have  now  been  made.  The  embankments  are  from  25  to  50^ 
feet  apart  and  average  about  1,500  feet  in  length.  Wooden  sluice  boxes 
provide  means  for  the  passage  of  sewage  through  the  embankments  to 
lower  areas.  To  the  close  of  1892  about  $1,200  had  been  expended  by 
Mr.  John  in  preparing  the  farm  to  receive  sewage. 

It  is  stated  that  blue  grass  is  proposed  as  a  crop  on  the  farm,  for  the 
reason  that  it  will  stand  more  frequent  irrigation  than  any  other  crop. 


Fresno,  California. 

A  very  interesting  example  of  the  use  of  sewage  for  irrigation  is 
found  at  Fresno,  California,  where  the  city  paj's  $5,000  per  year  for  the 
disposal  of  its  sewage,  and  the  contractor  distributes  the  sewage  over 
land  which  he  rents  to  Chinamen  for  market  gardens. 

The  population  of  Fresno  has  increased  from  1,112  in  1880  to  10,- 
818  in  1890.  A  public  water  supply  was  introduced  in  1876  by  the 
Fresno  Water  Co.  The  city  put  a  sewerage  system  in  operation  in 
January,  1890.  Shepard  &  Teilman,  of  Fresno,  were  engineers  of  the 
system,  Mr.  J.  C.  Shepard,  of  that  fii-m,  being  city  engineer  at  the 
time.  Sept.  5,  1892,  there  were  included  in  this  system  about  eight 
miles  of  sewers  on  the  separate  plan,  not  including  the  outlet  sewer» 


FRESNO,   CALIFOrvNTA.  545 

which  consists  of  about  41  miles  of  24-inch  vitrified  pipe  laid  to  a 
grade  of  85  feet  per  mile.  Jan.  1,  1893,  there  were  in  use  about 
600  house  connections  and  six  flush-tanks.  In  addition  to  the  flush- 
tanks  there  is  at  four  jjoints  a  continuous  flow  of  water  into  the 
sewers,  about  equal  to  a  2-inch  stream  under  a  6-foot  head.  The  lower 
end  of  the  outlet  connects  directly  with  an  irrigating  ditch. 

AVe  are  indebted  to  Shepard  &  Teilman  for  the  information  here 
given  regarding  the  sewage  farm,  the  remainder  of  which  is  presented 
substantially  as  furnished  by  them  in  September  and  October,  1892,  as 
follows : 

Prior  to  the  construction  of  the  sewers  the  city  trustees  considered 
the  disposal  of  the  sewage  the  great  obstacle  to  be  overcome ;  there^ 
fore  they  called  for  proposals  to  take  care  of  the  sewage  for  five  years, 
the  successful  bidder  to  give  a  bond  of  $10,000  to  protect  the  cit}^  from 
all  damages  which  might  arise  therefrom  after  its  delivery  at  the  end 
of  the  pipe.  Alexander  McBean,  of  Oakland,  was  the  lowest  bidder, 
and  his  bid  of  $5,000  per  annum  was  accordingly  accepted.  He  pur- 
chased 80  acres  of  land  at  the  end  of  the  outlet  sewer,  and  for  one  year 
the  sewage  ran  u^Don  it  without  any  attention  or  care,  except  when  oc- 
casionally some  neighbor  saw  fit  to  take  it  for  irrigation.  The  second 
year  ditches  were  constructed  and  the  land  leased  to  Chinamen  for 
vegetable  gardens,  and  for  the  last  two  seasons  it  has  been  used  for 
irrigating  gardens  and  vineyards. 

The  land  is  all  uuder  cultivation  with  all  the  various  kinds  of  vege- 
tables commonly  in  the  market,  such  as  potatoes,  yams,  parsnips,  let- 
tuce, celery,  beans,  peas,  and  corn.  It  is  customarj^  to  irrigate  vege- 
tables in  furrows  only.  Trees  and  vines  are  preferably  irrigated  in 
furrows  also.  Grasses  Avoiild  be  flooded,  but  Messrs.  Shepard  & 
Teilman  have  no  knowledge  of  sewage  used  on  grasses  at  this  farm. 

As  to  the  amount  of  sewage  used  on  the  80  acres,  definite  statementi 
are  lacking.  The  24-inch  outlet  sewer,  on  a  gi'ade  of  31  feet  per  mile, 
runs  continuously,  it  is  judged,  about  one-third  full,  but  what  propor- 
tion of  the  flow  is  used  on  the  sewage  farm  is  unknown. 

Mr.  H.  Burley,  the  superintendent  of  the  farm,  states  that  lie  can  see 
no  difierence  between  irrigating  with  sewage  and  clear  water.  It  is 
])ossil)le  that  the  land  may  produce  good  crops  longer  by  the  use  of 
sewage,  but  that,  h(^  considers,  is  still  to  be  proved.  Tlie  general  im- 
pression is  that  sewage  is  superior  to  clear  water  for  irrigation.  The 
sewage  farm  is  an  exceptionally  poor  piece  of  land,  but  nevertheless 
it  ]iroduc('s  fairly  well  with  sewage  irrigation.  Neither  M(»ssrs.  Shep- 
ard A'  Teilman  nor  Mr.  Burley  have  any  information  as  to  what  a 
similar  piece  would  do  if  irrigated  with  clear  water  only. 

When  sewage  is  ])ut  ujion  the  land  Avithont  more  dilution  than  is 
given  by  the  flushing  water,  unless  the  laud  is  cultivated  within  a  day 
35 


546  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE   UNITEU    STATES. 

or  two,  there  is  quite  a  stencli,  but  wlieu  cultivated  this  disappears. 
Thus  far  there  has  been  no  complaint  reg-arding"  the  sewage  farm,  and 
as  the  matter  stands  the  $5,000  is  in  effect  a  yearly  pension  to  the  con- 
tractor. 

When  not  needed  on  the  farm,  the  sewage  is  allowed  to  flow  in  the 
irrigating  ditches  for  miles  beyond ;  in  this  way  it  becomes  very  much 
diluted,  and  in  the  irrigating  season  is  used  throughout  the  country 
below  the  sewage  farm  proper. 

Pasadena,  Califoenia. 

After  an  unfortunate  experience  with  the  Pacific  Sewage  Co. — an 
organization  which  agreed  with  the  city  to  construct  a  disposal  system 
similar  to  that  in  use  at  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey,  but  failed  to  do  so — 
and  after  two  years  of  litigation  over  right  of  way  for  the  outlet  sewer, 
the  city  of  Pasadena  in  the  middle  or  the  latter  part  of  1892  began  the 
preparation  of  a  farm  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  the  city.  It  is 
expected  that  this  farm  will  be  put  in  use  in  the  season  of  1803,  as  de- 
scribed below. 

Pasadena  is  a  city  of  comparatively  recent  origin,  its  population  in 
1880  having  been  but  391.  The  present  population  is  estimated  at 
6,000,  the  census  of  1890  showing  4,882  inhabitants.  The  construction 
of  a  sewerage  system  was  begun  in  1887,  and  in  1891  nearly  live  miles 
of  sewers  had  been  built  within  the  city  limits.  Avigust  Mayer,  C.E., 
of  Pasadena,  is  the  engineer  of  the  whole  system,  which  is  of  the  sepa- 
rate type.  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Mayer  for  the  following  informa- 
tion relating  to  the  sewage  farm,  the  matter  having  been  furnished  in 
November,  1892 : 

The  city  of  Pasadena  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  San  Gabriel  valley,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Madre  mountains,  10  miles  northerly  from  the 
city  of  Los  Angeles  and  about  30  miles  from  the  Pacific  ocean.  Its 
elevation  above  the  latter  may  be  taken  at  900  feet,  or  about  600  feet 
above  the  main  part  of  Los  Angeles.  The  soil  around  the  city,  and 
especially  that  close  to  the  mountains,  is  sandy,  with  excellent  under- 
drainage.  The  general  slope  toward  the  ocean  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  is  2  feet  per  100  feet.  The  grades  obtainable  for  sewerage  in  the 
city,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  are  excellent.  The  average  annual 
rainfall  amounts  to  20  inches,  which  is  precipitated  chiefly  during  the 
months  of  January,  February,  March,  and  April.  The  average  tem- 
perature during  the  rainless  eight  summer  months  may  be  taken  at 
85°  F.     The  air  is  dry. 

Wherever  water  is  obtainable  for  irrigation,  citrus  fruit  is  principally 
raised,  while  the  unwatered  land  is  fit  only  for  the  raising  of  some 
deciduous  fruits,  grapes,  and  barley  ;  the  latter  being  chiefly  cut  in  this 


PASADENA,    OALIFORXIA. 


547 


vicinity  before  its  maturity  and  used  for  hay.  Bare  land  is  worth 
$100  per  acre  without  water,  while  watered  land  is  held  at  about  $600 
per  acre.  Irrigation,  therefore,  makes  the  land  valuable,  and  since 
water  is  here  only  obtainable  from  springs  or  storage  reservoirs,  of 
which  latter  there  are  none  at  this  place  at  present,  waste  of  water  is 
hardly  ever  met  with.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  circumstances  for 
successful  sewage  disposal  by  means  of  irrigation,  from  a  financial  as 
well  as  sanitary  standpoint,  are  favorable. 

The  sewage  farm  is  owned  by  the  city,  and  comprises  300  acres  of 
land  situated  about  four  miles  from  the  city  in  a  southeasterly  direc- 
tion, in  a  well-settled  part  of  the  \a\\ey.  The  soil  is  a  sandy  loam, 
mixed  with  some  alkali.  It  has  the  capacity  of  absorbing  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  water.  It  is  estimated  that  for  the  present  only  40 
acres  will  actually  be  required  for  the  disposal  of  the  sewage,  although 


3'0°~- 


Fig.  112. — Sketch  of  Sewage  Outlet  Gate,  Pasadena,  California. 

the  sewage  may  be  spread  over  a  much  larger  area  for  the  purpose  of 
irrigating  crops  on  the  remainder  of  the  farm.  Most  of  the  land  will 
proba])ly  continue  to  be  devoted,  as  at  present,  to  the  raising  of  barley- 
hay  until  fruit  orchards  are  planted.  The  land  originally  cost  $125  per 
acre,  or  a  total  of  about  $40,000,  including  some  extra  expenses.  The 
gross  yield  in  barley-hay,  without  irrigation,  is  $4,000  per  annum,  or 
10  per  cent,  on  the  cost ;  the  net  yield  amounts  to  about  $3,000,  7^  per 
cent,  on  the  money  invested. 

It  is  the  intention  to  devote  the  land  irrigated  with  sewage  to  the 
raising  of  vegetables,  berries,  and  citrus  fruits,  and  ]ierliaps  walnuts  and 
alfalfa.  The  latter  yields  about  seven  crops  per  annum,  or  about  10 
tons  per  acre,  and  is  sold  for  $10  to  $15  per  ton.  It  stands  any  amount 
of  irrigation  at  all  seasons,  and  the  sewage  may  bo  crowded  on  it  at 
any  time.  Vegetables  are  calculated  to  yield  $25  net  per  acre,  while 
berries,  as  a  rule,  yield  from  $100  to  S200  per  acre  per  annum.  Citrus 
fiuits  often  net  from  $150  to  $400  ]ier  acre  ])('r  annum.  AVith  sewage 
irrigation,  Mr.  Mayer  thinks  these  figures  may  possibly  be  exceeded. 


548  SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    IN    J'lIK    UMTKU    STATES. 

As  seen  from  the  section  of  the  outlet  gate.  Fig.  112,  the  sewage  is 
taken  from  the  sewer  in  much  the  same  manner  as  water  from  irrigating 
pipes,  by  the  simple  closing  of  a  cast-iron  slide  gate  built  into  a  man- 
hole, through  which  the  pipe  leads.  The  sewage  is  thus  backed  up 
into  the  sewer  until  it  rises  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  man-hole,  whence  it 
finds  its  wa\"  through  a  joint  of  sewer  pipe  into  the  main  carrier,  an 
earthen  ditch  20  inches  wide  at  the  top,  10  at  the  bottom,  and  10  inches 
deep.  This  carrier  has  a  grade  of  from  4  to  6  inches  in  100  feet.  The 
land  which  the  main  carriers  cover  is  divided  into  fields  100  feet  in 
width  and  from  200  to  400  feet  in  length.  The  slope  of  the  fields  at 
right  angles  to  the  main  carriers  is  1|  to  2^  feet  per  100  feet.  To  irri- 
gate the  fields  a  dam  of  earth  or  of  redwood  board  is  inserted  in  the 
carrier  at  the  lower  end  of  the  field,  and  the  sewage  is  thus  diverted 
into  numerous  small  furrows  from  3  to  6  inches  deep  and  one  foot 
apart,  previously  made  with  a  common  cultivator.  Each  field  is 
expected  to  take  the  sewage  for  at  least  12  hours.  After  the  first 
soaking  the  dam  is  removed,  and  the  next  field  in  order  will  receive  its 
charge,  and  so  on.  As  soon  as  the  ground  permits,  say  in  about  two 
days,  field  No.  1  will  be  thoroughl}^  cultivated,  to  keep  the  ground 
from  baking  hard  and  to  allow  the  air  to  act  upon  the  soil.  This  is 
the  common  course  adojDted  in  this  vicinity  for  irrigation  with  pure 
water. 

Fruit  trees  are  planted  in  regular  lines  about  20  feet  apart  each  way, 
which  j)ermits  the  manner  of  irrigation  described  in  the  foregoing. 
The  side  and  bottom  walls  of  the  main  carriers  will  be  raked  over  with 
a  garden  rake  whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  prevent  the  ditch  from 
becoming  foul. 

Berries  are  to  be  planted  in  rows  about  8  feet  apart,  and  the  sewage 
will  be  led  in  between  the  rows  so  that  the  ground  can  be  well  culti- 
vated. Vegetables  may  be  planted  in  single  or  double  rows,  as  the 
case  may  require,  and  the  sewage  will  be  conducted  in  between  the 
rows  or  fields  in  flat  trenches,  which  are  to  remain  filled  until  the 
ground  from  trench  to  trench  is  thoroughly  saturated  with  the  sewage 
water,  when  the  trenches  will  be  drained,  and  after  having  dried  off 
sufficiently  they  will  be  cultivated. 

Bedding,  California. 

Redding  is  one  of  the  smallest  towns  in  the  United  States  using 
sewage  for  irrigation  or  having-  a  sewerage  system  ;  its  poiaulation  in 
1890  was  1,821,  and  in  1880  but  600.  A  separate  sewerage  system  was 
built  in  1889  by  the  town,  with  the  city  engineer,  S.  E.  Brackins, 
as  engineer,  and  Bassett  &  Touhey,  Sacramento,  as  contractors,  who 
also  entered  into  an  agreement  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  for  40  years. 


REDDING,  CALIFORNIA.  549 

January  1,  1893,  there  were  2.9  miles  of  sewers  and  seven  112-g'allon 
flush-tanks  in  use. 

The  following  description  of  the  sewage  farm  and  matters  pertain- 
ing- to  the  disposal  of  sewage  has  been  prepared  from  material  fur- 
nished in  October,  1892,  by  L.  F.  Bassett,  C.E.,  the  present  owner  of 
the  farm  : 

Redding  is  situated  on  slighth^  rolling  ground,  at  an  elevation  of 
550  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  bordered  on  the  northeast  and  southeast 
b}'  the  Sacramento  river.  The  climate  ranges  from  16°  above  zero  in 
the  winter  to  107°  F.  above  in  summer.  Most  of  the  season  the  atmos- 
phere is  dry  and  evaporation  rapid. 

It  was  the  original  intention  of  the  town  to  discharge  its  sewage  into 
the  Sacramento  river,  but  objection  was  made  at  Sacramento,  where 
water  is  taken  from  the  river  to  supply  the  city,  and  the  State  Board 
of  Health  gave  notice  to  the  authorities  of  Redding  not  to  discharge 
the  sewage  into  the  river.  The  town  authorities  thereupon  requested 
bids  for  taking  care  of  the  sewage,  and  a  contract  was  entered  into  for 
a  term  of  40  years,  the  sewage  to  be  disposed  of  at  S300  for  the  first 
\^ear,  the  amount  of  yearly  payment  thereafter  to  increase  in  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  of  the  assessment  roll. 

The  contractors  immediately  purchased  a  tract  of  about  100  acres  of 
land  within  the  corporate  limit,  shown  by  Fig.  113,  and  prepared  a 
jiortion  of  it,  about  a  mile  from  the  built-up  part  of  the  town,  for  the 
utilization  of  the  sewage  by  irrigation.  The  land  selected  is  com- 
parativel}^  level,  and  the  soil  a  sandy  and  gravelly  loam  4  to  6  feet  in 
deiitli,  underlaid  with  gravel.  Land  better  adapted  to  the  purpose 
would  be  hard  to  find.  About  10  acres  have  been  prepared  for  irriga- 
tion by  levelling  and  constructing  open  carrier  ditches,  elevated  above 
the  surface  of  the  land  to  be  irrigated. 

The  sewage  is  applied  directly  to  the  land  by  the  broad  surface 
irrigation  system,  either  by  being  run  in  furrows  between  rows  or 
spread  over  the  surface,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  crop. 
The  sewage  has  been  applied  to  various  crops,  grain,  asparagus, 
potatoes,  turnips,  beets,  orchard  and  some  garden  truck.  It  has  been 
principally  us<h1  in  raising  fruit  trees  for  nursery  stock,  the  young 
trees  being  irrigated  between  the  rows.  About  five  acres  are  used  as 
a  nursery. 

Generally  the  land  is  cultivated  as  soon  after  an  application  of  sew- 
age as  the  soil  becomes  dry  enough.  Part  of  the  year  it  is  necessary 
to  put  the  sewage  on  land  on  which  no  crops  are  growing.  It  is  then 
customary  to  riin  the  sewage  on  the  same  piece  of  land  for  several 
days  ill  succession,  and  aitor  the  land  becomes  sufficiently  dry,  to 
jilougli  or  cultivate  it.  Tliis  is  more  particularly  the  case  in  winter, 
wlicn  there  is  sufficient  moisture  for  crops  without  irrigation. 


5o0 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


The  sewag-e  is  not  allowed  to  flow  contiiniously  on  to  the  land,  as  too 
much  time  would  be  required  in  taking  care  of  it ;  besides  which  the 
ordinary  flow  is  not  of  sufficient  volume  to  operate  successfully.  As 
shown  by  the  plan,  Fig.  113,  a  reservoir  was  constructed  at  the  outlet 
of  the  sewer,  at  the  upper  line  of  the  sewage  farm.  This  reservoir  has 
a  capacity  of  75,000  gallons,  which  is  about  equal  to  the  daily  How  in 
the  dry  season.  Each  morning  the  outlet  is  opened,  and  the  contents 
discharged  in  from  two  to  four  hours,  as  desired.  The  bottom  and 
sides  of  the  reservoir  are  so  constructed  that  everything  gravitates  to 
the  outlet,  and  special  cleaning  is  seldom  necessary.  An  abundant 
supply  of  water  from  the  town  water-works  is  at  hand  for  use  if  re- 
quired. The  reservoir  is  covered  with  a  rough  board  structure,  and  a 
vent  chimney  of  lumber  is  carried  to  an  elevation  of  about  60  feet. 
This  has  been  sufficient  to  prevent  any  nuisance,  and  none  is  com- 
plained of,  although  the  reservoir  is  alongside  the  public  road. 


Open  Dram 

Fig.  113.— Plan  of  Sewage  Farm,  Redding,  California. 

It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Bassett  that  no  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in 
preventing  a  nuisance  on  the  irrigated  lands.  Care  and  attention  to 
secure  proper  distribution  and  cultivation  are  required,  and  with  these 
the  results  have  been  fairly  satisfactory.  There  is  sometimes  a  slight 
odor  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  freshl}^  irrigated  land,  or  where  the 
sewage  becomes  i^onded  previous  to  its  subsidence  into  the  soil,  but 
even  this  odor  is  not  noticeable  at  a  distance  of  200  feet, 

A  screen  near  the  upper  line  of  the  irrigated  lands  (see  Fig.  113) 
catches  such  large  objects  as  might  cause  an  obstruction  in  the  ditches 
or  interfere  with  the  free  flow  of  the  sewage  over  the  soil.  There  has 
been  no  underdrainage,  as  none  is  required,  the  soil  being  very  porous 
and  underlaid  with  an  extensive  bed  of  gravel. 

There  has  been  some  prejudice  against  the  sewage  farm,  but  this  is 
gradually  dying  out.  The  most  of  this  is  stated  to  have  been  mani- 
fested hv  two  landowners  immediately  south  of  the  tract  under  irriga- 
tion, who  from  the  first  objected  strongly  to  the  location  of  the  sewage 
farm  in  their  vicinity.  In  June,  1892,  one  of  the  objectors  had  the 
•proprietor  of  the  farm  arrested  for  maintaining  a  public  nuisance.     At 


LOS    ANGELES.   CALIFOKXIAo  551 

au  examination,  held  shortly  afterward,  the  examining  magistrate 
decided  that  the  evidence  was  not  such  as  would  secure  a  conviction, 
and  the  case  was  dismissed. 

Besides  the  sewage,  fresh  water  from  the  Sacramento  river,  sufficient 
for  40  acres,  is  available  for  irrigation  at  this  farm. 

Los  Angeles,  Caijfoknia. 

The  city  of  Los  Angeles,  California,  is  now  the  second  in  size  in  the 
State,  having  increased  from  a  population  of  11,183  in  1880  to  50,395  in 
1890.  Water-works  were  built  in  1862,  but  the  date  at  which  sewers 
were  first  put  in  ojieration  is  not  at  hand,  though  it  was  not  until  1887 
that  a  comprehensive  plan  for  sewerage  was  prepared.  In  that  year 
sewerage  plans  were  prepared  by  Fred  Eaton,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E., 
who  was  then  city  engineer  of  Los  Angeles.  The  sewers  were  de- 
signed on  the  separate  system,  and  proportioned  for  a  final  population 
of  200,000,  allowing  100  gallons  of  sewage  per  head  per  daj',  with  a 
maximum  fiow  of  150  gallons.  These  plans  were  reviewed  and  ap- 
proved by  Rudolph  Hering,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.  They,  however,  failed 
to  receive  the  sanction  of  tlie  final  municipal  authority. 

In  1889  Mr.  Eaton  presented  another  plan  for  the  drainage  of  the 
city,  somewhat  more  elaborate  than  the  former.  The  rai)id  growth 
since  ]887  and  the  great  improvements  in  street  paving,  as  well  as  the 
prospects  of  future  development  had  so  far  changed  the  conditions  as 
to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  more  liberal  provision  for  sewerage 
should  be  made  than  the  previous  plan  contemplated.  The  subject 
was  therefore  treated  on  a  larger  scale  than  in  the  previous  plans.  The 
street  sewers  were  to  a  great  extent  planned  on  the  combined  system, 
while  an  outfall  to  the  sea  was  provided  via  Ballona,  instead  of  via 
Centinella  Eancho,  as  in  the  previous  plans.* 

In  order  to  keep  the  cost  of  the  outfall,  which  would  of  necessity  be 
several  miles  in  length,  within  bounds,  provision  was  made  for  dis- 
charging storm-water  directly  into  the  Los  Angeles  river  and  other 
natural  water  courses  by  storm  overflows.  In  this  way  the  main  out- 
fall was  kept  down  to  a  size  about  siifficient  to  convey  the  dry  weather 
flow  of  the  sewage  of  the  city. 

In  spite  of  the  various  restrictions,  the  cost  of  the  enlarged  i)lan  was 
considerably  greater  than  that  of  1887.  When  put  before  the  citizens 
to  vote  bonds  for  its  execution,  the  project  was  defeated  and  therefore 
abandoned. 

At  this  time  the  daily  dry-weather  flow  of  sewage  amounted  to  about 
7,000,000  gallons  per  day,  and  was  disposed  of  by  irrigation  on  a  sandy 
tract  of  1,700  acres  adjoining  the  soutlieru  limits  of  the  city  and  known 

*  Lo8  Angeles  IB  ou  thr  Low  .Vii^j't'les  river,  about  l^  milfis  from  the  Pacific  ocean. 


5^2  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IX   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

as  the  Vernon  district.  The  sewage  was  taken  at  the  city  limits  by 
the  South  Side  Irrig-ation  Company,  who  distributed  it  to  the  different 
land-owners  of  the  district  through  open  ditches  owned  and  controlled 
by  the  company.  The  lands  reached  by  the  sewage  ditches  had,  pre- 
vious to  irrigation,  yielded  a  yearly  rental  of  about  $2.50  per  acre  ;  but 
with  sewage  irrigation  they  easily  rented  for  from  $15  to  $25  per  acre 
per  annum.  Throughout  the  whole  district  the  sewage  was  the  only 
water  that  could  be  depended  upon  for  irrigation,  except  on  a  few 
acres  reached  by  the  surplus  waters  of  the  irrigation  ditches  in  the 
city  of  Los  Angeles. 

During  the  era  of  real  estate  speculation  (1885-89),  a  great  deal  of  the 
land  of  the  Vernon  district  was  cut  up  into  lots  and  sold.  Residences 
iind  improvements  Avere  constructed  throughout  the  district,  and  for 
the  following  reasons  the  sewage  began  to  be  considered  the  source  of 
a  public  nuisance :  (1)  It  was  carried  in  open  ditches;  (2)  the  people 
were  obliged  to  take  it,  whether  they  wanted  it  or  not ;  (3)  the  irrigable 
area  was  considerably  reduced  by  subdivision  into  house  lots,  while  by 
reason  of  the  rapid  growth  of  the  city  the  quantity  of  sewage  was 
continually  increasing ;  and  (4)  the  owners  of  the  lands  Avere  more  in- 
terested in  selling  for  residences  than  in  developing  for  cultivation. 

Finally  injunction  suits  were  brought  against  the  South  Side  Irri- 
gation Company  to  compel  it  to  convey  the  sewage  in  closed  con- 
duits through  the  lands  of  such  OAvners  as  objected  to  open  ditches, 
and  also  to  restrain  the  company  from  delivering  sewage  to  lands  when 
not  required  thereon  for  the  irrigation  of  crops.  As  further  compli- 
cating the  matter,  the  city  had  only  one  (nitfall  and  was  unable  to  con- 
trol the  volume  of  sewage  ;  again,  whatever  volume  Avas  discharged  at 
the  city  line  the  Irrigation  Company  was  obliged  to  dispose  of.  The 
result  of  the  controversA^  was  that  the  injunctions  Avere  granted, 
whereupon  the  Irrigation  Company  turned  the  scAvage  into  the  Los 
Angeles  riA^er,  Avhere  it  has  since  gone  to  waste,  except  that  a  small 
area  has  remained  under  irrigation. 

In  the  meantime  the  question  of  ultimate  disposal  AA'as  pressing  for 
solution,  and  finally,  in  November,  1889,  the  council  ordered  that  "  all 
plans  and  propositions  for  seAvering  the  city,  and  all  proposals  for  the 
disposal  of  the  seAvage,  be  referred  to  a  Commission  of  Engineers,"  to 
consist  of  Rudolph  Hering,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  Fred  Eaton,  M.  Am. 
Soc.  C.E.,  George  Hansen,  C.E.,  George  C.  Knox,  C.E.,  and  August 
Mayer,  C.E.,  A\dio  reported  under  date  of  December  23,  1889. 

Tlie  Commission  took  up  the  various  projects  Avhicli  had  been  sub- 
mitted from  time  to  time,  including  those  of  a  citizens'  committee 
which  had  reported,  a  short  time  before  the  appointment  of  the  Com- 
mission, a  project  for  seAverage  eml)odying  substantially  Mr.  Eaton's 
plan  of  1887 ;  but  instead  of  an  outfall  to  the  sea  they  advocated  the 


LOS    ANGELES,   CALIP'ORNIA.  553 

erection  of  several  detached  stations  at  which  all  the  sewage  would  be 
treated  by  precipitation  or  filtration,  and  the  effluent  used  for  irrig-a^ 
tion  to  the  south  of  the  city.  The  estimates  submitted  by  the  citizens' 
committee  were  considerably  lower  than  either  the  engineer's  estimate 
of  1887  or  that  of  1889.  The  precipitation  plan  was,  however,  shown 
when  analyzed  to  entail  much  larger  capitalized  expense  than  the  citi- 
zens' committee  had  estimated. 

In  its  report  the  Commission  of  Engineers  took  the  matter  up  in 
detail,  and  presented  estimates  on  the  various  routes  and  plans  Avhicli 
had  been  under  discussion,  together  with  concise  statements  of  the 
problem  of  sewage  disposal  at  Los  Angeles,  and  concluded  "  that  on 
account  of  the  nearness  of  large  areas  of  irrigable  kinds  and  the  com- 
parative distance  to  the  ocean,  a  disposal  of  the  sewage  by  irrigation 
is  the  most  suitable  method  for  Los  Angeles." 

The  problem  of  disposal  by  irrigation  was,  however,  somewhat  com- 
plicated by  the  fact  that  the  city  owned  no  lands  upon  which  to  irri- 
gate, and  that  consequent!}^  disposal  by  irrigation  must  be  subject  to 
arrangements  with  the  land  owners  ;  and  in  order  to  obtain  their  views 
a  circular  was  prepared  and  placed  in  the  hand  of  every  land-owner 
that  could  be  reached  in  the  Vernon  and  Florence  districts  and  in  the 
direction  of  Ballona,  these  being  the  localities  to  the  south  and 
southwest  of  the  city  in  which  disposal  by  irrigation  would  be  natu- 
rally applied.  The  following  are  the  questions  asked  in  this  cir- 
cular : 

1.  Do  you  desire  sewage  for  irrigation? 

2.  Would  you  use  crude  sewage  ? 

3.  Would  you  prefer  erude  sewage  ? 

4.  Would  you  use  purified  sewage  ? 

5.  How  many  acres  of  Ian  d  do  you  own  ? 

6.  How  many  acres  would  you  irrigate? 

7.  What  is  the  nature  of  your  soil?     (Sandy,  loamy,  alkali,  or  moist.) 

8.  Do  you  wish  the  sewage  for  the  dry  season  only  ? 

9.  Would  you  take  the  sewage  for  the  wet  season  only  ? 

10.  Would  you  enter  into  contract  with  the  city  of  Los  Angeles,  and  give  bonds 
to  take  care  of  its  sewage  at  all  seasons,  and  if  so,  how  long? 

11.  Would  you  make  use  of  the  city's  sewage  at  times  when  you  needed  it,  if  its 
system  was  provided  with  an  outfall  sower  to  the  sea  ? 

12.  Do  you  use  well  water  for  household  pur^joses  ? 

13.  What  is  the  depth  of  your  well? 

14.  Is  your  well  tubed  ? 

15.  In  boring  and  digging  did  you  meet  with  any  impervious  layer  of  clay  or 
hard pan  ? 

10.   Would  you  object  to  the  irrigation  with  sewage  on  lands  in  your  vicinity  ? 

A  great  number  of  answers  were  received,  which  are  jn-eseuted  in 
four  tables  in  the  report.  The  following  from  the  report  gives  the 
main  points  of  these  four  tables : 

Table  No.  1  shows  for  Vernon  and  Florence  that  thirty-fivo  ])roperty  holders, 
owning  3,033  acres  of   land,   desire  sewage    either  crade  or  pure  for    irrigation ; 


554  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

twelve  persons,  controlling  367  acres,  will  make  use  of  purified  sewage  only  ;  thir- 
ty-two persons,  owning  2,955  acres,  will  take  sewage  for  the  dry  season  only  ;  six- 
teen persons,  owning  571  acres,  would  take  the  sewage  during  the  wet  season  ; 
three  persons,  controlling  48  acres,  intend  to  use  sewage  only  if  the  city  provides 
its  sewer  system  with  an  outfall  to  the  sea  ;  43  persons,  owning  all  the  property 
canvassed,  except  70  acres,  refuse  to  guarantee  by  contract  and  bond  to  take  the 
sewage  of  the  city  at  all  seasons  ;  three  persons,  owning  70  acres,  signify  their 
willino-ness  to  enter  into  contract  with  the  city  and  give  bond  to  take  the  sewage 
for  all  seasons ;  forty-five  persons  state  that  they  use  well  water  for  domestic  pur- 
iioses.  Table  No.  2  shows  for  Vernon  and  Florence  that  one  hundred  andtliirty-three 
property  owners,  controlling  5,125  acres,  positively  refuse  to  use  sewage  for  irri- 
gation, while  oue  hundred  and  twenty  four  of  them  object  also  to  sewage  irrigation 
in  their  vicinity.  Table  No.  3  shows  that  five  persons,  owning  1,026  acres  of  land 
in  the  direction  of  Balloua,  will  lake  the  sewage  for  irrigation,  crude  or  purified; 
six  persons,  owning  1,028^  acres,  will  take  the  sewage  for  the  dry  season  ;  no 
one  in  that  vicinity  oljers  to  take  sewage  during  the  wet  season  ;  all  six  persons 
refused  to  enter  into  contract  with  the  city  to  take  the  sewage  at  all  times,  while 
five  use  well  water  for  domestic  purposes.  Table  No.  4  shows  that  twenty-two 
property  holders  in  the  direction  of  La  Balloua,  controlling  1,711  acres,  refuse  to 
irrigate  with  sewage,  while  twenty-one  of  them  also  object  to  sewage  irrigation 
in  their  vicinity.     Most  of  the  land  is  reported  to  be  sandy  or  sandy  loam. 

As  stated  by  the  Commission,  the  conclusions  which  are  reached  from 
the  foregoing  point  to  the  folloAving  : 

(1)  That  a  great  portion  of  the  lands  lying  south  of  the  city  are  suitable  for  irri- 
gation purposes.     This  the  Commission  can  aftirni  from  personal  inspection. 

(2)  That  an  insufficient  amount  of  land  is  oflered  for  a  permanent  disposal  of  the 
citv's  sewage. 

(3)  That  enough  land  is,  however,  available  for  a  disposal  during  the  dry  season. 

(4)  That  an  insufficient  amount  of  sewage  would  be  accepted  in  winter. 

The  Commission  continued  the  discussion  as  follows  : 

The  problem,  therefore,  requiring  a  solution,  is  the  finding  of  a  practicable 
method  of  disposing  of  the  sewage  during  the  winter  months. 

In  order  to  have  some  tangible  data  regarding  the  length  of  time  during  which 
sewao-e  is  not  desired  bv  irrigators,  we  have  asked  and  received  a  statement  thereof 
from^'Mr.  Henrv  Martz,"^ President  of  the  South  Side  Irrigation  Company,  showing 
that  since  the  summer  of  1888  the  sewage  had  to  be  run  to  waste  during  the  fol- 
lowing periods  :  From  Nov.  13,  1888,  to  Feb.  14,  1889,  93  days,  no  sewage  was  used. 
From  Feb.  14  to  March  12,  1889,  20  days,  one-half  of  the  sewage  was  used 
(about  3i^  cubic  feet  per  second  on  650  acres,  or  3,480  gallons  per  day  per  acre.) 
From  March  12  to  April  20,  1889,  39  days,  no  sewage  was  used.  From  April 
20  to  Sept.  30,  1889,  163  days,  all  the  sewage  was  used  (about  8  cubic  feet 
per  second  on  1,700  acres,  or  3,040  gallons  per  day  per  acre).  From  Sept.  30 
to  Oct.  20,  1889,  20  days,  one-third  of  the  sewage  was  used  (about  three  cubic 
feet  per  second  on  1,700  acres,  or  1,140  gallons  per  day  per  acre).  Oct.  20  to  Dec. 
15,  1889,  56  davs,  no  sewage  was  used.  Therefore,  between  Oct.  20,  1888,  and 
Oct.  20,  1889,  on  187  days,  all  sewage  was  used;  for  26  days,  one-half  of  it;  for  20 
davs,  onlv  one-third  of  it ;  and  for  132  days  none  was  used.  Between  Sept.  30, 
1888',  and  Sept.  30,  1889,  on  207  days,  all  the  sewage  was  used  ;  for  26  days, 
one-half  of  it,  and  for  132  days  no  sewage  was  used. 

During  a  wet  year,  the  number  of  days  when  the  water-takers  do  not  want  the 
sewage  is  still  greater ;  but  for  the  purpose  of  a  comparative  estimate  of  cost,  we 
have'assumed  an  average  time  of  130  days  per  annum,  during  which  the  sewage 
must  be  disposed  of  by  other  methods  than  the  present  one.  Land  cannot  be 
properly  cultivated  which  must  receive  sewage  at  all  seasons.  The  crops  at  certain 
stages  (if  growth  will  be  ^lositively  injured  by  irrigation.  The  greatest  benefit  is 
derived  by  land-owners,  if  they  are  placed  in  such  a  position  that  they  can  take  the 


cuNCLUsioxs.  555 

sewage  whenever  aucl  in  whatever  quantity  they  desire.  Under  such  circumstances 
land  can  be  rented  at  higher  rates  than  otherwise,  and  consequently  sewage  water 
can  be  sold  at  much  better  prices  to  the  irrigators. 

After  further  discussion   of  the   several   questions   presented,  the 
Commission  arrived  at  the  following- 


CONCLUSIOXS. 

(1)  There  is  no  legal  authority  to  pollute  a  watercourse  and  to  create  and  main- 
tain a  nuisance  therein,  and  therefore  crude  sewage  cannot  be  discharged  into  the 
Los  Angeles  river  or  any  other  available  stream. 

(2)  For  this  reason  it  is  not  within  the  province  of  the  Commission  to  consider 
an  outfall  sewer  to  the  river  not  far  from  the  city,  or  to  any  other  watercourse 
within  reach,  without  making  provision  for  the  proper  purification  of  the  sewage  at 
the  point  of  discharge. 

(3)  If  the  annual  cost  of  purifying  the  sewage  by  precipitation  is  cajjitalized  and 
added  to  the  cost  of  a  short  outfall  sewer,  the  total  expense  of  any  such  method  of 
disposal  in  this  locality  is  far  too  expensive,  and  the  Commission  cannot  recom- 
mentl  it. 

(i)  The  filtration  of  sewage  of  the  winter  months  upon  800  acres  of  land  either 
near  the  Los  Angeles  river  or  the  Ballona  creek,  is  more  expensive  than  the  cost  of 
an  outfall  to  the  sea,  but  this  diiference  is  not  so  great  that  it  might  not  be  bal- 
anced by  othef  considerations  than  the  question  of  cost. 

(5)  The  expense  of  taking  care  of  the  sewage  during  the  winter  months  may 
possibly  be  balanced  by  the  receipts  from  the  croj^s  raised  during  the  summer 
months,  but  this  conclusion  depends  greatly  upon  the  skill,  intelligence,  and  in- 
tegrity of  the  management. 

(6)  The  operation  of  filtration  areas  on  the  part  of  the  city  would  oblige  it  to 
enter  directly  or  indirectly  into  comi^etitive  business  for  the  raising  and  sale  of 
crops,  which  is  to  be  looked  upon  with  disfavor. 

(7)  The  owners  in  severalty  of  those  large  areas,  which  by  reason  of  their  size  can 
alone  profitably  receive  the  amount  of  sewage  iipon  which  the  jiresent  estimate  is 
based,  refuse  to  enter  into  any  engagement  to  take  this  sewage  unless  the  city 
guarantees  them  against  any  loss  resulting  from  litigation. 

(8)  The  city  can  give  this  guarantee  or  can  guarantee  tlie  general  public  against 
the  creation  of  a  nuisance  only  when  it  is  in  position  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  jjrop- 
erly  at  all  times. 

(9)  Other  things  being  equal,  an  outfall  to  the  sea  which  requires  a  minimum  of 
care  and  attention  on  the  part  of  the  municipality,  is  therefore  to  be  jjreferred. 

The  outfall  sewer  to  Long  beach  along  the  Los  Angeles  river  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive among  the  sewers  projected  to  the  ocean. 

(10)  There  are  prospective  objections  to  the  disposal  of  sewage  at  Long  beach  by 
an  outfall  sewer  along  the  river,  on  account  of  the  shoals  and  sloughs  ])revailing  iu 
that  locality,  and  eventually  the  sewage  might  have  to  be  removed  further  into  the 
ocean  by  pumping. 

(11)  The  only  two  remaining  lines  of  outfall  sewers,  namely,  to  points  between 
Santa  Monica  and  Kedondo  beach,  are  equally  commendable  from  an  engineering 
])oint  of  view,  and  the  preference  between  them  may  be  decided  on  the  grounds  of 
cost . 

(\2)  The  outfall  sewer  by  Ballona  route  is  the  cheaper  one,  and  therefore  more 
preferable. 

(13)  The  draining  of  the  Cienega,  and  incidentally  improving  its  value",  may  be 
accomplished  by  laying  tiles  in  the  same  trench  with  the  sewer,  which  tiles  can 
drain  into  the  creek. 

(14)  If  the  sewage  is  freed  of  irs  floating  matter  by  screens  ]ilaced  on  the  line  of 
the  sewer  near  the  coast,  none  of  it  can  drift  to  points  along  the  shore  and  there 
deposit. 


556  sEWA(;i';  disposal  in  tup:  unitkd  states. 

(15)  By  carrying  the  outfall  2,000  feet  into  the  ocean  from  the  shore  and  letting 
the  sewage  escape  tweuty-tive  feet  below  low  water,  no  sewage  will  be  traceable  in 
the  ocean  water,  even  with  strong  currents,  at  a  distance  of  one  and  one-half  miles 
from  the  outlet,  and  a  chemical  analysis  will  be  unable  to 'detect  any  traces  of  sew- 
age at  a  distance  of  two  miles. 

(16)  ^yhile  Los  Angeles  at  the  present  time  derives  no  income  from  the  sale  of 
its  sewage  for  irrigation,  and  can  presumably  derive  no  income  from  such  source 
whilst  it  is  obliged  to  solicit  landowners  to  receive  the  sewage  and  to  guarantee 
the  users  against  loss  by  litigation,  it  is  unquestionably  a  fact  that,  with  an  outfall 
sewer,  the  city  will  be  placed  in  an  independent  position,  and  will  be  enabled  to 
sell  the  sewage  at  market  rates  to  those  who  desire  its  use. 

(17)  The  income  from  the  sale  of  sewage,  current  rates,  when  the  population  of 
the  city  reaches  200,000,  will  be  over  three  jaer  cent,  on  the  investment  in  building 
the  outfall  sewer. 

(18)  In  view  of  the  above,  the  Commission  recommends  the  construction  of  an 
•outfall  sewer  to  Ballona,  with  possibly  a  temporaiy  reduction  in  the  cost  by  using 
a  wooden  flume  in  crossing  the  marshes  near  the  sea,  and  by  contracting  for  the 
sale  of  sewage  water  during  the  irrigation  season. 

According-  to  statements  made  in  October,  1892,  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Dock- 
weiler,  the  present  City  Eng-ineer  of  Los  Angeles,  the  city  finally  voted 
$395,000  worth  of  bonds  to  construct  the  outfall  sewer  from  the  south- 
west corner  of  the  city  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  a  distance  of  12  miles. 
This  sewer,  which  it  is  expected  will  be  completed  during  1893,  has 
been  so  located  as  to  deliver  sewage  upon  the  lands  at  the  highest 
possible  level.  Provision  has  been  made  to  supply  sewag-e  from  this 
outfall  by  gates  and  hydrants  located  at  the  commanding-  points,  but 
the  landowners  will  be  required  to  make  their  own  arrangements  for 
conduits  to  their  lands  and  for  distribution.  It  is  proposed  to  charge 
about  $3  per  acre  per  annum  for  the  use  of  the  sewag-e.  It  is  stated 
that  at  least  20,000  acres  of  sandy  soil  are  available  for  irrig-ation 
from  the  outfall  sewer. 

In  the  report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  California  for  the  two 
years  ending  June  30,  1890,  there  appeared  a  paper  by  Mr.  D.  G. 
McGowau,  Health  Ofiicer  of  Los  Angeles,  from  which  the  following- 
extract  is  taken  : 

At  the  southeast  angle  of  the  city  limits  this  water  (sewage)  is  taken  by  the 
South  Side  Irrigation  Company  and  conducted  through  a  22-inch  cement  pipe  a 
distance  of  six  miles  to  the  sandy  plains  below  the  town  of  Florence.  Though 
eagerly  taken  at  first  by  the  Chinese  market  gardeners  for  irrigating  and  enriching 
their  truck  patches,  its  prolonged  use  has  been  found  to  be  a  detriment,  lessening 
the  productive  qualities  of  the  land  when  it  becomes  w^ell  saturated  with  the  sew- 
age matters.  It  is  a  fact  that  lands  ui^on  which  it  has  been  used  constantly  for 
several  years  have  been  abandoned  by  their  cultivators,  or  it  has  been  necessary  to 
pipe  pure  water  upon  them  to  take  the  place  of  sewage  for  the  j^urpose  of  irriga- 
tion . 

The  above  statements,  when  taken  in  connection  with  the  prior  ex- 
planation of  the  abandonment  of  the  use  of  sewage  from  the  ditches 
of  the  South  Side  Irrigation  Company,  lose  much  of  the  force  which 
they  seem  to  have  by  themselves.     It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  land 


HELENA,  MONTANA.  557 

was  overdosed  with  sewage,  and  it  is  quite  probable  that  little  or  no 
proper  attempt  at  a  rotation  of  crops  was  made.* 

Santa  Rosa,  Caltfoenia. 

The  population  of  Santa  Eosa  in  1880  was  3,016,  and  5,220  in  1890. 
The  Santa  Eosa  Water  Co.  built  water-works  in  1873.  A  few  streets 
were  sewered  on  the  separate  plan  some  j'ears  ago,  sewage  being 
discharged  into  Santa  Eosa  creek,  near  the  city  limits.  Complaints 
of  pollution  of  the  creek,  followed  by  a  lawsuit,  led  to  the  purchase 
by  the  city  of  between  18  and  19  acres  of  land  about  two  miles  from 
the  city,  to  which  an  outlet  sewer  was  built. 

The  farm  is  leased  to  parties  who  take  care  of  the  sewage  for  rental, 
using  it  for  gardening  i^urposes.  The  city  can  terminate  the  lease  at 
any  time.  The  year  the  farm  was  put  in  operation  is  not  stated,  but 
it  was  used  as  early  as  1890,  and  probably  at  least  one  or  tAvo  years 
earlier. 

A  slight  rise  near  the  end  of  the  outlet  sewer  causes  the  coarser 
solid  matter  to  collect.  Once  a  day,  or  as  often  as  is  necessary,  a  gate 
is  opened  and  the  collected  matter  flushed  out  into  a  pit  near  the  bank 
of  the  creek. 

When  not  used  for  irrigation  the  sewage  flows  on  to  low  land  near 
the  bank  of  the  creek,  which  laud  is  flushed  at  high  water.f 

Helena,  Montana. 

About  one-fourth  of  the  sewage  of  Helena  is  used  for  broad  irriga- 
tion on  a  farm  OAvned  by  tlie  city  and  leased  to  Mr.  A.  T.  Newbury  for 
live  years  from  1890,  prior  to  which  it  had  been  leased  for  about  two 
years  to  another  pai-ty  whose  name  has  not  been  given. 

Helena  had  a  population  of  3,624  in  1880  and  13,834  in  1890.  A  sew- 
erage system  was  put  in  operation  in  1889.  Jan.  1,  1893,  there  were 
26.5  miles  of  sewers,  receiving  no  rain-water  except  from  roofs.  There 
were  on  the  same  date  810  house  connections.  310  man -holes  with  per- 
forated covers,  and  76  Field  fliish-tanks  discharging  every  12  hours  225 
gallons.     G.  N.  Miller,  C.E.,  was  engineer  of  the  sewerage  system. 

Tlie  end  of  the  outfall  sewer  connects  directly  with  the  distributing 
ditches  of  the  farm.  The  sewage,  when  not  used  for  irrigation,  runs 
across  the  farm  into  and  through  two  ditches  extending  for  about  2i 
miles  to  Ten  Mile  creek,  a  stream  about  20  feet  wide  and  1  foot  deep. 

*  In  addition  to  the  articles  in  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.,  pp.  18.3-6  (Feb.  23,  1893),  the  further 
sotiroe  of  inform<ation  in  regard  to  Los  Angeles  sewage  disposal  is  a  Report  of  the  Board  of  En- 
gineers upon  tlie  l)i8pos,al  of  the  Sewage  of  Los  Angeles  f'itv,  and  its  Sewer  System,  presented 
to  the  Mayor  and  Council  of  the  City  of  Los  Angeles.  Dec.  23.  ISSO. 

t  Information  furnished  by  Newton  V.  Smyth,  city  engineer,  and  J.  L.  Jordan,  city  clerk. 


658  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  city  paid  $6,1U0  iu  7  per  cent,  bonds  for  the  40  acres  of  land  in- 
cluded in  the  farm,  which  has  received  sewage  for  about  four  years. 
The  farm  has  been  leased,  the  lessee  paying"  the  city  a  rental  of  $200  in 
cash ;  he  is  further  to  plant  100  trees  and  make  one  acre  of  lawn  per 
year,  caring  for  the  trees  and  lawn.  It  is  said  that  the  lessee  raises 
vegetables  and  all  kinds  of  nursery  stock  on  the  farm.  In  connection 
with  the  statement  made  below,  that  the  farm  has  never  paid  the 
interest  on  the  cost,  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  could  hardly  be 
expected  from  the  use  to  which  the  farm  seems  to  be  devoted  ;  nor,  for 
the  same  reason,  can  efficient  purification  throughout  the  year  be  ex- 
pected. 

The  sewage  is  distributed  over  the  farm  by  means  of  open  ditches 
and  is  brought  to  the  plants  by  flooding.  It  is  utilized  only  in  the 
groAving  season.     The  land  is  not  underdrained. 

The  above  information  was  given  by  Mr.  Geo.  K.  Keeder,  formerly 
city  engineer,  and  by  the  present  city  engineer,  Mr.  Jas.  S.  Keerl.  The 
following  additional  facts  and  opinions  regarding  the  operation  and 
success  of  the  farm  are  given  substantially  as  furnished  by  Mr.  Heeder 
in  July  and  September,  1892 : 

The  sewage  is  only  utilized  in  the  growing  season.  During  the 
winter  months,  or  rather  when  the  ground  is  so  frozen  that  there  is  no 
absorption,  the  sewage  is  allowed  to  flow  in  the  natural  channels  upon 
the  surface.  During  some  portions  of  the  j-ear,  even  when  not  used 
for  irrigation,  the  sewage  scarcely  gets  across  the  field  before  being 
absorbed  or  evaporated. 

Mr.  Keeder  states  that  the  farm  has  never  i^roved  a  source  of  income 
to  the  city — in  fact,  it  has  never  paid  the  interest  on  its  cost — and  has 
not  proved  a  success  in  disposing  of  sewage  throughout  the  whole 
year.  His  opinion  is  that  the  soil  is  not  suitable  for  the  purpose,  it 
being  a  gravc^lly,  sandy  loam  for  a  depth  of  six  inches,  beneath 
which  is  a  bed  of  quite  impervious  clay  and  gravel.  The  land  may  be- 
come more  suitable  after  years  of  working.  The  city  authorities,  in 
the  lease,  have  virtually  turned  over  all  control  of  the  sewage  to  the 
lessee,  and  thus  far  the  tenants  have  done  as  they  pleased. 

As  nearly  as  can  be  learned  from  the  aldermen,  the  intention  in  es- 
tablishing the  farm  was  ultimately  to  convert  it,  or  at  least  a  portion 
of  it,  into  a  park,  sewage  to  be  supplied  to  the  trees  by  means  of  po- 
rous tile.  It  has  also  been  proposed  to  make  it  an  absori)tion  farm, 
the  sewage  to  be  turned  on  to  one  portion  until  it  would  absorb  no 
more,  then  to  another,  and  so  on,  each  portion  after  drying  out  to  be 
turned  over  by  cultivation,  to  fit  it  for  a  new  dose  of  sewage.  This 
was  to  be  done  irrespective  of  seasons,  and  crops  were  to  be  a  second- 
ary consideration. 


stockton,  califouxia.  559 

Cheyenne,  Wyoming. 

Reg-arding  the  former  use  of  the  sewage  of  Chej^'enne  for  irriga- 
tion, the  following  information  has  been  furnished  by  Mr.  Fred  Bond, 
city  engineer,  under  date  of  Aug.  28, 1892  : 

The  sewage,  direct  from  the  sewer  outlet,  was  discharged  directly 
into  the  irrigating  ditch  of  a  i^rivate  ditch  owner,  and  mixed  therein 
with  water  already  in  the  ditch,  which  was  taken  from  the  creek  a  little 
further  up,  or  above  the  point  where  the  connection  with  the  sewer 
was  made.  In  this  way  the  creek  water  and  sewage  were  mixed  and 
carried  to  the  land  to  be  irrigated.  The  party  using  the  sewage  did 
not  pay  for  it,  the  obligations  between  the  cit}'  and  himself  being  con- 
sidered mutual.  It  is  stated  that  the  sewage  was  so  used  for  seven  or 
eight  years.  The  sewage  is  now  discharged  into  the  creek,  about 
2,500  feet  below  the  jDoint  where  it  formerly  entered  the  private  ditch. 

Cheyenne  had  a  population  of  3,456  in  1880  and  of  11,690  in  1890. 
Sewers  were  put  in  use  in  1883  on  the  separate  plan.  On  Feb.  20, 
1891,  about  five  miles  of  9-  to  15-inch  vitrified  salt-glazed  sewer  pipe 
had  been  laid. 

The  use  of  sewage  for  irrigation  was  stopped  on  account  of  the  ex- 
tension of  the  outlet  sewer  to  discharge  at  a  jjoint  below  the  ditch  of 
the  party  who  made  use  of  the  sewage. 

Stockton,  California. 

Provision  for  the  use  of  sewage  for  irrigation  has  been  made  at  Stock- 
ton, California,  but  the  fact  came  to  our  attention  too  late  to  secure  ex- 
act information.  The  construction  of  a  sewerage  sj^stem  was  begun  in 
1891,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  George  Atherton,  city  surveyor.  The 
sewage  is  pumped  into  an  outfall  sewer  14  inches  in  diameter  and  two 
miles  long,  discharging  into  the  Stockton  river.  It  is  stated  that  at 
regular  intervals  on  the  outlet  s(;wer,  gates  are  placed  "  by  means  of 
which  the  property  owners  turn  the  sewage  upon  the  land  during  the 
dry  season  for  irrigation  purposes." 

The  population  of  Stockton  in  1890  was  14,424. 

In  reviewing  the  foregoing  information  in  regard  to  sewage  disposal 
in  the  extreme  AYestern  States,  two  conclusions  seem  fairly  indicated, 
namely,  that  (1)  there  is  evidently  a  larg-e  field  for  sewage  irrigation 
in  that  region  ;  and  (2)  that  thus  far  a  portion  of  the  sewage  irrigation 
attempted  has  lieen  of  a  somewhat  unsatisfactory  character,  by  reason 
of  either  lack  of  attention  to  the  details  or  else  a  lack  of  thorough  infor- 
mation about  this  special  form  of  irrigation.  Both  of  these  ditficultii^s 
will  undouljtedh^y  correct  themselves  as  the  country  develops  and 
new  plants  are  put  in  operation. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PLANTS. 

In  order  to  include  within  the  limits  of  one  volume  descriptions  of 
all  the  sewag-e  purification  plants  known  to  be  in  operation  in  the 
United  States  in  the  early  part  of  1893,  it  is  necessary  to  touch  lightly 
upon  the  few  remaining-  works,  especially  as  some  of  them  were  put  in 
operation  since  the  manuscript  for  this  book  was  sent  to  the  printer. 

SUB-SUEFACE  DISPOSAL  AT  LeNOX,  MASSACHUSETTS. — Old  AND  NeW  PlaNTS. 

A  sewerage  system  was  built  at  Lenox,  Massachusetts,  in  1875-C,  with 
Col.  Geo.  E.  Waring-,  Jr.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  as  engineer.  The  population  of 
Lenox  was  small  at  that  time,  having-  been  only  2,043  four  years  later, 
or  in  1880,  and  money  for  an  outfall  sewer  to  the  river  was  not  avail- 
able. A  combined  system  of  sub-surface  and  surface  irrig-ation  was 
therefore  adopted.  The  outlet  sewer  emptied  into  a  combined  screen- 
ing and  flush  tank,  with  a  capacity  of  about  500  cubic  feet,  from  which 
a  Rogers-Eield  siphon  discharged  the  sewage  into  a  chamber  wdth 
two  outlets.  One  of  these  outlets  connected  with  some  10,000  feet  of 
sub-surface  irrigation  pipes,  and  the  other  to  a  surface  carrier  from 
which  the  sewage  flowed  over  the  top  of  the  ground. 

Tl;e  sub-surface  pipes  gave  much  trouble  on  account  of  becoming 
clogged  with  grease  and  other  solid  matter,  necessitating  the  frequent 
and  often  continued  use  of  the  surface  carriers.  For  the  past  few  j^ears 
settlement  has  been  eftected  in  the  screening  tank,  and  the  sewage  has 
all  been  discharged  upon  the  surface. 

The  total  area  employed  for  both  sub-surface  and  surface  disj^osal 
was  only  about  1^  acres,  which  soon  became  overtaxed.* 

Lenox,  as  is  well  known,  is  built  on  the  Berkshire  hills.  The  growth 
of  the  town  has  latterly,  it  appears,  been  away  from  the  old  disposal 
area  on  another  slope.  In  1887-8  an  outfall  sewer  was  built  to  receive 
the  sewage  of  the  newer  portion  of  the  town,  and  a  new  disposal  area 
was  put  in  operation  early  in  October,  1888,  Mr.  E.  W.  Bowditch,  of 
Boston,  having  been  engineer.  It  was  proposed  early  in  1893  to  pump 
to  the  new  outfall  sewer  the  sewage  from  the  district  tributary  to  the 
old  area. 

*  For  further  details  see  Col.  Waring's  Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage. 


LAND    DISPOSAL    AT   GKEENP^IELD,   MASSACHUSETTS.  561 

The  new  disposal  area  consists  of  17  acres  of  land  some  two  miles 
from  the  village,  on  a  quite  steep  hillside  near  the  Housatonic  river, 
into  which  the  effluent  is  discharged. 

A  12-inch  outfall  sewer  ends  in  a  circular  well  provided  with  a 
swinging-  gate  to  turn  the  sewage  at  will  into  either  side  of  a  settling- 
tank.  Sewage  is  drawn  from  the  top  of  the  settling-  tank  to  a  pipe-line 
connecting  with  six  wells  or  man-holes,  in  the  bottom  of  which  are 
thimble-shaped  iron  stopper  g-ates  provided  with  lift-rods  extending 
to  the  top  of  the  manhole.  When  these  g-ates  are  shut  down  the  sew- 
age Hows  beneath  the  man-holes,  and  v*hen  they  are  raised  it  tlows  into 
them,  the  inflow  varying  with  the  heig-ht  to  which  the  thimble-shaped 
stopper  is  raised. 

From  tlie  man-holes  the  sewage  passes  into  stone  drains  covered 
over  with  earth,  by  means  of  Akron  pipe  laid  near  the  top  of  the  drains, 
with  bell-joints  on  their  lower  ends,  through  which  the  sewage  escapes. 
There  were,  in  June,  1892,  six  of  these  drains,  each  some  300  to  400 
feet  long-. 

Sludg-e  is  drawn  from  the  settling  tank  to  a  pit  and  covered  with 
earth.  Mr.  T.  Post  took  charge  of  the  sewerage  system  in  1888,  and 
lias  remained  in  charge  since  that  time.* 

DisrosAL  UPON  Land  and  Sedevtentation  at  Amherst,  Massachusetts. 

In  1881  the  colleg-e  town  of  Amherst,  which  in  1890  had  a 
population  of  4,512,  flrst  conducted  a  small  amount  of  sewag-e  to  a 
settling  tank,  from  which  the  sewage  was  drawn  througli  ditches 
on  to  land,  and  the  sludge  also  removed  and  applied  to  land. 

In  1891  the  outlet  sewer  was  extended  and  a  settling-  tank  in  two 
compartments  built.  Mr.  Henry  Hastings  agreed  to  take  care  of  the 
settling  tank  for  live  years  from  1891  for  the  use  of  the  sludge.  The 
clarified  sewage  flows  to  Fort  river,  about  520  feet  distant. 

About  one-fourth  of  the  sewage  of  the  town  goes  in  another  direction, 
and  is  used  for  broad  irrigation  on  a  tract  of  grass  land,  which  has 
been  much  improved  by  the  sewage. f 

Disposal  on  Land  at  Greenfield,  MAssvcHrsi/rrs. 

Since  about  1882  the  sewage  of  Greenfield  has  been  discharged 
on  to  a  piece  of  meadow  land.  The  outfall  sewer  ends  abruptly  on 
the  edge  of  the  meadow.  Some  pains  were  apparently  taken  to 
distribute  the  sewage  over  the  land,  but  in  June,  1892,  the  sewage 

*  For  further  details  of  the  old  and  new  Lenox  plants  see  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  pp.  33  and 
5:^-4  (July  14  and  LM,  18'.t3),  rcRpectively. 

t  For  further  details  see  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  p.  ."il  (.Inly  ^.M,  189'J). 
36 


662  SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

was  entirely  without  control,  some  of  it  going-  on  to  the  meadow  and 
some  into  a  small  brook  leading  to  the  river.  So  far  as  can  be 
learned,  the  owner  of  the  land  wished  and  secured  the  discharge  of 
sewage  upon  the  meadow  for  fertilizing  purposes,  but  upon  his  death, 
the  outlet  was  neglected  and  has  remained  in  that  condition  since.* 

Mechanical  Separation  or  Filtration  at  Leadville,  Colorado. 

The  sewage  of  Leadville  is  passed  through  a  body  of  sand  and 
gravel  about  6  or  7  feet  deep  with  an  area  of  some  24  square  feet,  the 
effluent  being  discharged  into  California  gulch.  The  disposal  bed  is- 
in  two  sections,  for  alternate  use.  The  seAverage  system  was  built  in. 
1886  by  the  Leadville  Sewerage  Co.,  of  which  C.  N.  Priddy  is  superin- 
tendent. In  March,  1891,  there  were  40  sewer  connections.  In  the 
spring  of  1892  the  yearly  cost  of  caring  for  the  disposal  bed  was  given. 
as  $450.     The  population  of  Leadville  in  1890  was  10,834.t 

Mechanical  Separation  at  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey. 

The  system  of  purification  in  use  at  Atlantic  City  consists  of  an 
elevated  bed,  in  which  sand  with  hay  below  is  used  as  a  separating- 
material,  and  from  which  the  efflvient  falls  in  small  streams  or  in  drops, 
some  three  feet  to  gathering  gutters  which  lead  to  an  effluent  pipe. 
It  is  claimed  for  this  system  that  filtration  is  supplemented  by  aeration, 
and  thus  that  greater  purification  is  secured.  The  rate  of  treatment  at 
Atlantic  City  is  so  rapid  that  only  partial  mechanical  filtration,  or 
straining,  can  be  expected,  and  this  is  all  that  is  claimed  for  the  plant 
by  its  superintendent. 

Atlantic  City  is  a  well-known  seaside  resort  Avhicli  has  many  visitors- 
in  the  winter,  but  a  much  larger  number  in  the  summer.  Its  popula- 
tion in  June,  1890,  was  13,055,  against  5,477  in  1880.  It  is  said  that 
during  the  height  of  the  summer  season  as  many  as  150,000  people  are 
to  be  found  in  the  city  on  some  Sundays. 

The  sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  systems  were  built  in  1885  by  a 
private  company,  and  are  now  owned  and  operated  by  the  Atlantic  City 
Sewerage  Co. 

All  the  sewage  at  Atlantic  City  is  pumped,  the  pump-well  being- 
located  in  the  ptimping  station  and  being  ventilated  to  the  chimney. 
Features  of  both  the  j^umping  plant  and  filter  beds  are  covered  by 
patents,  and  the  method  of  disposal  is  called  the  "  West  system "  by 
the  owners  of  the  patents,  the  National  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Utiliza- 
tion Co.  of  New  York  City.     It  is  only  fair  to  add  that  a  comparatively 

*  See  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxviii.,  p.  196  (Sept.  1,  1892),  for  additional  facts  regarding  sewage 
disposal  at  Greenfield. 

t  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.,  p.  52  (Jan.  19,  1893). 


CHEMICAL    PRECIPITATIOX    AT    CANTON,    OHIO.  563 

slow  rate  of  filtration  was  the  design  of  the  patentee  of  the  sys- 
tem. 

The  daily  sewage  pumping  records  for  the  year  ending  November 
30,  1892,  illustrated  by  diagrams  and  analyzed  in  detail,  are  given  in 
Chapter  VII.,  "  Quantity  of  Sewage  and  Variation  Rate  of  Flow."  * 

Electeical  Treatment  at  Beewstees,  New  York. 

Brewsters  is  a  small  village  in  the  Crotou  watershed,  about  52 
miles  from  New  York  City.  To  prevent  pollution  of  the  New  York 
water  supply  the  Department  of  Public  Works  has  built  some  sewers 
m  the  village  and  caused  a  plant  to  be  erected  for  the  treatment  of  the 
sewage.  Salt  and  water,  at  the  rate  of  160  lbs.  of  the  former  to  1,000 
gallons  of  the  latter,  is  subjected  to  an  electrical  current  of  about  700 
amperes  and  5  volts,  the  current  passing  through  a  positive  electrode 
of  copper,  plated  with  platinum,  and  a  negative  electrode  of  carbon, 
both  immersed  in  the  brine.  The  electrically  treated  solution  is  dis- 
charged directly  into  the  outlet  sewer,  through  which  it  flows  for  a  few 
hundred  feet  to  a  series  of  trenches  in  meadow  land,  perhaps  500  feet 
from  the  east  branch  of  the  Croton  river.  The  treated  sewage  soaks 
oti"  into  the  ground  as  best  it  can.  The  salt  used  costs  about  $4  per 
ton.  The  power  to  drive  the  dynamo  is  furnished  by  a  20-H.  P.  hori- 
zontal boiler  and  a  15-H.  P.  engine.     The  dynamo  is  4-H.  P. 

The  volume  of  sewage  is  very  small,  being  that  derived  from  some  35 
buildings,  and  no  definite  figures  regarding  the  operation  of  the  plant 
are  available.  The  plant  was  built  by  the  Woolf  Electric  Disinfect- 
ing Co.,  of  New  York  City,  and  was  devised  by  Albert  E.  Woolf,  also 
of  New  York.  The  contract  price  was  $5,000,  which  the  contractors 
claim  is  below  the  actual  cost  of  the  plant. f  It  is  reported  that  the 
treated  liquid  is  discharged  into  the  sewer  at  the  rate  of  1  part  to  100, 
which  with  a  solution  of  the  strength  stated  above  is  equivalent  to 
1,(]00  lbs.  of  salt  to  1,000,000  gallons  of  sewage. 

Chemic.\l  Precipitation  at  Canton,  Ohio. 

Tlie  accompanying  plan  and  sections.  Figs.  Ill  and  115.  show  the 
general  features  of  the  works  at  Canton,  which  were  put  in  operation 
about  May  1,  1893.  Chemical  precipitation  works  were  recommended 
by  Samuel  M.  Gray,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  in  March,  1887,  who  also  pre- 
pared plans  for  the  works.  The  plant  was  finally  constructed  after  the 
detailed  plans  of  Mr.  L.  E.  Chapin,  Assoc.  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.  The 
tanks  are  operated  on  the  continuous  plan.     The  chemical  mixers  and 

*  The  above  is  extracted  from  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix.,  pp.  \22-A  (Feb.  9,  1893). 
+  Sec  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxx.,  p.  41  (July  13,  189:3). 


564 


SEWAGE   UlSl'USAL    IX    THE    UNITED   STATES. 


I  Screen  and 
\:Oate  Chamber 


SludgeSroraqe  Tarrk 
andWe/l 


20"  Ou tier 


^Effluent  Chamber 


S:^  No? 

^      Precipifvit/on    Tanh 


No. 


9e'o" 


5/utige  Channe/ 


No. 3. 


Weir--  "^ 


^Iff-^ 


Fig.  114.— Plan  of  Chemical  Precipitation  Plant,  Canton,  Ohio. 


Half  O-oss  Section 
ArChcnnel  Lr.dof  Tank.  AT  Upper  End  of  Tank. 


Long  tudinal  Section  „    oludq°  ond  Effluent  Subway 

Fig.  115. — Secticins  or  Canton  Puecjpttatino  Tanks. 


THE    world's    COLUMBIAN    EXPOSITIOX.  565 

sludge  compressing-  machinery  were  furnished  by  the  Bonnet  Co.,  of 
Canton.  The  popuhition  of  Canton  in  1890  was  26,189.  In  the  spring- 
of  1893  about  16  miles  of  sewers  and  some  900  house  connections  were 
in  use.* 

Chemical  Pkecipitation  at  Chautauqua,  New  York. 

In  the  summer  of  1893,  works  were  put  in  operation  for  the  treat- 
ment of  the  sewage  of  Chautauqua,  the  well-known  summer  resort  on 
the  lake  of  the  same  name.  There  are  four  settling-  tanks.  The  chem- 
ical mixers  and  filter  presses  were  made  by  the  Bonnot  Co.,  of  Canton, 
O.  Early  in  August  the  sewage  of  5,000  people,  some  130,000  gallons 
per  day,  was  being  treated,  with  a  resultant  pressed  sludge  of  2,500 
j)ounds,  of  which  40  per  cent,  was  water. 

Samuel  M.  Gray,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  Providence,  R.  I.,  was  engaged 
as  consulting  engineer  for  the  plant,  and  under  his  direction  compet- 
itive plans,  with  proposals  for  construction,  were  received.  The  con- 
tract was  awarded  to  Wm.  B.  Landreth,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  Jamestown, 
N.  Y.,  who  built  the  works  after  the  designs  submitted  by  him,  Thos. 
McKenzie,  Jun.,  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  acting  as  constructing  engineer. 

Chemical  Precipitation  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition, 

Chicago. 

The  sewage  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893  was 
treated  by  the  German  vertical  tank  system,  the  plant  being  modelled 
directly  after  that  at  Dortmund,  designed  by  Karl  Kinebiihler.  Fig. 
116  shows  a  combined  section  and  elevation  of  the  tanks.  The  sew- 
age is  forced  to  the  elevated  central  receiving  and  distributing  tank 
by  means  of  Shone  ejectors  stationed  about  the  Fair  grounds.  From 
the  distributing  tank  it  pass(>s  to  either  or  all  of  the  four  precijutating 
tanks,  receiving  sulpliate  of  alumina,  or  copijeras,  and  lime  on  its  way. 
The  alumina  or  copperas  is  mixed  with  the  sewage  by  means  of  a  re- 
volving screw  placed  in  a  special  casting,  as  shown  by  the  illustration, 
and  tlu^  lime  by  the  core  mixer,  also  shown  in  the  illustration,  Fig.  116. 
Difi'erent  chemicals  and  different  amounts  of  any  chemical  can  be  used 
at  the  same  time,  and  the  results  noted  by  means  of  the  frequent  chem- 
ical and  bacteriological  examinations  which  are  being  made. 

The  sludge  may  be  drawn  off  while  the  tanks  are  in  operation, 
through  the  sludge-pipe  at  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  to  one  of  three 
sludge-tanks,  each  4  feet  in  diameter  and  8  feet  high,  giving  a  capacity 
of  al)()ut  loo  cubic  feet.     The  sludge  is  forced  by  means  of  compressed 

*  For  additional  information  see  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxix. ,  pp.  520-1  (June  1,  1893),  and  vol.  xxx., 
pp.  00  and  01  (July  '20,  IB'J'.i). 


5G() 


sewagp:  disposal  in  the  united  states. 


air  into  one  of  two  filter  presses,  made  by  Perrin  &  Co.,  Chicag-o.  Each 
press  has  50  cells,  36  inches  in  diameter  and  11  inches  through,  and 
each  sludge-cake  weighs  about  47  pounds,   or  each  pressful  about 


Fig.  116. —Elevation  and  Section  of  Receiving  and  Pkecipitating  Tanks, 
Wokld's  Columbian  Exposition. 


2,350  pounds.     The  sludg-e  is  burned  in  an  Engle  garbage  crematory, 
near  by. 

The  plant  was  put  in  operation  April  14,  1893,  and  so  far  as  the  rec- 
ord is  available  treated  sewage  as  follows  : 

Month  of  May 940,000  gallons  per  day. 

"  June 1,630,000         "  "      " 

First  three  weeks  in  July .  2,250,000        "  "      " 

The  cost  of  chemicals  until  July  1  was  at  the  rate  of  about  $8  per 
1,000,000  gallons  treated.  The  plant  is  operated  in  eight-hour  shifts, 
an  engineer,  fireman,  pressman,  chemical  man,  and  two  laborers  in  the. 
morning  ;  the  same,  less  the  two  laborers,  in  the  afternoon  ;  and  again, 
less  the  laborers  and  pressman,  at  night. 

The  plant  cost  from  $30,000  to  $33,000,  excluding  the  building.  It 
was  built  under  the  direction  of  W.  S.  McHarg,  Engineer  of  Water 
Supply,  Sewerage,  and  Fire  Protection  of  the  Exposition,  and  is  run 


PUKIFICATION    WORKS    UNDER   CONSTRUCTION.  567 

under  the  supervision  of  Allen  Hazen,  Chemist  of  the  Lawrence  Ex- 
periment Station  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health.* 

Purification  Works  Under  Construction. 

In  addition  to  the  works  described,  plants  are  known  to  be  under 
construction  as  follows  ;  Meriden,  Connecticut,  intermittent  filtration, 
with  Carrol  Ph.  Bassett,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.E.,  engineer  ;  Brockton,  Massa- 
chusetts, intermittent  filtration,  F.  H.  Snow,  engineer ;  Princeton,  New 
Jersey,  Professor  C.  M'Millan,  engineer.  There  are  also  a  number  of 
places  where  plans  of  sewage  disposal  works  have  been  prepared,  but 
where  no  action  has  yet  been  taken  towards  beginning  construction. 

Plans  have  been  prejiared  for  the  following  towns  in  New  York  state, 
on  which  construction  is  likely  to  begin  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  two  : 
The  village  of  Far  Rockaway,  -T.  J.  Powers,  engineer ;  the  Twenty- 
fourth  AVard  of  the  Cit\'  of  Brooklyn,  Robert  Van  Buren,  M.  Am.  Soc. 
C.  E.,  chief  engineer  ;  the  villages  of  Holly  and  Albion,  Waldo  and 
Dodgson,  engineers,  Geo.  W.  Rafter,  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  consulting 
engineer.  There  are  also  several  public  institutions  in  different  parts 
of  the  United  States  where  something  has  been  done  in  the  way  of 
sewage  purification  plants,  but  which  are  uot  referred  to  for  the  reason 
that  so  far  as  known  to  the  authors  the  plans  do  not  involve  anything 
of  special  interest  over  what  has  been  already  given. 

*  For  additional  information  and  illustrations  see  Eng.  News,  vol.  xxx.,  p.  bG  (Aug.  o,  lt>93). 


APPENDICES, 


APPENDIX    I. 

The  following'  is  the  English  Kivers  Pollution  Prevention  Act  of 
1876,  under  the  provisions  of  which  the  large  number  of  purification 
works  constructed  in  that  country  during  the  last  fifteen  years  have 
been  carried  out. 

(39  and  40  Vict.  chap.  75.) 

AN  ACT  for  making  further  Provision  for  the  Prevention  of  the  Pollution  of  Rivers.  (15th 
August,  1876.) 

Whereas  it  is  expedient  to  make  furtlior  provision  for  the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  rivers, 
and  in  particular  to  prevent  the  estaVjlishinent  of  new  sources  of  pollution  : 

Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  Queen's  most  Excellent  Majesty,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  this  present  Parliament  assem- 
bled, and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows  : — 

1.  This  Act  may  be  cited  for  all  purposes  as  the  Rivers  Pollution  Prevention  Act,  1876. 

PART  I. 

Solid  Matters. 

2.  Every  person  who  puts,  or  causes  to  be  put  or  to  fall,  or  knowingly  permits  to  be  put  or  to 
fall  or  to  be  carried  into  any  stream,  so  as  to  either  singly  or  in  combination  with  other  similar 
acts  of  the  same  or  any  other  person  to  interfere  with  its  due  flow,  or  to  pollute  its  waters,  the 
solid  refuse  of  any  manufactory,  manufacturing  process  or  quarry,  or  any  rubbish  or  cinders,  or 
any  other  waste,  or  <any  putrid  solid  matter,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  committed  an  offence  against 
this  Act. 

In  proving  interference  with  the  due  flow  of  any  stream,  or  in  proving  the  pollution  of  any 
stream,  evidence  may  be  given  of  repeated  acts  which  together  cause  such  interference  or  pollu- 
tion, although  each  act  taken  by  itself  may  not  be  sufiBcient  for  that  purpose. 

PART    II. 

Sewage  Pollutions. 

3.  Every  person  who  causes  to  fall  or  flow  or  knowingly  permits  to  fall  or  flow  or  to  be  carried 
into  any  stream  any  solid  or  liquid  sewage  matter,  shall  (subject  as  in  this  Act  mentioned)  be 
deemed  to  have  committed  an  offence  against  this  Act. 

Where  any  sewage  matter  falls  or  flows  or  is  carried  into  any  stream  along  a  channel  used,  con- 
structed, or  in  process  of  cou>truction  at  the  date  of  the  passing  of  this  Act  for  the  purpose  of 
conveying  such  sewage  matter,  the  i^erson  causing  or  knowingly  permitting  the  sewage  matter  so 
to  fall  or  flow  or  to  l)c  carried  shall  not  }>"  deeruod  to  have  committed  an  offence  against  this  Act 
if  he  shows  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  having  cognizance  of  the  case  that  he  is  using  the  best 


570  APPENDICES. 

practicable  and  available  means  to  render  harmless  the  sewage  matter  so  falling  or  flowing  or  car- 
ried into  the  stream. 

Where  the  Local  Government  Board  are  satisfied  after  local  inquiry  that  further  time  ought  to  be 
granted  to  any  sanitary  authority  which  at  the  date  of  the  passing  of  this  Act  is  discharging  sew- 
age matter  into  any  stream,  or  permitting  it  to  be  so  discharged,  by  any  such  channel  as  aforesaid, 
for  the  purpose  of  enabling  such  authority  to  adopt  the  best  practicable  and  available  means  lor 
renderino'  harmless  such  sewage  matter,  the  Local  Government  Board  may  by  order  declare  that 
this  section  shall  not,  so  far  as  regards  the  discharge  of  such  sewage  matter  by  such  channel,  be 
in  operation  until  the  expiration  of  a  period  to  be  limited  in  the  order. 

Any  order  made  under  this  section  may  be  from  time  to  time  renewed  by  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board,  subject  to  such  conditions,  if  any,  as  they  may  see  fit. 

A  person  other  than  a  sanitary  authority  shall  not  be  guilty  of  an  offence  under  this  section  in 
respect  to  the  passing  of  sewage  matter  into  a  stream  along  a  drain  communicating  with  any 
sewer  belonging  to  or  under  the  control  of  any  sanitary  authority,  provided  he  has  the  sanction  of 
the  sanitary  authority  for  so  doing. 

PART    III. 
Manifacturing  axd  Mining  Pollutions. 

4.  Every  person  who  causes  to  fall  or  flow  or  knowingly  permits  to  fall  or  flow  or  to  be  carried  into 

any  stream  any  poisonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  liquid  proceeding  from  any  factory  or  manu- 
facturing process,  shall  (subject  as  in  this  Act  mentioned)  be  deemed  to  have  committed  an  offence 
against  this  Act. 

Where  any  such  poisonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  liquid  as  aforesaid  falls  or  flows  or  is  carried 
into  any  stream  along  a  channel  used,  constructed,  or  in  process  of  construction  at  the  date  of  the 
passing  of  this  Act,  or  any  new  channel  con-structed  in  substitution  thereof,  and  having  its  out- 
fall at  the  same  spot,  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  such  liquid,  the  person  causing,  or  knowingly 
permitting  the  poi.sonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  liquid  so  to  fall  or  flow  or  to  be  carried,  shall  not 
be  deemed  to  have  committed  an  offence  against  this  Act  if  he  shows  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
court  having  cognizance  of  the  case  that  he  is  using  the  best  practicable  and  reasonably  available 
means  to  render  harmless  the  poisonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  liquid  so  falling  or  flowing  or  car- 
ried into  the  stream. 

o.  Every  person  who  causes  to  fall  or  flow,  or  knowingly  permits  to  fall  or  flow,  or  to  be 
carried  into  any  stream,  any  solid  matter  from  any  mine  in  such  quantities  as  to  prejudicially 
int  rfere  with  its  due  flow,  or  any  poisonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  solid  or  Uqtiid  matter  pro- 
ceeding from  any  mine,  other  than  water  in  the  same  condition  as  that  in  which  it  has  been 
drained  or  raised  from  such  mine,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  committed  an  offence  against  this 
Act,  unless  in  the  case  of  poisonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  matter  he  shows  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  court  having  cognizance  of  the  case  that  he  is  using  the  best  practicable  and  reasonably  avail- 
able means  to  render  harmless  the  poisonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  matter  so  falling  or  flowing  or 
carried  into  the  stream. 

6.  Unless  and  until  Parliament  otherwise  provides,  the  following  enactment  .shall  take  effect, 
proceedings  shall  not  be  taken  against  any  person  under  this  part  of  this  Act  save  by  a  sanitary 
authority,  nor  shall  any  such  proceedings  be  taken  without  the  consent  of  the  Local  Government 
Board :  Provide  J,  always,  that  if  the  sanitary  authority,  on  the  application  of  any  person 
interested  alleging  an  offence  to  have  been  committed,  shall  refuse  to  take  proceedings,  or  apply 
for  the  consent  by  this  section  provided,  the  person  so  interested  maj'  applj-  to  the  Local  Govern- 
ment Board,  and  if  that  Board,  on  inquiry,  is  of  opinion  that  the  sanitary  authority  should  take 
proceedings,  they  may  direct  the  sanitary  authority  accordinglj',  who  shall  thereupon  commence 
proceedings. 

The  said  Board,  in  giving  or  withholding  their  consent,  shall  have  regard  to  the  industrial 
interests  involved  in  the  case,  and  to  the  circumstances  and  requirements  of  the  locality. 

The  said  Board  shall  not  give  their  consent  to  proceedings  by  the  sanitary  authority  of  any 
district  which  is  the  seat  of  any  manufacturing  industry,  unless  they  are  satisfied,  after  due 
inquiry,  that  means  for  rendering  harmless  the  poisonous,  noxious,  or  polluting  liquids  proceed- 
ing from  the  processes  of  such  manufactures  are  reasonably  practicable  and  available  under  all  the 


APPENDIX   I.  571 

circumstances  of  the  case,  and   that   no   material  injur}'  will   be  inflicted  by  such  proceedings 
on  tlie  interests  of  such  industry. 

Any  person  within  such  district  as  aforesaid,  against  whom  proceedings  are  proposed  to  be 
taken  under  this  part  of  this  Act,  shall,  notwithstanding  any  consent  of  the  Local  Government 
Board,  be  at  liberty  to  object  before  the  sanitary  authority  to  such  proceedings  being  taken,  and 
such  authoiit}-  shall,  if  required  in  writing  by  such  person,  afford  him  an  opportunity  of  being 
heard  against  such  proceedings  being  taken,  so  far  as  the  same  relate  to  his  works  or  manufactur- 
ing processes.  The  sanitary  authority  shall  thereupon  allow  such  person  to  be  heard  by  himself, 
agents,  and  witnesses,  and  after  inquiry,  such  authority  shall  determine,  having  regard  to  all  the 
considerations  to  which  the  Local  Government  Board  are  by  this  section  directed  to  have  regard, 
whether  such  proceedings  as  aforesaid  shall  or  shall  not  be  taken  ;  and  where  any  such  sanitary 
authority  has  taken  proceedings  under  this  Act,  it  shall  not  be  competent  to  other  sanitary 
authorities  to  take  proceedings  under  this  Act  till  the  party  against  whom  such  proceedings  are 
intended  shall  have  failed  in  reasonable  time  to  carry  out  the  order  of  any  competent  court  under 
this  Act. 

PART  IV. 

Administration. 

7.  Every  sanitary  or  other  local  authority  having  sewers  under  their  control  shall  give  facilities 
for  enabling  manufacturers  within  their  district  to  carry  the  liquids  proceeding  from  their 
factories  or  manufacturing  processes  into  such  sewers  : 

Provided,  that  this  section  shall  not  extend  to  compel  any  sanitary  or  other  local  authority  to 
admit  into  their  sewers,  any  liquid  which  would  prejudicially  affect  such  sewers,  or  the  disposal 
by  sale,  application  to  land,  or  otherwise,  of  the  sewage  matters  conveyed  along  such  sewers,  or 
which  would  from  its  temperature  or  otherwise  be  injurious  in  a  sanitary  point  of  view  :  Pro- 
vided, also,  that  no  sanitary  authority  shall  be  required  to  give  such  facilities  as  aforesaid  where 
the  sewers  of  such  authority  are  only  sufficient  for  the  requirements  of  their  district,  nor  where 
such  facilities  would  interfere  with  any  order  of  any  court  of  competent  jurisdiction  respecting 
the  sewage  of  such  authority. 

8.  Every  sanitary  authoritj'  shall,  subject  to  the  restrictions  in  this  Act  contained,  have  power 
to  enforce  the  provisions  of  this  Act  in  relation  to  any  stream  being  within  or  passing  through  or 
by  any  part  of  their  district,  and  for  that  purpose  to  institute  proceedings  in  respect  of  any 
offence  against  this  Act  which  causes  interference  with  the  due  flow  within  their  district  of  any 
such  stream,  against  any  other  sanitary  authority  or  person,  whether  such  offence  is  committed 
within  or  without  the  district  of  the  first-named  sanitary  authority. 

Any  expenses  incurred  by  a  sanitary  authority  in  the  e.vecution  of  this  Act  shall  be  payable  as  if 
they  were  expenses  properly  incurred  by  that  authority  in  the  execution  of  the  Public  Health  Act, 
187o. 

Proceedings  may  also,  subject  to  the  restrictions  in  this  Act  contained,  be  instituted  in  respect 
of  any  offence  against  this  Act  by  any  i)erson  aggrieved  by  the  commission  of  such  offence. 

9.  The  Con.servancy  Board  constituted  under  the  Lee  Conservancy  Act,  18(!8,  shall,  within  the 
area  of  their  jurisdiction,  have,  to  the  exclusion  of  any  other  authority,  the  powers  for  enforcing 
the  provisions  of  this  .\ct  which  sanitary  authorities  have  under  this  Act. 

The  said  Conservancy  Board  may  also  enforce  the  provisions  of  the  Lee  Conservancy  Act,  1868, 
under  the  head  or  division,  "  Protection  of  Water,"  by  application  to  the  county  court  having 
jurisdiction  in  the  place  in  which  any  offence  is  committed  against  those  provisions ;  and  such 
court  may  by  summary  order  require  any  person  to  abstain  from  the  commission  of  any  such  of- 
fence, and  the  provisions  of  this  Act  with  respect  to  summary  orders  of  county  courts  and  appeal 
therefrom  shall  apply  accordingly. 

LP:GAL  PROCEEDINGS.    SAVING  CLAUSES.     DEFINITIONS. 
(1)  Legal  Puoceedings. 

10.  The  county  court  having  jurisdiction  in  the  place  where  any  offence  against  this  Act  is  com- 
mitted may  by  summary  order  require  any  yiorson  to  abstain  from  the  commission  of  such  offence, 
and  where  such  offence  consists  in  default  to  perform  a  duty  under  this  Act  may  require  him  to 


57*2  AI'PKXDICKS. 

perform  such  duty  in  manner  in  the  said  order  specified  ;  the  court  may  insert  in  any  order  such 
conditions  as  to  the  time  or  mode  of  action  as  it  may  think  jubt,  and  may  suspend  or  rescind 
any  order  on  such  undertaking  being  given  or  condition  being  performed  as  it  may  think  just,  and 
generally  may  give  such  directions  for  carrying  into  effect  any  order  as  to  the  court  seems  meet. 
Previous  to  granting  such  order,  the  court  may,  if  it  think  fit,  remit  to  skilled  parties  to  report  on 
the  "  best  practicable  and  available  means,"  and  the  nature  and  cost  of  the  works  and  apparatus 
required,  who  shall  in  all  cases  take  into  consideration  the  reasonableness  of  the  expense  involved 
in  their  report. 

Any  person  making  default  in  complj'ing  with  any  requirement  of  an  order  of  a  county  court 
made  in  pursuance  of  this  section  shall  pay  to  the  person  complaining,  or  such  other  person  as  the 
court  may  direct,  such  sum,  not  exceeJing  fifty  pounds  a  day  for  every  day  during  which  he  is  in 
•  default,  as  the  court  may  order;  and  such  penalty  shall  be  enforced  in  the  same  manner  as  any 
debt  adjudged  to  be  due  by  the  court ;  moreover,  if  any  person  so  in  default  persists  in  disobeying 
any  requirement  of  any  such  order  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  a  month,  or  such  other  period  less 
than  a  month  as  may  be  prescribed  by  such  order,  the  court  may  in  addition  to  any  penalty  it  may 
impose  appoint  any  person  or  persons  to  carry  into  cftect  such  order,  and  all  expenses  incurred  by 
any  such  person  or  persons  to  such  amount  as  may  be  allowed  by  the  county  court  shall  be  deemed 
to  be  a  debt  due  from  the  person  or  persons  executing  such  order,  and  may  be  recovered  accord- 
ingly in  the  county  court. 

11.  If  either  party  in  any  proceedings  before  the  county  court  under  this  Act  feels  aggrieved  by 
the  decision  of  the  court  in  point  of  law,  or  on  the  merits,  or  in  respect  of  the  admission  or  rejec- 
tion of  any  evi  lence,  he  may  appeal  from  that  decision  to  the  High  Court  of  Justice. 

Tlie  appeal  shall  be  in  the  form  of  a  special  case  to  be  agreed  upon  by  both  parties  or  their  attor- 
nej's,  and,  if  they  cannot  agree,  to  be  settled  by  the  judge  of  the  county  court  upon  the  application 
of  the  parties  or  their  attorneys. 

The  court  of  appeal  may  draw  any  inferences  from  the  facts  stated  in  the  case  that  a  jury  might 
draw  from  facts  stated  by  witnesses. 

Subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  section,  all  the  enactments,  rules,  and  orders  relating  to  proceed- 
ings in  actions  in  county  courts,  and  to  enforcing  judgments  in  county  courts  and  appeals  from  de- 
cisions of  the  county  court  judges  and  to  the  conditions  of  such  appeals,  shall  apply  to  all  proceed- 
ings under  this  Act,  and  to  an  appe  d  from  such  action,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  such  action  and 
appeal  related  to  a  matter  within  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the  court. 

Any  plaint  entered  in  a  county  court  under  this  Act  may  be  removed  into  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  by  leave  of  any  judge  of  the  said  High  Court,  if  it  appears  to  such  judge  desirable  in  the 
interests  of  justice  that  such  case  should  be  tried  in  the  first  instance  in  the  High  Court  of  Jus- 
tice, and  not  in  a  county  court,  and  on  such  terms  as  to  security  for  and  payment  of  costs,  and  such 
other  terms  (if  any)  as  such  judge  may  think  fit. 

12.  A  certificate  granted  by  an  inspector  of  proper  qualifications,  appointed  for  the  purposes 
of  this  Act  by  the  Local  Government  Board  to  the  effect  that  the  means  used  for  rendering  harm- 
less any  sewage  matter  or  poisonous,  no.^ious,  or  polluting  solid  or  liquid  matter  falling  or  flowing 
or  carried  into  any  stream,  are  the  best  or  only  practicable  and  available  means  under  the  circum- 
stances of  the  particular  case,  shall  in  all  courts  and  all  proceedings  under  this  Act  be  conclusive 
evidence  of  the  fact ;  such  certificate  shall  continue  in  force  for  a  period  to  be  named  therein,  not 
exceeding  two  years,  and  at  the  expiration  of  that  period  may  be  renewed  for  the  like  or  any  less 
period. 

All  expenses  incurred  in  or  about  obtaining  a  certificate  under  this  section  shall  be  paid  by  the 
applicant  for  the  same. 

Any  person  aggrieved  by  the  grant  or  the  withholding  of  a  certificate  under  this  section  may  ap- 
peal to  the  Local  Government  Board  against  the  decision  of  the  Inspector ;  and  the  Board  may 
either  confirm,  reverse,  or  modify  his  decision,  and  may  make  such  order  as  to  the  party  or  parties 
by  whom  the  costs  of  the  appeal  are  to  be  borne  as  to  the  said  Board  may  appear  just. 

13.  Proceedings  shall  not  be  taken  under  this  Act  against  any  person  for  any  offence  against 
the  provisions  of  Parts  II.  and  III.  of  this  Act  until  the  expiration  of  twelve  months  after  the 
passing  of  this  Act  ;  nor  shall  proceedings  in  any  case  be  taken  under  this  Act  for  any  offence 
against  this  Act  until  the  expiration  of  two  months  after  written  notice  of  the  intention  to  take 
such  proceedings  has  been  given  to  the  offender,  nor  shall  proceedings  under  this  Act  be  taken  for 
any  offence  against  this  Act  until  the  expiration  of  two  months  after  written  notice  of  the  inten- 


APPENDIX    I.  573 

tion  to  take  such  proceedings  has  been  given  to  the  offender,  nor  shall  proceedings  under  this  Act 
be  taken  for  any  offence  against  this  Act  while  other  proceedings  in  relation  to  such  oflence  are 
pending. 

14.  The  Local  Government  Board  may  make  orders  as  to  the  costs  incurred  by  them  in  relation 
to  inquiries  instituted  by  them  under  this  Act,  and  as  to  the  parties  by  whom  such  costs  shall  be 
borne ;  and  every  such  order  and  every  order  for  the  payment  of  costs  made  by  the  said  Board 
under  section  twelve  of  this  Act  may  be  made  a  rule  of  Her  Majesty's  High  Court  of  Justice. 

15.  Inspectors  of  the  Local  Government  Board  shall,  for  the  purposes  of  any  inquirj-  directed 
by  the  Board  under  this  Act,  have  in  relation  to  witnesses  and  their  examination,  the  production 
of  papers  and  accounts,  and  the  inspection  of  places  and  matters  required  to  be  inspected,  similar 
powers  to  those  which  the  inspectors  of  the  said  Board  have  under  the  Public  Health  Act,  1875, 
for  the  purposes  of  that  Act. 

(2)    Saving  Cl.\.cses. 

16.  The  powers  given  by  this  Act  shall  not  be  deemed  to  prejudice  or  affect  any  other  rights  or 
powers  now  existing  or  vested  in  anj*  person  or  persons  by  Act  of  Parliament,  law,  or  custom,  and 
such  other  rights  or  powers  may  be  exercised  in  the  same  manner  as  if  this  Act  had  not  passed  ; 
and  nothing  in  this  Act  shall  legalize  any  act  or  default  which  would  but  for  this  Act  be  deemed 
to  be  a  nuisance  or  otherwise  contrary  to  law  :  Provided,  nevertheless,  that  in  any  proceedings  for 
enforcing  against  any  person  such  rights  or  powers  the  court  before  which  such  proceedings  are 
pending  shall  take  into  consideration  any  certificate  granted  to  such  person  under  this  Act. 

17.  This  Act  shall  not  apply  to  or  affect  the  lawful  exercise  of  any  rights  of  impounding  or 
diverting  water. 

18.  Nothing  in  or  done  under  this  Act  shall. extend  to  interfere  with,  take  away,  abridge,  or 
prejudicially  aflfect  any  right,  power,  authority,  jurisdiction,  or  privilege  given  by  "The  Thames 
Conservancy  Acts,  1857  and  18G4,"  or  by  "  The  Thames  Navigation  Act,  1866,"  or  by  the  Lee 
Conservancy  Act,  1868,  or  any  Act  or  Acts  extending  or  amending  the  said  Acts  or  either  of  them, 
or  affect  any  outfall  or  other  works  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  AVorks  (although  beyond  the 
metropolis)  executed  under  the  Metropolis  Management  Act,  1855,  and  the  Acts  amending  or  ex- 
tending the  same,  or  take  away,  abridge,  or  prejudicially  affect  any  right,  power,  authority,  juris- 
diction, or  privilege  of  the  Metropolitan  Board  of  Works. 

19.  Where  any  local  authority,  or  an}-  urban  or  rural  sanitary  authority,  has  been  empowered 
or  required  bj'  any  Act  of  Parliament  to  carrj'  any  sewage  into  the  sea,  or  any  tidal  water,  nothing 
done  by  such  authority  in  pursuance  of  such  enactment  shall  be  deemed  to  be  an  offence  against 
this  Act. 

(3)  Definitions. 

21.  In  this  Act,  if  not  inconsistent  with  the  context,  the  following  terms  have  the  meanings 
hereinafter  respectively  assigned  to  them  ;  that  is  to  say, — 

"  Person  "  includes  any  body  of  persons,  whether  corporate  or  unincorporate. 

"  Stream  "  includes  the  sea  to  such  extent,  and  tidal  waters  to  such  point,  as  may,  after  local 
inquiry  and  on  sanitary  grounds,  be  determined  by  the  Local  Grovemment  Board,  bj'  order  pub*- 
lished  in  the  London  Gazette.  Save  as  aforesaid,  it  includes  rivers,  streams,  canals,  lakes,  and 
w  l^er-courses,  other  than  water-courses  at  the  passing  of  this  Act  mainly  used  as  sewers,  and 
e  n)'.ying  directly  into  the  sea,  or  tidal  waters  which  have  not  been  determined  to  be  streams 
wit.'iin  the  meaning  of  this  Act  by  such  order  as  aforesaid. 

"Solid  matter  "  shall  not  include  particles  of  matter  in  suspension  in  water. 

"  Pidluting"  shall  not  include  innocuous  discoloration. 

"  Sanitary  authority"  means — 

In  the  metropolis,  as  defined  by  the  Metropolis  Management  Act,  1855,  any  local  authority  act- 
ing in  the  execution  of  the  Nuisance  Removal  for  England  Act,  1855,  and  the  Acts  amending  the 
same. 

Elsewhere  in  England,  any  urban  or  rural  sanitarj-  authority  acting  in  the  execution  of  the 
Public  Health  Act,  1875. 

The  ap]ili('{ition  of  the  Act  to  Scotland  ami  Ireland  is  omitted, 
as  consistin<4-  chietiy  in  definitions  and  explanations,  and  as  being", 
therefore,  irrelevant  to  our  circumstances. 


574  APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX  II. 

AN  ACT  to  confer  upon  the  State  Board  of  Health  power  to  protect  from  contamination,  by 
suitable  regulations,  the  water  supplies  of  the  State  and  their  sources.  Passed  June  13, 
1885 ;  chapter  543,  Laws  of  1885. 

The  People  of  the  State  of  New  York,  represented  in  Senate  and  Assembly,  do  enact  as  follows  : 

Section  1.  The  State  Board  of  Health  is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to  make  rules  and 
regulations  for  protecting  from  contamination  any  and  all  public  supplies  of  potable  waters  and 
their  sources  within  this  State.  Provided,  however,  any  such  rule  or  regulation  shall  not  be  oper- 
ative in  any  county  until  the  county  judge  of  that  county  shall  approve  the  same. 

Sect.  2.  The  said  State  Board  of  Health  shall  also  have  power,  and  it  shall  be  its  duty  :  1. 
To  publish  once  a  week,  for  at  least  six  consecutive  weeks,  all  such  rules  and  regulations  as  it 
shall  have  made  concerning  the  contamination  of  any  sub-soQ  waters,  springs,  streams,  lakes, 
ponds,  reservoirs,  or  other  bodies  of  water  contributing  to  the  potable  water  supply  of  any  munic- 
ipality within  this  State,  such  publication  to  be  made  in  one  or  more  newspapers  published  in 
the  county  in  which  the  waters  affected  by  such  regulations  are  located.  The  cost  of  publishing 
the  regulations  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  as  above  provided,  shall  be  paid  by  the  corporation 
or  municipality  benefited  by  the  protection  of  the  water  supply,  concerning  which  the  rales  are 
made.  2.  To  impose  penalties  for  the  violation  of,  or  the  non-compliance  with,  their  rules  and 
regulations,  not  exceeding  two  hundred  dollars  in  any  one  case. 

Sect.  3.  The  officer  or  board  having  by  law  the  management  and  control  of  the  potable  water 
supply  of  any  municipality,  in  all  cases  where  the  said  municipality  derives  its  water  supply  la 
whole  or  in  part  from  any  sub-soil  water,  springs,  streams,  lakes,  ponds,  reservoirs,  or  other  waters 
concerning  which  the  State  Board  of  Health  shall  make  any  rule  or  regulation,  is  hereby  author- 
ized and  empowered  to  make  such  inspection  of  the  sources  of  said  water  supply  as  said  officer  or 
board  may  deem  advisable  to  secure  the  said  water  supply  from  any  defilement,  and  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  the  rules  and  regulations  made  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  are  complied  with. 

Sect.  4.  In  case  such  inspection  shall  disclose  the  violation  by  any  person  or  persons  of  any 
of  the  rules  or  regulations  of  the  said  State  Board  of  Health  relating  to  the  sources  of  said  water 
supply,  the  officer  or  board  mentioned  in  section  three  of  this  act  shall  serve  or  cause  to  be 
served  a  copy  of  the  said  rules  and  regulations,  accompanied  by  a  notice  specifying  the  rule  or 
regulation  claimed  to  have  been  violated,  upon  the  said  person  or  persons  violating  such  rules  or 
regulations.  If  the  person  or  persons  so  served  do  not  immediately  complj'  with  the  said  regu'a- 
lation,  the  said  officer  or  board  having  charge  of  the  water  supply  of  the  municipality  affected 
thereby  shall  notify  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  the  violation  of  its  rules  ;  the  State  Board  of 
Health  shall  thereupon  examine  into  the  said  violation,  and  if  the  party  complained  of  is  found 
to  have  actually  violated  any  of  the  said  regulations,  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health 
shall  order  the  local  board  of  health  having  jurisdiction  thereof  to  convene  and  enforce  obedience 
to  the  said  regulation. 

Sect.  5.  In  case  any  local  board  of  health  having  jurisdiction  thereof  fails  to  enforce  the  order 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  within  ten  days  after  the  receipt  of  a  notification  so 
to  do,  as  provided  in  the  last  section,  the  corporation  furnishing  the  water  supply,  or  the  munici- 
pality deriving  its  water  supply  from  the  waters  for  the  sanitary  protection  of  which  such  rules 
have  been  made,  is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to  maintain  an  action  in  a  court  of  record 
and  which  shall  be  tried  in  the  county  in  which  the  cause  of  action  arose  against  the  person  or 
persons  violating  the  .said  rules  for  recovery  of  the  penalty  therein  provided. 

Sect.  0.  Every  person  who  shall  wilfully  violate  or  refuse  to  obey  any  rule  or  regulation 
made  and  published  by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  and  approved  pursuant  to  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  on  a  conviction  thereof  shall  be  subject  to  a  fine  or 
imprisonment,  or  both,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court,  such  fine  not  to  exceed  three  hundred  dol- 
lars, nor  such  imprisonment  six  months.  But  the  recovery  of  a  penalty  in  a  civil  action,  as  pro- 
vided in  section  five  of  this  act,  and  criminal  prosecution  and  conviction  under  the  provisions  of 
this  section,  shall  not  be  had  for  the  same  offense. 


APPENDIX    III.  575 

Sect.  7.  When  the  State  Board  of  Health  shall,  for  the  protection  of  a  water  supply  from  con- 
tamination, make  regulations,  the  execution  of  which  will  require  the  providing  of  some  public 
means  of  removal  or  purification  of  sewage,  the  municipality  or  corporation  owTiing  the  water- 
works benefited  thereby  shall,  at  its  own  expense,  construct  and  maintain  such  works  or  means 
for  sewage  disposal,  as  shall  be  approved  by  the  State  Board  of  Health.* 

Sect.  S.  The  State  Board  of  Health,  any  local  board  of  health,  or  any  municipality  or  corpo- 
ration furnishmg  water,  may  cause  the  affidavit  of  the  printer,  publisher,  or  proprietor  of  any 
newspaper  publisning  the  rules  and  regulations  as  provided  by  the  second  section  of  this  act,  to 
be  filed  with  such  rules  as  published  in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  county  in  which  the  municipality 
or  corporation  furnishing  the  water  supply  in  any  case  may  be  situated  or  located,  and  such  affi- 
davit and  rules,  or  duly  certified  copies  thereof,  shall  be  deemed  conclusive  evidence  of  due  publi- 
cation and  of  all  the  facts  therein  stated  in  all  courts  and  in  all  proceedings  or  prosecutions  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act. 

Sect.  9.  All  acts  or  parts  of  acts  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this  act  are  hereby  re- 
pealed . 

Sect.  10.  This  act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 


APPENDIX  III. 

The  following  is  the  first  set  of  Pules  for  the  sanitary  protection  of 
water-sheds  established  under  the  New  York  State  Act : 

RULES  AND  REGULATIONS  for  the  Sanitary  Protection  of  the  Waters  of  Hemlock  Lake, 
the  Public  Potable  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of  Rochester. 

Privies  adjacent  to  the   Lake. 

Rt-LE    I. 

Section  A.  All  houses,  cottages,  tenements,  tents,  camp  and  picnic  grounds,  adjacent  to  the 
shores  of  Hemlock  lake,  shall  be  provided  with,  at  least,  one  privy,  which  shall  be  placed  upon 
the  ground,  without  any  vault  beneath  it,  and  shall  be  so  constructed  that  metallic  pails,  fifteen 
inches  high  by  fourteen  inches  in  diameter,  can  be  placed  under  the  seats  and  be  frequently  and 
easily  removed  with  their  contents. 

Section  B.  The  privies  shall  be  so  located  that  access  to  them  from  the  lake  may  be  had,  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  removal  of  the  pails. 

Section  C.  Occupants  of  the  premises  should  daily  add  earth  or  ashes  to  the  contents  of  the 
pails,  as  a  deodorizer  and  absorbent. 

Section  D.  The  owners  and  occupants  shall  also  exercise  due  care  and  oversight  of  the  pails 
used  in  the  privies. 

Section  E.  When  any  privy  is  to  be  used  in  winter  as  well  as  summer  it  shall  be  so  located  and 
arranged  that  the  pail  may  be  rej)laced  by  a  water-tight  box  or  trough  i-esting  on  solid  runners  or 
small  wheels,  and  having  a  staple  by  which  it  may  be  drawn  out  from  under  the  seat,  or  be  other- 
wise so  arranged  that  when  the  box  is  sufficiently  filled,  it  may  be  taken  from  under  the  privy 
and  the  contents  emptied  in  some  safe  place,  where  they  cannot  possibly  be  washed  into  the  lake 
or  into  any  stream  running  into  tlie  lake,  or  into  any  well  or  spring.  Asiies  should  daily  be 
thrown  into  the  privy  box  as  a  deodorizer. 

Section  F.  No  owner  or  occupant  shall  have  upon  their  premises  any  privy  vault  of  any  kind 
situated  within  two  hundred  feet  of  the  shore  of  Hemlock  lake. 

RlI.E    II. 

Section  A.  Tiie  city  of  Rochester  shall  furnish  a  sufficient  number  of  pails,  for  the  use  of  each 
privy  situated  within  two  hundred  feet  of  the  shore  of  Hemlock  lake,  and  shall  cause  the  pails  to 
Ije  placed  under  the  seats,  and  to  be  removed,  emptied,  cleansed  and  disinfected  as  often  as  may 
be  necessary  to  insure  that  they  are  kept  in  good  sanitary  condition. 

♦  In  1890  this  ncction  was  amendetl,  throwing  even  more  completely  the  expense  of  protection  upon  the  mu- 
nicipality. 


676  APPENDICES. 

Section  B.  When  a  full  pail  is  removed  from  a  privy,  its  place  shall  be  immediately  supplied 
by  an  empty  one. 

Section  C.  The  pails  shall  be  made  of  metal,  and  shall  be  fifteen  inches  high  by  fourteen 
inches  in  diameter,  outside  measurement.  They  shall  be  provided  with  covers,  to  be  used  during 
removal. 

Section  D.  The  removal  of  the  pails  from  the  privies  shall  be  conducted  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  cause  as  little  inconvenience  or  annoyance  to  the  occupants  of  the  premises  as  is  compatible 
Avith  proper  management  of  the  business. 

Section  E.  The  contents  of  the  pails  shall  be  removed  by  the  city  of  Rochester  to  some  point 
below  the  foot  of  the  lake,  and  be  so  treated  and  disposed  of  as  to  cause  no  nuisance  nor  danger 
to  the  public  health. 

Privies  near  Streams,  Springs  or  Water-courses  on  Hemlock  Lake  Water-shed. 

Rule  III. 

Section  A.  No  privy  shall  be  located  within  thirty  feet  of  any  stream,  spring  or  dry  water- 
course, the  water  from  which,  when  running,  empties  eventually  into  Hemlock  lake. 

Rule  IV. 

Section  A.  Any  privy  situated  within  fifty  feet  of  any  stream,  spring  or  dry  water-course,  oa 
the  water-shed  of  Hemlock  lake,  or  vdthin  fifty  feet  of  the  bank  of  any  ravine  on  this  water- shed^ 
shall  be  constructed  without  a  vault,  and  shall  have  under  the  seats  half  barrels,  tubs,  pails,  or 
water-tight  boxes  or  troughs  arranged  to  be  easily  and  frequently  removed,  emptied,  cleansed  and 
returned  to  their  place,  under  the  privy  seats.  Ashes  or  dry  earth  should  daily  be  used  in  thesfe 
privies  as  a  deodorizer  and  absorbent. 

Rule  V. 

Section  A.  The  owners  or  occupants  of  premises  having  privies  with  tubs,  pails  or  boxes, 
shall  cause  the  contents  to  be  removed  and  the  receptacle  to  be  cleaned  as  often  as  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  privy  in  good  sanitary  condition. 

Section  B.  The  contents  of  the  said  privies  shall  be  disposed  of  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
can  by  no  possibility  be  washed  into  any  stream,  drj'  water-course,  ravine,  spring  or  well,  either 
over  the  surface  or  through  the  sub-soil,  and  the  excremental  matter  shall  be  so  placed  as  not  to 
cause  an  offensive  nuisance. 

Rule  VI. 

Section  A.  If,  owing  to  the  porous  character  of  the  soil,  the  height  and  flow  of  the  surface  or 
sub-soil  waters,  the  steepness  of  the  slopes,  or  other  conditions  of  the  locality,  it  shall  be  the  judg- 
ment of  the  local  board  of  health,  or  of  the  State  Board,  that  the  excremental  matter  from  any 
privy  may  be  w-ashed  on  the  surface  or  through  the  soil  into  some  neighboring  spring  or  water- 
course, then,  after  due  notice  to  the  owners  or  occupants  of  these  premises,  their  privy  shall  bfr 
made  to  conform  to  the  rules  governing  privies  situated  within  fifty  feet  of  water-courses. 


Garbage. 
Rule  VII. 

Section  A.  The  owners  or  occupants  of  all  houses,  cottages,  tenements,  tents,  camp  and  pic- 
nic grounds,  within  two  hundred  feet  of  Hemlock  lake,  shall  place  all  garbage  produced  on  their 
premises  in  such  receptacles  as  may  be  provided  therefor  by  the  city  of  Rochester. 

Section  B.  No  garbage  shall  be  thrown  into  the  lake,  or  upon  the  ground  within  two  hundre(J 
feet  of  the  lake,  nor  shall  it  be  thrown  upon  any  spot  where  it  may  possibly  be  washed  into  the; 
lake. 


APPENDIX   III.  677 


Rule  VIII. 

Section  A.  The  city  of  Rochester  shall  provide  proper  receptacles  for  receiving  the  garbage 
produced  on  all  premises  within  two  hundred  feet  of  Hemlock  lake,  and  shall  cause  the  same  to  be 
removed  and  emptied  as  often  as  may  be  necessary. 

Rule  IX. 

Section  A.  All  house  slops,  and  sink  and  laundry  water,  produced  on  premises  adjacent  to 
Hemlock  lake,  shall  be  thrown  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  distributed  so  as  to  prevent 
concentration  and  saturation  at  one  spot,  but  no  such  polluted  water  shall  be  thrown  upon  the 
ground  within  one  hundred  feet  of  the  lake  shore,  or  as  near  that  limit  as  the  depth  of  the  lot 
•will  permit,  nor  into,  nor  near  any  spring,  water-course  or  ravine. 

Rule  X. 

Section  A.  No  garbage  or  house  slops,  sink  or  laundry  water  shall  be  discharged  into  any 
stream,  spring  or  dry  water-course,  on  any  part  of  the  water-shed  of  Hemlock  lake,  nor  shall  any 
such  putrescible  or  polluted  waters  be  thrown  upon  the  ground  or  into  it,  where  they  may  pol- 
lute any  spring,  stream  or  water-course  on  this  water-shed. 

Animal  Afanures. 

Rule  XL 

Section  A.  All  stables  situated  within  two  hundred  feet  of  Hemlock  lake  shall  be  provided  by 
their  owners  or  occupants  with  a  tight  and  well-covered  bin  or  box,  in  which  all  manures  shall  be 
placed,  and  from  which  it  shall  be  removed  as  often  as  cleanliness  may  require. 

Rule  XII. 

SEcnoN  A.  No  stable,  pig-sty,  hen-house,  barn-yard,  hog-yard,  hitching  or  standing  place  for 
horses,  or  other  place  where  animal  manure  accumulates,  shall  be  so  constructed  or  located  that 
the  manure  from  it  may  wash  into  the  lake  or  into  any  stream,  spring  or  dry  water-course  run- 
ning into  the  lake. 

Manufacturing   Waste. 

Rule  XHI. 

Section  A.  No  waste  products,  putrescible  matters  or  polluted  waters  from  any  slanghter- 
houses,  cheese  factories,  wine  or  beer  vaults,  cider-mills,  tanneries,  saw-mills  or  other  manu- 
factories shall  bo  allowed  to  drain  or  wash  into  any  stream,  spring  or  dry  water-course,  or  any 
part  of  Hemlock  lake  water-shed,  or  into  the  lake. 


Animal  and   Vegetable  Matters. 

'  Rule  XIV. 

Section  A.  No  dead  animal,  bird  or  fish,  nor  any  filthy  or  impure  matter,  nor  any  decayed 
fruit,  vogetable  substances,  leaves,  saw-dust,  roots,  branches  or  trunks  of  trees  in  any  condition 
of  their  growth  or  decay  shall  be  thrown  into  Hemlock  hike,  or  so  placed  by  any  person  that 
they  shall  wash  into  the  lake,  nor  shall  they  be  thrown  into  any  spring,  stream  or  water-course 
running  into  the  lake. 
37 


578  APPENDICES. 

Wa,shing  Sheep  or  Animals, 

Rule  XV. 

Section  A.  No  sheep  or  other  animals  shall  be  washed  in  Hemlock  lake,  or  in  any  influent 
stream  within  half  a  mile  of  the  lake,  nor  shall  any  diseased  sheep  be  washed  in  any  spring, 
pond  or  stream  on  the  water-shed  of  Hemlock  lake. 

Rule  XVI. 

Section  A.  In  accordance  with  chapter  543  of  the  laws  of  1885,  a  penalty  of  $50  is  hereby 
imposed  upon  any  person  or  persons  guilty  of  violation  of  or  non-compliance  with  any  of  the 
above  given  mandatory  rules  or  regulations,  to  be  recovered  under  said  act. 

Approved  by  order  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 


APPENDIX  IV. 

The  following'  is  tlie  Massachusetts  Act  for  the  Protection  of  Inland 
Waters  as  Amended  in  1888 : 

AN  ACT  to  protect  the  Purity  of  Inland  Waters,  and  to  require  Consultation  with  the  State 
Board  of  Health  regarding  the  Establishment  of  Systems  of  Water  Supply,  Drainage  and 
Sewerage. 

Be  it  enacted,  etc. ,  as  follows : 

Sect.  1.  The  state  board  of  health  shall  have  the  general  oversight  and  care  of  all  inland 
waters,  and  shall  be  furnished  with  maps,  plans  and  documents  suitable  for  this  purpose,  and 
records  of  all  its  doings  iu  relation  thereto  shall  be  kept.  It  may  employ  such  engineers  and 
clerks  and  other  assistants  as  it  may  deem  necessary  :  2^>'ovided,  that  no  contracts  or  other  acts 
which  involve  the  payment  of  money  from  the  treasury  of  the  Commonwealth  shall  be  made  or 
done  without  an  appropriation  expressly  made  therefor  by  the  general  court.  It  shall  annually  on 
or  before  the  tenth  day  of  January  report  to  the  general  court  its  doings  in  the  preceding  year, 
and  at  the  same  time  submit  estimates  of  the  sums  required  to  meet  the  expenses  of  said  board  in 
relation  to  the  care  and  oversight  of  inland  waters  for  the  ensuing  year,  and  it  shall  also  recom- 
mend legislation  and  suitaljle  plans  for  such  systems  of  main  sewers  as  it  may  deem  necessarj'  for 
the  preservation  of  the  public  health,  and  for  the  purification  and  prevention  of  pollution  of  the 
ponds,  streams  and  inland  waters  of  the  Commonwealth. 

Sect.  2.  Said  board  shall  from  time  to  time,  as  it  may  deem  expedient,  cause  examinations  of 
the  said  waters  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  the  same  are  adapted  for  use 
as  sources  of  domestic  water  supplies  or  are  in  a  condition  likely  to  impair  the  interests  of  the 
public  or  persons  lawfully  using  the  same,  or  imperil  the  public  health.  It  shall  recommend 
measures  for  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  such  waters,  and  for  removal  of  substances  and  causes 
of  every  kind  which  may  be  liable  to  cause  pollution  thereof,  in  order  to  protect  and  develop  the 
rights  and  property  of  the  Commonwealth  therein  and  to  protect  the  public  health.  It  shall  have 
authority  to  conduct  experiments  to  determine  the  best  practicable  methods  of  purification  of 
drainage  and  sewage  or  disposal  of  the  same.  For  the  purpose  aforesaid  it  may  employ  such  ex- 
pert assistance  as  may  be  necessary. 

Sect.  3.  It  shall  from  time  to  time  consult  with  and  advise  the  authorities  of  cities  and  towns, 
or  with  corporations,  firms  or  individuals  either  already  having  or  intending  to  introduce  systems 
of  water  supply,  drainage  or  sewerage,  as  to  the  most  appropriate  source  of  supply,  the  best  prac- 
ticable method  of  assuring  the  purity  thereof  or  of  disposing  of  their  drainage  or  sewage,  having 
regard  to  the  present  and  prospective  needs  and  interests  of  other  cities,  towns,  corporations, 
firms  or  individuals  which  may  be  affected  thereby.  It  shall  also  from  time  to  time  consult  with 
and  advise  persons  or  corporations  engaged  or  intending  to  engage  in  any  manufacturing  or  other 


APPENDIX    V.  579 

business,  drainage  or  sewage  from  which  maj-  tend  to  cause  the  pollution  of  any  inland  .vater,  as 
to  the  best  practicable  method  of  preventing  such  pollution  by  the  interception,  disposa*  or  puri- 
fication of  such  drainage  or  sewage  :  provided,  that  no  person  shall  be  compelled  to  bewr  the  ex- 
pense of  such  consultation  or  advice,  or  of  experiments  made  for  the  purposes  of  this  aci.  All 
such  authorities,  corporations,  firms  and  individuals  are  hereby  required  to  give  notice  to  said 
board  of  their  intentions  in  the  premises,  and  to  submit  for  its  advice  outlines  of  their  proposed 
plans  or  schemes  in  relation  to  water  supply  and  disposal  of  drainage  and  sewage,  andall  j>etitions 
to  the  legislature  for  authority  to  introduce  a  system  of  water  supply^  drai/iage  or  sewerage  shall 
be  accompanied  by  a  copy  of  the  recommendation  and  advice  of  the  said  board  thereon.  Said 
board  shall  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  attorney -general  all  instances  which  may  come  to  its  knowl- 
edge of  omission  to  comph'  with  existing  laws  respecting  the  pollution  of  water  supplies  and  in- 
land waters,  and  shall  annually  report  to  the  legislature  any  specific  cases  not  covered  by  the 
provisions  of  existing  laws,  which  in  its  opinion  call  for  further  legislation. 

Sect.  4.  In  this  act  the  term  '"drainage"  refers  to  rainfall,  surface  and  Bubsoil  water  only, 
and  ''  sewage"  refers  to  domestic  and  manufacturing  filth  and  refuse. 

Sect.  5.  Chapter  two  hundred  and  seventy-four  of  the  acts  of  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and 
eighty-six  is  hereby  repealed,  but  nothing  in  this  act  shall  be  construed  to  affect  the  expenditures 
authorized  under  chapter  thirty  of  the  resolves  of  the  year  eighteen  hundred  and  eighty-eight. 

Sect.  6.  This  act  shall  take  efiect  upon  its  passage.     (Approved  May  lb,  18S8.) 


APPENDIX   V. 

The  city  of  Passaic,  New  Jersey,  liaying-  proposed  to  turn  its  outfall 
sewer  into  the  Passaic  river  at  a  point  about  -4  miles  above  the  Newark 
Water- works  intake,  the  city  of  Newark  soug-ht  to  restrain  Passaic 
from  such  discharg-e. 

The  following-  is  the  Chancellor's  decision  on  the  original  applica- 
tion as  rendered  in  1889  : 

Newaek  Aqueduct  Board  v.  City  of  Passaic. 

(^Court  of  Chancery  of  New  Jersey.     July  22,  1889.) 

Nuisance — Pollution  of  Stream — Injunction. 

a  corporation  called  the  "  Newark  Aqueduct  Company "  was  authorized  by  statute  to  use 
springs  "and  other  sources  of  water,"  to  supply  the  inhabitants  of  Newark  with  water,  and  to 
take  such  sources  of  water  supply  by  condemnation.  In  1 860  the  city  of  Newark  was  empowered, 
by  act  of  the  legislature,  to  purchase  the  property  of  the  Newark  Aqueduct  Comp)any,  and  to 
make  use  of  its  sources  of  water  supplj',  and  "anj'  other  .sources,"  taking  by  condemnation,  if 
necessary.  The  complainant,  the  Newark  Aqueduct  Board,  is  a  public  body,  charged  with  the 
management  of  Newark's  water  supply,  and  is  empowered  by  statute  to  maintain  suits  in  equity 
or  at  law  "  for  any  injury  or  trespass  or  nuisance,  done  or  caused,  or  procured  to  be  done,  to  the 
water-courses,  pipes,  machinery,  or  any  apparatus  belonging  to  or  connected  with  any  part  of  the 
works,  or  for  any  improper  use  or  waste  of  the  water."  In  ISO"  the  complainant  purchased  for 
the  city  of  Newark  land  bordering  upon  the  Pas.saic  river,  a  tidal  stream,  and  upon  the  laud  thus 
purchased  constructed  a  pumping  station,  and,  abandoning  all  other  sources  of  water  supply,  for 
several  years  has  taken  large  quantities  of  water,  for  domostic  and  otlior  uses.  l)y  the  inhabitants 
of  Newark,  from  the  Passaic  river.  The  city  of  Passaic,  situate  upon  the  same  river,  about  four 
miles  above  the  complainant's  pumping  station,  proposes  to  discharge  its  main  sewer  into  the 
tidal  water  of  the  river.  The  complainant  alleges  that  such  discharge  will  materially  pollute  the 
water  of  the  river,  and  thereby  create  a  nuisance  injurious  to  it,  and  by  bill,  in  its  own  name  and 
behalf,  seeks  an  injunction  to  restrain  the  proposed  discharge  of  sewage.     Held,  (a)  that  the 


580  APPENDICES. 

water  of  the  Passaic  river,  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows,  belongs  to  the  state,  for  uses  common  to 
all  its  citizens;  (b)  that  the  city  of  Newark  has  no  special  rights  in  that  water,  either  by  reason 
of  its  riparian  ownership  on  the  river,  or  by  grant  from  the  state,  which  may  be  injured  by  the 
apprehended  nuisance,  and  enable  the  complainant,  by  showing  an  apprehended  injury,  distinct 
from  that  which  will  be  suffered  by  the  other  inhabitants  of  this  state,  to  maintain  its  individual 
suit  to  restrain  the  nuisance  ;  (c)  that,  at  best,  such  special  rights  have  not  Vjeen  established  by 
adjudication  in  this  state;  (d)  that  the  complainant  is  not  in  position  to  ask  for  a  preliminary 
injunction  when  the  right  on  which  it  founds  its  claim  is,  as  a  matter  of  law,  unsettled  ;  (e)  that 
the  proceeding  in  equity  to  restrain  a  public  nuisance  is  Vjy  information  by  the  attorney  general ; 
(  f)  that  the  statutory  authority  to  the  complainant  to  maintain  a  suit  in  equity  for  nuisance  to 
water-courses  connected  with  its  works  did  not  constitute  it  a  public  agent  to  sue  to  restrain  a 
public  nuisance,  but  merely  clothed  it  with  power  to  sue,  as  an  individual  might,  for  the  protection 
of  private  property;  [g)  that  an  injunction  to  restrain  a  nuisance  will  issue  only  in  cases  where 
the  fact  of  nuisance  is  made  out  upon  determinate  and  satisfactory  evidence,  and  that,  if  the  evi- 
dence be  conflicting,  and  the  injury  be  doubtful,  that  will  constitute  a  ground  for  withholding  the 
injunction,  and.  if  the  nuisance  be  merely  apprehended,  it  must  appear  that  apprehension  of 
material  and  irreparable  injury  is  well  grounded,  upon  a  state  of  facts  which  show  the  danger  to 
be  real  and  immediate  ;  (h)  that  such  conditions  of  fact  do  not  appear  in  this  case. 

(Syllabus  by  the  Court.) 

On  order  to  show  cause  why  an  injunction  should  not  issue  restraining  the  discharge  of  sewage 
into  the  Passaic  river. 

E.  L.  Price  and  Thomas  K  McCarter,  for  the  order.     C.  P.  Rust  and  /.  W.  Origgs,  contra. 

McGiLL,  C  The  complainant  is  a  corporate  body,  composed  of  commissioners  who  are  from 
time  to  time  elected  by  the  legal  voters  of  the  city  of  Newark,  and  is  charged  by  statute  with  the 
control  and  management  of  the  supply  of  "  pure  and  wholesome  water  "  for  that  city.  Among 
other  powers  conferred  upon  it  is  authority  to  maintain  a  suit  at  law  or  in  equity  for  injury,  tres- 
pass, or  nuisance  to  water-courses  and  apparatus  connected  with  the  water- works  which  are  con- 
fided to  its  care.  P.  L.  1860,  p.  443.  By  an  act  of  the  legislature  passed  in  the  year  1800,  a 
corporation  known  as  the  "Newark  Aqueduct  Company"  was  incorporated  by  the  name  "The 
President  and  Directors  of  the  Newark  Aqueduct  Company,"  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  water 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Newark,  and  was  empowered  to  make  use  of  any  spring  or  springs  that  it 
might  think  necessary  to  use  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  supply  of  water.  P.  L.  1800,  p.  10. 
By  a  supplement  to  that  act  of  incorporation,  which  was  approved  February  17,  1857,  (P.  L.  19,)  it 
was  recited  that  the  city  of  Newark  was  rapidly  increasing  in  population,  and  that  many  additional 
springs  and  "other  sources  of  water"  were  to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Newark  which  could 
be  made  available  by  the  company,  but  which  the  company  could  not  purchase  through  "private 
negotiations,"  and  power  was  therefore  given  it  to  .search  for  water  and  to  take  by  condemnation. 
By  the  act  of  the  legislature  approved  March  20,  1860,  (P.  L.  442,)  above  referred  to.  the  city  of 
Newark  was  authorized  to  buy  the  property  of  the  aqueduct  company,  and  thereafter  to  take  suf- 
ficient water  to  supply  the  city  of  Newark  from  the  sources  of  supply  which  the  aqueduct  companjr 
then  used  or  was  empowered  to  use,  and  "  from  any  other  sources ;  "  and  in  order  to  make  other 
sources  of  water  supply  available  a  method  of  condemning  water-rights  was  provided.  In  pursu- 
ance of  the  authority  thus  conferred,  the  mayor  and  common  council  of  the  city  of  Newark 
purchased  the  plant  of  the  aqueduct  company.  In  1867  the  population  of  Newark  had  so  largely 
increased,  and  the  demand  for  a  greater  supply  of  water  had  become  so  urgent,  that  the  comolain- 
ant  purchased  about  13  acres  of  land,  having  a  frontage  of  about  3,000  feet  upon  the  west  bank  of 
the  Passaic  river,  about  a  mile  above  the  village  of  Belleville,  upon  which,  at  considerable  cost,  it 
caused  a  pumping  station  to  be  built,  from  which  water  has  since  been  pumped  from  the  Passaic 
river  to  a  large  receiving  reservoir  constructed  upon  high  ground  about  a  mile  from  the  pumping 
station,  and  from  thence  distributed  to  the  city  of  Newark,  two  miles  distant,  and  to  adjoining 
towns,  for  domestic  and  other  uses.  In  1869,  after  the  completion  of  the  pumping  station  and  the 
receiving  reservoir,  all  sources  of  water  supply,  other  than  the  Passaic  river,  were  abandoned.  In 
the  acquisition  of  this  plant  the  city  of  Newark  expended  upwards  of  $1,000,000.  The  water  it 
takes  from  the  river  averages  13,000,000  of  gallons  daily,  and  is  distributed  to  nearly  200.000  per- 
sons, who,  by  paying  water-rates,  confer  a  large  revenue  to  the  maintenance  of  the  water-works, 
and  the  payment  of  the  interest  upon  bonds  that  were  issued  by  the  city  of  Newark  for  their 
construction. 


APPENDIX    V.  581 

The  tide  ebbs  and  flows  in  the  Passaic  river  at  the  point  at  which  Newark's  supply  of  water  is 
taken,  and  for  a  distance  of  about  five  miles  above  that  point,  and  one  mile  above  the  city  of 
Passaic,  and  within  the  same  limits,  the  river  is  in  fact  navigable.  The  city  of  Passaic,  having  a 
population  of  upwards  of  10,000  persons,  is  situated  upon  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  four  miles 
above  the  intake  of  the  water  for  Newark.  It  was  incorporated  in  1S73,  (P.  L.  1873,  p.  484,)  and 
in  1ST5  (P.  L.  1875,  p.  .570)  was  authorized  to  cause  sewers  and  drains  to  be  constructed  in  any  part 
of  the  city.  In  pursuance  of  this  power  it  has  lately,  against  the  complainant's  protest,  contracted 
with  the  other  defendants  herein  to  construct  a  main  sewer,  with  several  lateral  sewers  emptying 
into  it,  and  to  so  build  the  main  sewer  that  its  contents  will  be  discharged  into  the  Passaic  river. 
The  plans  for  the  proposed  construction  contemplate  sewers  aggregating  3,tj.50  feet  in  length,  and 
the  drainage  of  110  dwelling-houses,  containing  1,1'JO  inhabitants,  shops,  stores,  and  manufactories, 
in  which  113  people  are  employed,  and  a  public  school  attended  by  about  400  pupils.  The  portion 
of  the  city  in  which  these  drains  are  to  be  located  is  rapidly  building  up  and  increasing  Lu  popula- 
tion. Tlie  sewers  will  not  receive  the  surface  or  rain  water,  but  will  be  cleared  by  means  of  flush- 
tanks,  and,  as  it  is  estimated,  will  daily  discharge  into  the  Passaic  river  00,000  gallons  of  filth  from 
privies,  sinks,  and  factories.  Health  statistics  exhibit  that  during  the  past  year  20  per  cent,  of  the 
deaths  in  Passaic  were  caused  by  typhoid  and  scarlet  fevers,  diphtheria,  cholera  infantum,  and 
dj-seutery,  and  it  is  insisted  that  the  foul  excreta  of  patients  suffering  with  those  diseases  will  be 
carried  into  the  Passaic  river  through  the  proposed  sewers,  and  therefrom  germs  of  those  diseases 
wOl  be  pumped  to  the  complainant's  distributing  reservoir,  and  be  distributed  to  a  large  population, 
endangL-ring  its  health.  To  secure  the  prohibition  of  the  proposed  discharge  of  these  sewers  into 
the  Pa-saic  river  is  the  object  of  this  suit. 

The  complainant  takes  the  poisition,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  proposed  sewage  will  pollute  the 
■waters"  that  it  supplies  to  Newark  and  other  municipalities,  and  will  thereby  create  a  nuisance 
especially  injurious  to  the  complainant;  and,  in  the  second  place,  if  it  should  be  determined  that 
the  complainant  will  not  sustain  a  special  and  distinct  injury,  it  is  nevertheless  empowered  by 
special  statutory  authority  to  maintain  this  suit,  if  injury  will  result  to  it  at  all,  though  it  be 
merely  in  common  with  the  remainder  of  the  public.  To  this  the  defendants  reply — First,  that 
the  complainant  has  no  right  in  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  river  which  is  not  common  to  all  citizens 
of  this  state,  and  that  an  injury  to  such  a  right  cannot  result  in  such  a  special  and  peculiar  injury 
that  will  enable  the  complainant  to  maintain  this  suit  in  its  own  name;  second,  that  in  absence  of 
such  special  injury  it  has  no  authority  to  maintain  this  suit;  t/iird,  that  if,  under  the  legis  ation 
from  which  it  derives  its  powers,  the  complainant  has  obtained  a  distinct  right  to  the  water  of  the 
,  Passaic,  such  right  does  not  clearly  appear,  and  should  be  established  at  law  before  the  issuance  of 
the  injunction  sought;  and,  fourth,  that,  in  point  of  fact,  the  jiroposed  discharge  of  the  sewage 
will  not  pollute  or  otherwise  injuriously  affect  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  at  the  Newark  intake. 

It  is  well  established  that  the  title  to  navigable  tide- water  and  to  lands  imder  navigable  tide-water 
is  in  the  state  for  the  support  of  rights  therein  which  are  common  to  the  entire  public,  such  as  the 
rights  of  navigation  and  fishing.  Without  express  grant  from  the  sovereign,  no  individual  can 
obtain  special  rights  in  either  the  water  itself  or  in  the  land  under  it.  Riparian  owners  have  no 
special  rights  in  navigable  streams  in  which  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows  bj' reason  of  adjacency  to  such 
stream,  other  than  alluvion  and  dereliction.  The  rights  common  to  the  public  are  enjoyed  by  the 
riparian  owner  in  common  with  others.  All  that  he  gains  by  adjacency  to  the  water,  in  addition  to 
the  contingent  rights  by  alluvion  and  dereliction,  is  convenience  in  the  enjoyment  of  tlie  common 
rights.  Stevens  v.  Railroad  Co.,  34  N.  J.  Law,  .532.  The  rule  is  different  with  respect  to  the 
riparian  owner  on  a  navigable  stream  in  which  the  tide  does  not  ebb  and  flow.  There  his  title 
extends  to  the  land  under  water  to  the  middle  of  the  stream,  and  to  such  use  of  the  water  as  will 
not  work  injury  to  the  rights  of  other  riparian  owners,  or  be  materially  detrimental  to  the  public 
easement  of  navigation.  Attorney  General  v.  Railroad  Co.,  '27  N.  J.  Eq.  1,  8,  638;  Cobb  v. 
Davenport,  32  N.  J.  Law,  309. 

As  the  Passaic  river  at  Newark 's  water  intake  is  a  tidal  stream,  that  city  has  no  special  right  in 
the  water  of  the  river  in  virtue  of  its  riparian  ownership,  nor  can  I  see  how  it  can  claim  such  right 
under  tiie  legislation  to  which  I  have  referred.  It  is  obvious  that  the  legislature  had  in  view  the 
taking  of  water  sources  by  condemnation,  aijd  that  it  did  not  contemplate  a  grant  of  any  part  of 
the  public  domain.  The  act  of  1800  authorizes  the  use  of  springs  by  the  aqueduct  company.  The 
act  of  1857  extended  the  company's  power  of  condemnation  to  additional  springs  and  "other 
sources,"  and  the  act  of  1800  gave  similar  powers  to  the  complainant  respecting  all  sources  of  its 


582  appexdicp:s. 

water  supply.  No  words  indicative  of  an  intention  to  grant  public  rights  were  used.  Tlie  rule  is 
well  settled  that  general  and  indefinite  words  in  a  statute  will  not  pass  any  prerogative,  right,  title, 
or  interest  of  the  sovereign.  In  Trustees  v.  City  of  Trenton,  31)  N.  J.  Eq  tJ6T,  083,  Mr.  Justice 
Depue  says  :  "  The  common-law  doctrine  is  that  where  the  king  has  any  prerogative,  right,  title, 
or  interest,  and  the  statute  is  general,  he  shall  not  be  barred  of  them  by  the  general  words  of  the 
act,  for  the  king  shall  not  be  bound  unless  the  statute  is  made  by  express  words  to  extend  to  him. 
Magdalen  College  Case,  11  Coke,  74;  Willion  v.  Berkley,  1  Plow.  239;  Bac.  Abr.  tit.  'Statute' 
(E).  Independently  of  any  doctrine  founded  on  the  notion  of  prerogative,  the  same  construction 
ought  to  prevail,  founded  upon  the  legislative  intent.  Where  the  government  is  not  expressly  or 
by  necessary  implication  included,  it  ought  to  be  clear  from  the  nature  of  the  mischiefs  to  be 
reached,  or  the  language  used,  that  the  government  itself  was  in  contemplation  of  the  legislaiuie, 
before  a  court  of  law  would  be  authorized  to  put  a  construction  on  a  statute  which  would  aftect 
its  rights."  The  same  judge  in  his  charge  to  the  jury  in  Stevens  v.  Railroad  Co.,  as  reported  in  34 
N.  J.  Law,  .534,  made  use  of  this  language  :  "  The  distinction  between  the  grant  of  a  mere  fran- 
chise and  a  grant  of  a  portion  of  the  public  domain  is  broadly  marked.  With  respect  to  the 
latter,  the  rule  is  invariably  adhered  to  that,  in  cases  of  doubt,  the  grant  is  to  be  construed  in 
favor  0+'  the  state,  and  most  strongly  against  the  grantee,  who  will  take  nothing  not  clearly  given 
him  by  the  grant.  *  *  *  An  intent  to  alienate  any  portion  of  them  without  any  consideration 
will  not,  in  the  absence  of  a  formal  grant,  in  express  words,  be  implied,  except  upon  the  clearest 
necessity  to  effectuate  the  purpose  of  the  legislature  in  investing  the  grantee  with  public  fran- 
chises." In  the  same  case  in  the  court  of  errors  and  appeals  (34  N.  J.  Law,  .553)  Chief  Justice 
Be.\sley  says  :  "  The  state  is  never  presumed  to  have  parted  with  any  part  of  its  property  in  the 
absence  of  conclusive  proof  of  an  intention  to  do  so.  Such  proof  must  exist  either  in  express 
terms  or  in  necessary  implications.  I  shall  not  cite  authorities  to  sustain  so  familiar  a  proposi- 
tion." State  v.  Bentley,  23  N.  J.  Laws,  538;  Proprietors  of  Bridges  v.  Improvement  Co.,  13 
N.  J.  Eq.  94;  Water  Com'rs  v.  Hudson  City,  Id.  420;  Townsend  v.  Brown,  24  N.  J.  Law,  87; 
Banking  Co.  v.  Railroad  Co.,  IG  N.  J.  Eq.  419,  43(j ;  Endl.  Interp.  St.  §  354. 

Although  it  may  be  proper  in  some  measure  to  relax  the  strict  application  of  this  rule  in  the 
case  of  a  public  body  created  essentially  for  a  public  purpose,  like  the  complainant  before  me,  j'et, 
even  there,  there  must  be  some  manifestation  of  the  legislative  intent  to  grant  public  rights.  I 
have  been  referred  to  other  legislation,  having  for  its  object  the  prevention  of  the  pollution  of  the 
waters  of  the  Passaic  within  the  boundaries  of  the  counties  of  Essex  and  Hudson,  (P.  L.  1873, 
p.  683.)  as  indicative  of  legislative  recognition  of  right  in  the  complainant  to  take  water  from  the 
Passaic  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  iiows  ;  but,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  previous  to  that  legislation 
the  legislature  expressly  authorized  the  city  of  Jersey  City  (P.  L.  18.53,  d.  419)  and  the  Harrison 
Aqueduct  Company  (P.  L.  1864,  p.  754)  and  possibly  other  corporations  to  take  the  Passaic  water 
at  the  locality  indicated,  the  legislation  referred  to  may  properly  be  regarded  as  relating  to  pro- 
tection of  the  rights  thus  given.  At  all  events,  there  is  nothing  in  it  to  satisfy  me  that  it  should 
influence  the  construction  of  the  complainant's  rights,  as  here  contended  for. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  determine  what  right,  if  any,  the  complainant  may  have  in  common  with 
the  public  to  take  water  from  the  Passaic  for  the  uses  to  which  it  devotes  it.  If  such  a  right  is 
enjoyed,  it  is  a  common  right,  the  interference  with  which,  by  pollution  of  the  water,  does  not 
work  a  private,  direct,  and  material  damage  to  the  complainant  distinct  from  that  which  is  suffered 
by  the  public  at  large,  and  which  is  necessary  to  enable  an  individual  to  maintain  such  a  bill  as 
that  which  is  before  me.  It  is  true  the  injury  to  the  complainant  may  be  greater  than  to  others 
of  the  public,  because  the  complainant  makes  extensive  use  of  the  water  for  purposes  which  will 
not  admit  of  its  pollution,  while  others  may  make  but  little  similar  use  of  it,  and  others  yet  may 
not  use  it  at  all.  But  the  injury  to  all  is  in  its  character  and  essence  the  same  ;  the  difference  is  only 
in  degree.  In  the  absence  of  the  distinct  injury  to  the  complainant,  it  cannot  maintain  this  suit. 
Where  a  nuisance  is  purely  public,  the  proceeding  in  this  court  to  restrain  it  must  be  by  informa- 
tion by  the  attorney  general.  The  statutory  authority  under  which  it  is  insisted  the  complainant 
may  maintain  this  suit  is  contained  in  the  sixth  section  of  the  act  of  1860,  above  referred  to.  That 
section  provides  "  that  the  Newark  Aqueduct  Board  "  may  prosecute  an  action  or  process  at  law  or 
in  equity  against  any  person  for  money  for  the  use  of  water,  for  the  breach  of  any  contract,  "  and 
also  for  any  injury  or  trespass  or  nuisance  done,  or  caused  or  procured  to  be  done,  to  the  water- 
courses, pipes,  machinery,  or  any  apparatus  belonging  to  or  connected  with  any  part  of  the  works, 
or  for  any  improper  use  or  waste  of  the  water."     As  the  control  and  management  of  all  that  per- 


APPENDIX    V.  583 

tains  to  Newark's  water  supply  was  committed  to  the  complainant  board,  it  became  convenient  and 
proper  that  it  should  be  enabled  to  make  contracts  and  enforce  compliance  with  them,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  protect  the  properly  placed  in  its  charge.  For  these  purposes  it  was  given 
a  corporate  name  and  existence,  but  I  find  nothing  in  this  legislation  which  clothes  the  complainant 
with  power  to  do  more  than  an  individual  could  do  in  the  protection  of  his  own  property.  It  does 
not  authorize  proceedmgs  either  in  the  name  of  the  state  or  in  the  name  of  the  attorney  general. 
The  injury  contemplated  was  evidently  injury  to  private  rights  only.  It  was  to  apparatu.^^,  pipes, 
machmery,  and  water-courses  connected  with  the  complainant's  works ,  that  is,  injury  to  water- 
courses in  which  the  complainant's  principal  had  some  special  right  of  property.  The  legislation 
evidently  was  designed  to  bestow  a  corporate  e.'dstence  upon  the  aqueduct  board  for  certain  pur- 
poses, and,  among  them,  to  maintain  suits  in  its  own  name  for  the  protection  of  the  property 
intrusted  to  it  in  the  same  manner  as  an  individual  owner  of  that  property  might  sue  for  his  own 
protection.  The  conservation  of  public  interests  is  with  the  state  and  its  attorney  general,  and  it.s 
bestowal  by  the  legislature  upon  another  agency,  like  the  grant  of  public  domain,  should  be  IjV 
express  language,  or,  at  least,  by  that  from  which  the  power  must  be  necessarily  implied. 

It  follows,  from  the  views  that  I  have  taken  of  the  questions  thus  far  considered,  that  the  com- 
plainant has  not  shown  eitlier  authority  to  maintain  this  suit  in  behalf  of  the  pubUc,  or  such 
distmct  special  rights  in  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  river  as  this  court  will  feel  bound  to  protect,  or, 
at  best,  that  it  has  not  shown  such  authority  and  riglits  established  by  adjudication  in  this  state. 
"  No  rule  of  equity,"  says  Chief  Justice  Beaslev,  in  Coach  Co.  v.  Railroad  Co.,  29  N.  J.  Eq.  'i99, 
304.  ••  is  better  settle;!  than  the  doctrine  that  a  complainant  is  not  in  a  position  to  ask  for  a  pre- 
liminary injunction  wh>in  tae  right  on  which  he  founds  his  claim  is,  as  a  matter  of  law,  unsettled." 
And  in  the  late  case  of  Haggerty  v.  Lee,  45  N.  J.  Eq.  25.""),  IT  Atl.  Rep.  826,  Mr.  Justice  Depue 
reiterates  the  rule  thus  stated,  in  this  language  :  "  It  is  impossible  to  emphasize  too  strongly  the 
rule  so  often  enforced  in  tliis  court,  that  a  preliminary  injunction  will  not  be  allowed  where  either 
the  complainant's  right  which  he  seeks  to  have  protected  in  limine  by  an  interlocutory  injunction 
is  iu  doubt,  or  where  the  injury  which  may  result  from  an  mvasion  of  that  right  i.s  not  irivp- 
arable." 

It  has  been  urged  that  the  consequencss  of  the  contemplated  drainage  will  be  so  disastrous  and 
irreparable  that  I  should  not  dismiss  this  application  without  consideration  of  its  merits,  and  giv- 
ing som"  expression  of  opinion  as  to  them.  It  is  a  well-settled  rule  of  equity  procedure  that  an 
injunction  to  restrain  a  nuisance  will  issue  only  in  cases  where  the  fact  of  nuisance  is  made  out 
upon  determinate  and  satisfactory  evidence.  If  the  evidence  be  conflicting,  and  the  injury  be 
doubtful,  that  will  constitute  a  ground  for  withholding  the  injunction.  'J  Story,  Eq.  Jur.  *>  9:.'4rt  ; 
Attorney  General  v.  Heishon,  18  N.  J.  Eq  410.  And,  where  the  interposition  by  injunction  is 
sought  to  restrain  that  which  it  is  apprehended  will  create  a  nuisance,  the  proofs  must  show  that 
the  apprehension  of  material  and  irreparable  injury  is  well  grounded  upon  a  state  of  facts  which 
show  the  danger  to  be  real  and  immediate.  Brookline  v.  Mackintosh,  Wi'-i  Mass.  215.  The  com 
plainant  groimds  its  apprehension  of  danger  from  the  defendant's  sewage,  if  discharged  into  th 
river,  largely  upon  the  opinion  of  Peter  T.  Austen,  who  is  emploj-ed  by  it  as  its  chemist,  and  who 
is  also  a  professor  of  chemistry  in  Rutgers  College,  at  New  Brunswick,  in  this  state.  This  gentle- 
man, assuming  that  both  floating  and  dissolved  matter  discharged  into  the  Passaic  river  will 
re;ich  the  X^-wark  water  intake  within  a  few  hours  after  its  discharge,  and  be  pumped  into  the 
reservoir  and  distributed  to  the  people  of  Newark,  proceeds  to  discuss  the  effect  of  the  use  of  such 
polluted  water  upon  the  health  of  its  consumers.  He  says  :  ''  Experimental  science  has  established 
the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  diseases  are  communicated  from  one  person  to  another  by  means 
of  minute  organisms  known  as  m irrnb^i.  bnrtfriti,  barcil/i,  mirrororci,  etc.,  or  more  popularly  as 
germs.  The  communicability  of  disease,  as  in  cases  of  small-pox,  scarlet  fever,  diphtheria, 
Bvphilis,  etc.,  is  well  understood  by  the  public.  The  germs  or  virus  of  these  diseases  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  proper  membranes,  and  proceed  at  once  to  develop  and  cause  tlje  specific  functional 
disorders  known  as  disease.  There  is  good  evidence  to  show  that  disease  may  also  be  coninuinicateil 
by  water,  if  the  water  contains  disease  germs."  The  afli.ant  then  refers  to  instances  in  which  the 
prevalence  of  typnoid  fever  in  a  community  was  attributed  to  the  rxi-rcln  of  the  typhoid  fever 
patient  in  water  from  which  the  inhabitants  drank.  He  thinks  that  the  albuminoid  matter  in 
sewage  in  sufficient  quantity,  and  under  favorable  circumstancs,  will  feed  di.sea.se  germs,  and  mul- 
tiply them,  and  that  the  putrefaction  and  decomposition  of  the  albuminoid  substances  mav  pro- 
duce poisonous  nitrogenous  substances  deleterious  to  health.      He  further  stated  that  although 


/)84  APPENDICES. 

a  portion  of  the  solid  matter  in  sewage  may  sink  to  the  bottom,  or  become  entangled  with  tlie 
vegetation  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  the  soluble  matter  will  still  pass  on,  and  the  solid  matter  that 
sinks  or  becomes  entangled  may  soon  ferment,  putref}',  and  decompose,  and  impart  to  the  water 
its  products,  and  that  in  process  of  decomposition  gases  will  be  generated  which  will  cause  the 
solid  matter  that  contams  them  to  float  with  the  current. 

In  ad<lition  to  this  affidavit  the  complainant  ])roduced  the  depositions  of  Charles  Jacobson,  its 
civil  engineer,  and  two  of  its  water  inspectors,  which  show  that  in  October,  1888,  Mr.  Jacobson, 
accompanied  bj'  the  two  inspectors,  went  to  a  point  in  the  Passaic  river,  at  about  the  place  where 
the  defendant  proposes  to  discharge  its  main  sewer,  at  a  time  when  the  tide  in  the  river  was  at  full 
ebb  flow,  and  the  volume  and  current  was  at  about  the  average,  and  when  little  or  no  wind  was 
blowing,  and  placed  four  tin  floats  in  the  water,  and  then  followed  them  in  their  course  down  the 
stream.  Threi  of  the  floats  became  entangled  in  grass  along  the  shore  of  the  river,  but  the  fourth 
went  to  the  intake  of  the  water  for  Nevvark,  a  distance  of  about  24.300  feet,  in  four  hours  and  two 
minutes. 

In  reply  to  the  affi  lavit  of  Professor  Austen,  and  in  support  of  the  answer's  denial  that  the  dis- 
iharge  of  its  sewage  will  pollute  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  river  or  create  a  nuisance  therein,  the 
defendant  produced  the  aeposition  of  Heijry  Wurts,  formerij-  state  chemist  of  New  Jersey.  Mr. 
Wurts  states  that  he  is  by  prof es -ion  a  chemist,  and  that  for  the  last  17  or  18  years  he  has  made 
special  study  of  the  waters  of  the  Passaic  river,  and  many  analyses  of  them. "  Speaking  of  such  anal- 
yses made  bj'  hirii  in  1881  and  1882,  he  says  :  "  These  analyses  were  so  planned  as  to  follow  up  the 
changes  that  might  take  place  in  the  composition  of  the  river  from  above  Passaic  Falls  down  to 
the  outlet  of  the  Dundee  canal  into  the  tidal  channel  at  Passaic,  showing  the  effect  on  the  sewage 
of  Paterson  if  flowed  through  the  open  air.  Above  the  falls,  the  total  amounts  of  nitrogen  in  the 
water  in  all  forms  by  three  analvses,  made  at  intervals  of  some  weeks,  Avere.0217,  .0286,  and  .0389, 
•and  in  the  mean  .0297,  grain  per  gallon,  while  at  four  and  a  half  miles  below  tne  falls,  at  the 
Broadway  bridge,  the  figures  were  .02.5-,  .0315.  and  .0303,  in  the  mean  .0309, — only  4  per  cent, 
more  than  above  the  falls.  Thus  in  this  four  and  a  half  miles  of  flow  almost  the  whole  effect  of 
the  sewage  of  Paterson  (then  having  at  least  .50,000  people)  had  disappeared.  This  is  an  absolute 
loss  and  destruction  of  the  noxious  matter,  as  the.se  impurities  must  pass  off  into  the  air  as 
ammonia  and  gaseous  nitrogen.  Even  such  portion  of  it  as  is  assimilated  by  plants  and  animals 
living  in  the  water  becomes  thereby  innocuous,  and  ultimately  passes  into  the  air  in  these  same 
gaseous  forms."  The  affiant  declares  it  to  be  his  opinion,  substantiated  by  the  result  of  his 
analyses,  that  the  nitrogenous  and  pu1>rescible  constituents  of  the  sewage  of  the  city  of  Passaic 
will  .substantially  vanish  during  the  down  flow  of  four  and  a  half  miles  from  the  sewer  outlet  to 
the  Newark  inta'ce.  He  also  states  that  on  the  25th  of  April,  1889,  he  examined  the  sewers  of  the 
city  of  Newark  that  empty  into  the  Passaic  river,  and  found  that  they  number  seven,  and  that  the 
nearest  of  them  to  the  Newark  water  intake  is  that  which  is  called  "  Second  River,"  two  and  a 
quarter  miles  below  the  pumping  station.  At  the  foot  of  Clay  street  he  found  two  brick  tunnels 
discharging  directly  into  the  river  ''streams  of  black  opaque  water,"  having  a  thick,  offensive- 
looking  scum  upon  it.  This  sewer  is  three  and  a  quarter  miles  below  the  water  intake,  and  dis- 
charges about  2,000,000  of  gallons  of  sewage  during  the  12  buisiness  hours  of  each  day.  He  further 
states  that  the  tide  in  the  river  carries  a  portion  of  this  sewage  to  the  Newark  intake,  and  that  his 
analyses  establish  that  seventeen-eighteenths  of  the  present  pollution  of  the  water  at  that  intake 
is  caused  by  the  Newark  sewage.  It  is  also  shown  that  at  the  defendant's  proposed  sewer  outlet 
the  Passaic  river  is  about  200  feet  wide,  and  14  feet  deep  in  the  channel,  at  high  tide,  and  that 
because  the  United  States  government  has  removed  the  bars  in  the  river  the  sewage  will  be  swept 
back  and  forth  by  the  continual  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  and  that  the  tide  flows  above  the  outlet 
of  the  sewer  for  a  mUe  and  a  half,  at  the  end  of  that  distance  rising  about  three  and  a  half  feet. 
It  is  argued  that  the  flow  of  each  tide  will  send  the  sewage  back  this  distance  diluted  in  a  great 
body  of  water,  and  that  the  greater  part  of  it  will  thus  be  obliged  to  traverse  a  much  greater  dis- 
tance than  four  and  a  half  miles  before  it  can  reach  the  Newark  intake  ;  and  it  is  insisted  that  if 
the  Paterson  sewage  from  .50,000  population  disappears  in  a  flow  of  four  and  a  half  miles  above 
tide-water,  that  the  sewage  in  question,  from  only  10,000  population,  must  more  certainly  vanish 
in  this  greater  flow,  added  to  a  washing  by  the  tide. 

In  the  case  of  Attorney  General  v.  Board,  L.  R.  18  Eq.  172,  in  1874,  I  find  that  Sir  George 
Jessel,  M.  R.,  dealt  with  testimony  by  Dr.  Frankland,  of  the  Royal  College  of  Chemistry  in 
England,  which  was  somewhat  simQar  to  that  which  is  here  given  by  Professor  Austen.     There  Dr. 


APPEXDIX    V.  585 

Frankland  said  that  no  sewage  could  be  admitted  into  a  river  without  deteriorating  the  quality  of 
the  water.  "  The  deterioration,"  he  said,  "for  washing  and  manufacturing  purposes,  may  be,  as 
in  this  case,  insignificant  or  imperceptible ;  but  for  drinking  and  cooking  such  water  becomes 
dangerous,  because,  as  the  rivers  pollution  commissioners  have  shown,  the  sewage  matter  is  not 
perceptibly  altered  in  its  character  by  a  flow  of  seven  miles,  and  scarcely  diminished  in  quantity. 
Neither  does  the  failure  of  chemical  analysis  to  detect  any  deleterious  ingredient  indicate  that 
danger  is  absent,  since  the  nature  of  the  noxious  ingredients  which  propagate  small-pox,  scarlet 
fever,  typhoid  fever,  or  cholera  is  unknown.  A  chemical  analysis  is  therefore  powerless  to  detect 
these  ingi  edients."  In  the  case  belorc-  me  Professor  Austen  speaks  of  these  ingredients  as  germs  of 
disease  called  "  microbes  ;  "  that  is,  germs  so  mfinitesimal  that  they  derive  their  name,  "  microbes," 
from  the  powerful  glass  by  the  aid  of  which  it  is  claimed  they  may  be  detected.  The  theory 
advanced  by  Dr.  Frankland  was  contradicted  by  other  experts,  and  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  Ijecause 
no  impurity  was  detected  in  the  intake  of  the  Workington  water-works,  declared  that  a  nuisance 
was  not  proven. 

In  Goldsmid  v.  Commissioners,  L.  R.  1  Ch.  349,  Lord  Justice  TruxER,  referring  to  the 
testimony  of  scientific  experts  in  a  case  of  nuisance,  said  :  "  Speaking  with  all  possible  respect  to 
the  scientific  gentlemen  who  have  given  their  evidence,  and  as  to  whom  it  is  but  just  to  say  that 
they  have  dealt  with  the  case  most  ablj-  and  most  impartially,  I  think  that  in  cases  of  this  nature 
.much  more  weight  is  due  to  the  facts  which  are  proved  than  to  conclusions  drawn  from  scientific 
investigations.  The  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  scientific  investigations  are,  no  doubt,  in  such 
cases,  of  great  value,  in  aid  or  in  explanation  and  qualification  of  the  facts  which  are  proved,  but 
in  my  judgment  it  is  upon  the  facts  which  are  proved,  and  not  upon  such  conclusions,  the  court 
ought  in  these  cases  mainly  to  rely.  *  *  *  In  my  view  of  this  case,  therefore,  the  scientific 
evidence  ought  to  be  considered  as  secondarj*  only  to  the  evidence  as  to  the  facts." 

This  view  of  scientific  evidence  in  cases  of  this  kind  s.o  commends  itself  to  me  that  I  am  con- 
strained to  be  guiaed  by  it  in  the  disposition  of  the  question  of  fact  I  am  now  considering.  The 
application  here  is  to  restrain  that  which  it  i.*  alleged  will  create  a  nuisance,  not  that  which  in  fact 
creates  a  nuisance.  The  injury  is  prospective,  and  it  is  only  possible  to  judge  from  experience  in 
similar  cases,  e.xperiment.  and  the  opinions  of  experts,  whether  the  apprehension  is  well  grounded 
and  free  fi'om  doubt.  Here  two  important  circumstances  appear — J^lrst,  practically  all  traces  of 
the  Paterson  sewage,  as  far  as  the  same  could  be  detected  by  chemical  analysis,  had  disappeared 
in  the  flowing  water  of  the  Passaic,  four  and  a  half  miles  from  the  place  at  which  it  was  dis- 
charged into  the  river,  although  in  that  part  of  the  river  there  was  no  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tide ; 
and,  second,  the  sewage  of  Newark,  washed  by  the  tide  to  the  Newark  water  intake,  readily 
detectable  by  chemical  analysis,  has  not  produced  an  injury  similar  to  that  which  is  apprehended 
from  this  much  smaller  quantity  of  sewage,  to  be  emptied  into  the  river  at  a  much  greater  distance 
from  the  intake.  In  the  light  of  these  circumstances,  it  may  be  asked  why,  if  impeiceptible  germs 
of  disease,  fraught  with  danger  to  health  and  life,  continue  in  water  afttr  ail  traces  of  the  sewage 
from  which  they  come,  so  far  as  they  can  be  detected  by  the  chemist,  are  lost,  have  not  their 
dangerous  qualities  become  manifested  in  Newark  long  before  this?  This-  experience  seems  to  be 
a  complete  negation  of  the  danger  theory  atlvanced  in  support  of  this  application,  (U-  is  sufficient, 
at  least,  to  render  it  doubtful  whether  the  danger  apprehended  is  more  than  chimerical.  1  deem  it 
.)f  sufficient  weight  to  justify  me  in  withholding  a  preliminary  injunction. 

With  reference  to  the  Newark  sewage,  I  should  add  that  it  is  not  a  sufficient  ground  for  refusal 
of  the  injunction  asked  to  say  that  the  Newark  sewage  is  a  greater  and  more  dangerous  nuisance 
than  the  sewage  of  the  city  of  Passaic  will  be,  and  because  it  pollutes  the  river  tiie  court  will  not 
restrain  the  small  addition  to  that  pollution  that  the  sewage  of  Passaic  will  make.  The  defendant 
woidd  have  no  right  to  add  to  existing  pollution,  even  though  it  be  proportionally  much  less  than 
that  which  exists.  Attorney  General  v.  Steward,  20  N.  J.  Eq.  41.");  Attorney  Ceneral  v.  Corpora- 
tion, L.  R.  .T  Ch.  .583  ;  Attorney  General  v.  Asylum.  L.  R.  4  Ch.  146.  I  will  discharge  the  or.ler 
to  show  cause,  and  deny  the  complainant's  application. 

Application  for  an  injunction  was  again  made  in  1890  and  a  \tiYge 
additional  amount  of  evidence  taken  in  the  fall  of  that  year.  The  de- 
cision is  still  pt'iidinj^. 


586  APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX  VI. 

The  following-  is  the  Pollution  Prevention  Act  passed  by  the  Vir- 
ginia Legislature  in  1892  : 

AN  ACT  to  prevent  the  pollution  of  potable  water  used  for  the  supply  of  cities.     Approved  Feb'7 
29,  1892. 

1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  Virginia,  That  it  shall  be  unlawful,  except  as  here- 
inafter provided,  for  any  person  to  defile  or  render  impure,  turbid,  or  offensive  the  water  used 
for  the  supply  of  any  city  or  town  of  this  state,  or  the  sources  or  streams  used  for  furnishing 
such  supply,  or  to  endanger  the  purity  thereof  by  the  following  means,  or  any  of  them,  to  wit :  by 
washing,  or  bathing  therein,  or  by  casting  into  any  spring,  well,  pond,  lake,  or  reservoir  from 
which  such  supply  is  drawn,  or  into  any  stream  so  used,  or  the  tributary  thereof  above  the 
poiiit  where  such  supply  is  taken  out  of  such  stream,  or  is  impounded  for  the  purposes  of 
such  supply,  or  into  any  canal,  aqueduct,  or  other  channel  or  receptacle  for  water  connected 
with  any  works  for  furnishing  a  public  water  supply,  any  offal,  dead  lisli,  or  carcass  of  any  animal, 
or  any  human  or  animal  filth,  or  other  foul  or  waste  animal  matter,  or  any  waste  vegetable  or  min- 
eral substance,  or  the  refuse  of  any  mine,  manufactory,  or  manufacturing  process,  or  by  discharg- 
ing or  permitting  to  flow  into  any  such  source,  spring,  wed,  reservoir,  pond,  stream,  or  the  tribu- 
tary thereof,  canal,  aqueduct,  or  other  receptacle  for  water,  the  contents  of  any  sewer,  privy,  stable, 
or  barnyard,  or  the  impure  drainage  of  any  mine,  any  crude  or  refined  petroleum,  chemicals,  or 
any  foid,  noxious,  or  offensive  drainage  whatsoever,  or  by  constructing  or  maintaining  any  privy 
vault  or  cesspool,  or  by  storing  manure  or  other  soluble  fertilizer  of  an  offensive  character,  or  by 
disposing  of  the  carcass  of  any  animal,  or  any  foul,  noxious,  or  putrescible  substance,  whether  solid 
or  fluid,  and  whether  the  same  be  buried  or  not,  within  two  hundred  feet  of  any  watercourse, 
canal,  pond,  or  lake  aforesaid,  which  is  liable  to  contamination  by  the  washings  thereof  or  perco- 
lation therefrom ;  jirovided,  that  nothing  in  this  act  contained  shall  be  construed  co  authorize  the 
pollution  of  any  of  the  waters  in  this  state  in  any  manner  now  contrary  to  law ;  and  provided 
further,  that  this  act  shall  not  apply  to  streams  the  drainage  area  of  which,  above  the  point  where 
the  water  thereof  is  withdrawn  for  the  supply  of  any  city  or  town,  or  is  impounded  for  the  pur- 
poses of  such  supply,  shall  exceed  fifty  square  miles. 

2.  That  any  person  knowingly  or  wilfully  violatincr  the  terms  of  this  act  shall  be  deemed  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  punished  for  each  off.-nce  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  hundred  dol- 
lars, or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  thirty  days,  or  by  both,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court,  and 
provided  further,  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prevent  the  washing  ol 
ore  or  minerals  in  any  of  the  streams  or  waters  of  this  commonwealth  other  than  such  as  may  be 
used  for  the  water  supply  of  any  city  or  town. 

3.  This  act  shall  take  effect  fifteen  days  after  its  passage. 


APPENDIX    TIL 

The  following-  are  the  Kules  of  the  New  York  State  Board  of  Health 
governing-  the  preparation  of  such  plans  for  Sewerage  and  Sewage 
Disposal  Works  as  are  required  by  law  to  be  submitted  to  the  Board 
for  approval : 

The  experience  of  the  past  year  has  shown  the  nccessitv  for  a  statement  of  what  the  Board  re- 
quires to  he  conveyed  by  t!ie  p'ans  submitted,  and  of  the  most  desirable  form  that  these  plans 
yhould  take.      The  following  suggestions  ure  tl  evefore  made,  and  it  is  requested  that  those  inter- 


APPENDIX   VII.  587 

ested  with  the  preparation  of  plans  will  follow  them  as  closely  as  is  practicable.     Certain  portions 
must  be  followed,  while  considerable  latitude  can  be  allowed  upon  others,  as  intimated. 

1.  A  plan  of  the  entire  village  will  be  required,  showing  all  streets,  and  so  far  as  practicable  pro- 
posed streets.  This  must  not  be  on  a  smaller  scale  than  2.50  feet  to  an  inch  and  may  be  larger.  A 
comprehensive  title,  stating  what  the  map  purports  to  show,  must  be  placed  thereon.  The  scale 
of  the  map  must  be  distinctly  stated,  and  an  explanation  of  all  symbols  used  must  be  given  on  it. 
Contour  lines  should  be  carefully  located  and  drawn  to  interfere  as  little  as  possible  with  the  de- 
lineation of  other  features.  A  sufficient  number  of  elevations  above  an  assumed  datum,  written 
in  figures,  should  be  given  to  show  the  governing  elevations  of  the  ground.  The  elevations  of 
sewer  invert  at  critical  and  other  important  points  should  be  given,  each  surmounted  by  an  oval  as 
a  distinguishing  mark.  When  the  plan  presented  does  not  propose  to  sewer  the  entire  village,  and 
the  street  profiles  do  not  extend  to  the  ends  of  the  streets  or  to  the  village  Umits,  the  elevations  of 
the  ground  at  every  change  of  slope  in  the  streets  beyond  the  limits  of  the  profiles,  and  the  eleva- 
tions of  the  bottoms  of  the  deepest  cellars,  or  other  localities  below  the  level  of  the  street,  should 
be  given  in  their  proper  locations  upon  the  plan.  Upon  this  plan  must  be  shown  all  existing 
sewers,  with  all  the  information  obtainable  regarding  their  depth  below  the  surface,  grades,  sizes, 
man-holes,  lamp-holes,  catch-basins,  flush-tanks,  etc.  The  proposed  system  must  be  laid  down  in 
a  clear  and  definite  manner,  showing  the  locations  of  the  lines  in  the  streets,  the  position  of  man- 
holes, catch-basins,  lam[)-holes,  inspection-pipes,  flush-tanks,  ventilators  or  other  appurtenances, 
by  symbols  readily  distinguishable  and  explained  in  the  map-legend.  The  sizes  of  pipe  and  the 
grades  of  inclination  must  be  given  in  figures  alongside  the  line,  and  points  of  change  of  inclination 
or  of  alignment  must  be  definitely  located,  being  part  of  the  information  given  by  the  profiles, 
here  repeated  as  a  great  convenience.  Inclinations  may  be  given  as  fall  in  feet  per  hundred  or  as  a 
slope  ratio.  A  sufficient  number  of  arrows  must  be  drawn  alongside  the  lines  to  show  clearly  the 
direction  of  flow  of  sewage.  The  position  of  outlet  must  be  clearly  shown,  and  the  direction  of 
current  in  the  body  of  water,  if  any,  into  which  the  sewage  flows.  Location  of  disposal  works 
must  also  be  shown.  Independent  lines  of  pipe  proposed  for  subsoil  or  cellar  drainage  should  be 
marked  by  a  different  symbol  from  that  for  tight  .sewer  pipe  lines,  and  the  size  of  such  pipes  should 
be  given.  When  the  territory  covered  by  the  village  is  large  the  details  of  sewers  may  be  given  on 
one  or  more  sheets  on  the  large  scale,  the  entire  village  being  shown  on  an  accompanying  maj)  of  a 
convenient  smaller  scale,  which  shall  contain  the  general  information  required  above. 

2.  Profiles  of  the  streets  proposed  to  be  sewered  and  of  other  lines  of  sewer  must  be  presented  on 
separate  sheets  from  the  plan.  These  profiles  should  be  extended  to  the  entire  length  of  the  street 
and  .should  be  presented  for  every  street  in  the  village,  unless  the  elevations  beyond  the  ends  of 
proposed  sewer  lines  are  j)laced  on  the  plan  as  proposed  in  paragraph  1  above.  These  profiles 
should  show  the  profile  of  ground  surface,  the  elevation  of  particularly  low  points,  such  as  cellar 
bottoms,  low  lots,  etc.,  and  their  distances  from  the  sewer  line,  and  the  grade  line  of  the  sewer. 
Location  of  man-holes,  lamp-holes,  catch-basins,  flush-tanks,  and  other  sewer  appurtenances  should 
be  shown,  also  points  of  intersection  with  other  streets  and  points  of  entrance  of  branches,  with 
their  elevations  at  entrance.  Inclination  of  sewer  should  be  given  in  figures,  also  points  of  change 
of  inclination  being  clearly  defined.  A  small  title  should  appear  on  each  sheet  of  profiles,  giving 
at  least  name  of  village,  scales  and  explanation  of  symbols. 

'■I  Details  of  the  general  plans  for  constructions  connected  with  the  sewers,  such  as  man- holes, 
catch-l)asins,  lamp-holes,  inspection  pipes,  junctions,  valves,  traps,  should  be  given,  and  full 
drawings  of  any  devices  for  special  purposes  demanded  by  the  peculiar  circum.stances  of  the  case. 
Sections  of  sewers  other  than  circular  should  be  sliown.  Full  details  of  the  outlet  should  be  given, 
and  plans,  elevations,  sections  and  details  of  special  grounds,  buildings,  macliincry  or  other  appara- 
tus used  in  connection  with  the  disposal  of  the  sewage  and  drainai^e.  Definite  scales  for  these  de- 
tails cannot  be  prescribed.  It  is  necessary  that  the  scales  used  be  large  enough  to  present  the  in- 
formation clearly  and  definitely,  and  plenty  of  room  should  be  left  between  drawings,  that  they 
may  not  be  unintelligible  on  account  of  crowding.  It  will  be  lietter  to  present  the  details  on  one 
or  more  sheets  separate  from  the  ])lans  and  profiles.  Titles  and  subtitles  enough  to  give  name  of 
village,  explanation  of  symbols,  names  of  objects  delineated  an<l  scales  should  appear  on  each  sheet 
ofdit;iils. 

4.  ( leneral  specifications  for  the  construction  of  the  system  must  accompany  the  plans,  giving 
the  general  requirements  and  conditions  regarding  trenching,  draining  material,  inspection  and 
laying  of  pipe,  character  of  materials  and  manner  of  construction  of  brick  sewers  and  of  man- 


588  APPENDICES. 

holes,  flush  tanks,  outlets  and  other  appurtenances.      The  specifications  intended  for  contractors 
may  be  presented  as  fulfilling  the  above  requirements,  if  considered  desirable. 

5.  Duplicates  of  plans,  profiles,  details  and  specifications  must  be  presented.  The  original  will 
be  returned  to  the  sewer  commissioners  upon  approval,  with  the  official  statement  of  that  ap- 
proval. The  duplicate  will  be  filed  according  to  law,  in  the  ofiice  of  the  State  Board  of  Health. 
The  orio-inals  may  be  in  any  color  desired.  As  portions  at  least  of  each  set  of  plans  will  be  repro- 
duced for  the  annual  reports,  it  is  quite  necessary  that  the  duplicates  be  drawn  in  black  only,  the 
distinction  between  lines  being  made  by  difierent  forms  of  line  rather  than  by  colors.  They  must 
be  as  perfectly  clear  and  definite  as  the  originals,  and  may  be  upon  tracing  cloth.  Red  lines  may 
be  used  if  the  ink  is  ground  from  a  body  color.     Aniline  red  must  not  be  used. 

6.  A  report  should  be  presented,  written  probably  by  the  designing  engineer,  giving  the  data 
upon-which  calculations  and  locations  were  made,  such  as  area,  population,  distribution,  estimated 
increase  in  population,  rainfall,  amount  of  surface  drainage  to  be  taken  care  of  and  method  of  dis- 
posing of  it,  amount  of  roof-water,  amount  of  sew^e,  and  basis  for  the  qstimates  of  these  amounts, , 
a  statement  of  such  points  as  are  peculiar  to  the  locality,  a  description  of  devices  for  special  pur- 
poses, and  such  other  information  as  may  be  deemed  necessary  to  a  complete  understanding  of  the 
plans  as  presented.  This  report  should  also  give  a  general  statement  of  the  reasons  for  choice  of 
system  and  of  the  method  of  disposal  of  sewage  and  drainage,  an  explanation  of  any  special  feat- 
ures connected  therewith,  and  a  statement  of  the  proposed  manner  of  maintaining  the  works, 
where  a  purific^tiun  plant  is  intended.  A  tabular  statement  of  the  amounts  of  water  and  sewage 
to  be  disposed  of  by  each  sewer  branch  and  main  will  be  found  the  shortest  and  most  convenient 
manner  of  presenting  the  major  part  of  the  information  above  required. 


APPENDIX  VIII. 

AN  ACT  to  Prevent  the  Pollution  of  Rivers  and  Sources  of  Water  Supply. — Chapter  335,  Laws 
of  1885.     Approved,  March  7,  1 885. 

To  be  enacted  by  the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  Minnesota  : 

Section  1.  No  sewage,  drainage  or  refuse  or  polluting  matter  of  such  kind  as  either  by  itself 
or  in  connection  with  other  matter  will  corrupt  or  impair  the  quality  of  the  water  of  any  spring, 
well,  pond,  lake,  stream  or  river  for  domestic  use,  or  render  it  injurious  to  health,  and  no 
human  or  animal  excrement  shall  be  placed  in  or  discharged  into,  or  placed  or  deposited  upon  the 
ice  of  any  pond,  lake,  stream  or  river,  used  as  a  source  of  water  supply  by  any  town,  village  or 
city ;  nor  shall  any  such  sewage,  drainage,  refuse  or  polluting  matter  or  excrement  be  placed 
upon  the  banks  of  any  such  pond,  lake,  stream  or  river  within  five  miles  above  the  point  where 
such  supply  is  taken,  or  into  any  feeders  or  the  banks  thereof,  of  any  such  pond,  lake,  stream  or 
river. 

Sec.  2.  The  State  Board  of  Health  shall  have  the  general  supervision  of  all  springs,  wells, 
ponds,  lakes,  streams  or  rivers  used  by  any  town,  village  or  city  as  a  source  of  water  supply, 
with  reference  to  their  purity,  together  with  the  waters  feeding  the  same,  and  shall  examine  the 
same  from  time  to  time  and  inquire  what,  if  any,  pollutions  exist,  and  their  causes.  In  case  of 
the  violation  of  any  of  the  provisions  of  section  one  (1)  of  this  act,  said  Board  may  appoint  a  time 
and  place  for  hearing  parties  to  be  affected,  and  shall  give  due  notice  thereof,  as  hereinafter  pro- 
vided, to  such  parties,  and  after  such  hearing,  if  in  its  judgment  the  public  health  requires  it, 
may  order  any  person  or  corporation  or  municipal  corporation  to  desist  from  the  acts  causing 
such  pollutions,  or  to  cleanse  or  purify  the  polluting  substance  in  snch  a  manner  and  to  such  a 
degree  as  shall  be  directed  by  said  Board,  befoi-e  being  cast  or  allowed  to  flow  into  the  waters 
thereby  polluted,  or  placed  or  deposited  upon  the  ice  or  banks  of  any  of  the  bodies  of  water  in  the 
first  section  of  this  act  mentioned.  Upon  the  application  of  the  proper  officers  of  any  town,  vil- 
lage or  city,  or  of   not  less  than legal  voters  of  any  such  town,  village  or  city,  to  said 

Board,  alleging  the  pollution  of  water  supply  of  any  such  town,  village  or  city  by  the  violation  of 
any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  said  Board  shall  investigate  the  alleged  pollution,  and  shall  ap- 
point a  time  and  place  when  and  where  it  will  hear  and  examine  the  matter,  and  shall  give  notice 


APPENDIX    VIII.  589 

of  such  hearing  and  examination  to  the  complainant,  and  also  to  the  person  or  corporation  or 
municipal  corporation  aUeged  to  have  caused  such  pollution,  and  such  notice  shall  be  served  not 
less  than  ten  (10)  days  prior  to  the  time  so  appointed,  and  shall  be  served  in  the  same  manner 
that  now  is  or  hereafter  may  be  by  law  provided  for  the  service  of  a  summons  in  a  civQ  action  in 
the  district  court.  Said  Board,  if  in  its  judgment  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act  have  been  vio- 
lated, shall  issue  the  order  or  orders  already  mentioned  in  this  sectioh. 

Sec.  3.  The  district  court,  or  the  j  udge  thereof,  may,  upon  the  complaint  of  said  Board,  or  of 
the  proper  authorities  of  any  town,  city  or  village,  whose  sources  of  water  supply  shall  be  so  pol- 
luted, issue  an  injunction  to  enforce  the  orders  of  said  Board. 

Sec.  4.  Such  orders  of  the  State  Board  shall  be  served  upon  the  persons,  corporations  or 
municipal  corporations  found  to  have  violated  any  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  any  party 
aggrieved  thereby  shall  have  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  district  court  of  the  county  in  which  is 
situated  the  town,  village  or  city,  whose  source  of  water  supply  is  found  to  have  been  polluted, 
and  such  aggrieved  party  shall  have  the  right  to  a  trial  by  jury  in  the  same  manner  as  in  a  civif 
action  in  said  court.  During  the  pendency  of  the  appeal,  the  pollution  against  which  the  order 
has  been  issued,  shall  not  be  continued  contrary  to  the  order  of  the  State  Board,  and  upon  the 
violation  of  the  order  the  appeal  shall  be  forthwith  dismissed. 

Sec.  5.  Any  person,  corporation  or  municipal  corporation  desiring  to  appeal  from  any  such 
order  of  the  State  Board,  shall,  within  thirty  (oO)  days  after  the  service  upon  him  or  it,  of  a  copy 
of  such  order,  file  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  district  court  of  the  proper  county,  a  notice 
of  such  appeal,  together  with  a  bond  in  the  sum  of  not  less  than  two  thousand  (:i,000)  dollars, 
with  two  (2)  sureties,  to  be  approved  by  the  judge  of  said  court,  conditioned  for  the  prosecution 
of  such  appeal  to  judgment,  and  for  the  payment  of  all  the  costs  and  disbursements  that  may  be 
adjudged  against  him  or  it  therem,  and  shall,  within  three  (:))  days  after  such  filing,  serve  a  copy 
of  such  notice  and  bond  upon  the  Secretary  of  the  Board ;  said  Secretary  shall  within  ten  (10) 
days  thereafter,  deliver  such  copies  so  served  upon  him  to  the  .Mayor  or  other  chief  executive 
officer  of  any  such  city,  village  or  town,  whose  source  of  water  supply  has  been  found  to  have  been 
so  polluted. 

Sec.  fi.  Water  boards,  water  commissioners,  water  companies  and  the  proper  officers  of  any 
city,  village  or  town,  making  use  as  a  source  of  water  supply,  of  any  well,  spring,  pond,  lake, 
stream,  river,  reservoir  or  well,  within,  or  partly  within,  this  State,  and  distributing  the  waters 
thereof  for  public,  domestic  and  general  uses,  shall,  from  time  to  time,  and  whenever  required  by 
said  Board,  make  returns  to  said  Board,  upon  blanks  to  be  furnished  by  it,  of  such  matters  as 
may  be  required  by  said  Board  and  called  for  by  such  blanks,  and  any  such  water  board,  water 
commissioners,  water  company,  or  officers  of  any  city,  village  or  town,  who  shall  for  the  space  of 
thirty  (:J0)  days  after  being  furnished  with  such  blanks,  fail  or  neglect  to  make  any  such  report 
so  required,  shall  for  each  and  every  such  neglect  or  failure,  forfeit  and  pay  the  sum  of  one  hun- 
dred (100)  dollars,  for  the  use  of  the  local  Board  of  Health,  or  the  proper  officers  acting  aa 
such,  of  the  city,  town  or  village  where  such  delinquent  has  its  principal  office.  Said  State  Boara 
shall,  in  the  name  of  the  State,  prosecute  in  the  district  court  of  the  proper  county  an  action  fo* 
the  recovery  of  the  penalty  or  forfeit  therein  imposed. 

Sec.  7.     This  act  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its  passage. 


INDEX. 


Absorptiok  ditches,  Hospital  for  the  Insane,  London. 

Ont..  4m5. 
Aciil,  may  be  actionable   pollution  if  discharged  into 
strt-a  is.   Kill;   effect  on   aitrification,  197;    sewage, 
Worcester,  Mass..  4:;H. 
Ai't.   rivers  pollution   prevenlion,  English.   5ti!< ;   New 
York.  574  ;  Ma>^acluisetts.  57b;  Virginia,  5^(i ;  Min- 
nesota, 5ti8 
ActinoinvcD-is.  -Jh. 
Adams,  Ool.  Julius  \V.,  6-i,  A4i. 
Adeney,  \V.  E.,  'i'i4. 
Adverse  possession,  relation  of,  to  stream  pollution, 

108,  104.  109. 
Aeration  and  o.xidation,  acting  in  conjunction  with 
aquatic    plants  and    animals,   02  ;    experiments  on 
purificatiin  of  sevvnge  by  aeration,  222;  aeration  at 
Wayne.  Pa..  535. 
Agricultural  experiment  stations,  Work  on  soil  physics, 

161. 
Air  compressor,  Rand.  Worcester,  Mass.,  430. 

Temperatures,  see  temperatures. 
Albanv,  N.  Y.,  ei)ide;nic  of  typhoid  fever  at.  11. 
Albion,  N.  Y.,  purification  plant  proposed,  5ti7. 
Alga;,    number    present    in    and    effect    on    polluted 
streams.  70;  in  Beaver  dam  brook.  Sl-s2  ;  influence 
of  mineral  nitrates  on  growth  of,  82;  food  for  young 
fish,  .'-7  :  food  for  rhizopods,  W). 
Alkali,  effect  on  nitrification,  197. 
Allen.  Chas.  A.,  419,  420,  461). 

Alum,  use  in  paper  manufacture,  49 ;  woollen  manu- 
facture, 51  ;  cotton,  carpet,  blanket,  and  cloth  manu- 
facture. 64,  see  Cliemical  preeipitiints. 
Alutnina,  sulphate  of.  see  t!hemical  precipitants. 
Amherst,  Mass.,  disposal  on  land  and  sedimentation, 

.561. 
Ammonia,  how  produced,  160. 

Ammonias,  free  and  albuminoid,  decrease  of,  in  Illinois 
and  Michigan  Canal,  69:  relaticms  of,  to  ammonias 
and  organic  nitrogen  of  Frankland  and  Armstrong 
process,  153.  condition  of.  in  sewage,  15S. 
Analyses  (see  in  addition  to  below,  list  of  tables,  o.  xxv). 
Comparison  of  methods  by  Henry  Martin,  153  ;  night 
soil,  157. 

Sewage,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  21  ;  Chicago  Sto(;k  Yard, 
32:  (^)nstituents  of  sewage,  S^  ;  American,  152  ; 
English,  15:5;  Londcm,  1.54;  Rugby.  Eng.,  240  ; 
East  Orange,  N.  J..  394.  3%:  Mystic  Valley. 
406;  Worce-ter,  Mass.,  415.427;  Pullman,  111".. 
465;  South  Framingham,  Mass..  and  elTltient, 
4«8. 
Soils,  how  mechanical,  are  made,   163,  161.  li''6; 

Pullman.  Ill  .  467. 
Sludge.  Kast  Oian.'e.  N.  J.,  304. 
Street  ilrainaue.  1.55. 

WatiT.  Uo<;liester,  N  Y.  (from  well).  20  ;  Black- 
stone  Itiver,  43.  14  ;  Connecticut  River,  56.  .57  ; 
Pa-saic  Hiv.-r.  60.  til.  6i  ;  Schuylkill  River.  64; 
MissjKsiiipi  Uiver,  65  ;  Illinois  and  MichiL'an 
Cnnnl.  67.  7u:  Hudsmi  River.  70  sub  soil  water 
from  South  Framingham  drain.  MO.  HI. 
Angell,  on  prescriptive  right  to  pollute  water-courses. 

103. 
Anim'ds  and  plants,  purifyinir  effect  of.  in  Passaic  Riv- 
er. 59.  62  ;  miniUe.  how  distinguished,  77  ;  agents  in 
purifliTjition  of  streams.  89  ;  minute  animal  life  in 
polluted  water,  94. 
Aoiinals  infections  di-ea-es  of,  21:  diseases  of.  in  re- 
lation to  public  health  (Billings).  27 ;  injury  tu 
streams,  32. 


Anthrax,  description,  27;  outbreak  at  Bradford,  Eng- 
land, 27  :  literature,  28  ;  Iowa  case,  31. 

Atherton.  (Jeo.,  559. 

Atlantic  (Jity,  N.  J.,  sewage  flow  for  a  year,  144  ;  me- 
chanical separation  of  sewage,  562. 

Austin.  Henry,  172. 

Bacillus,  typhoid  fever  and  bibliography,  7.  8  ;  mal- 
lei, specific  germ  of  glanders,  12  ;  prodigiosu.s,  ex- 
periments with,  in  sand  rilter.  14  :  anthrax,  27. 

Bacteria,  harmless  and  pathogenic,  5  ;  in  sewage  muds, 
95  ;  Lortet's  paper  on  pathoaenic,  in  Lake  Geneva, 
95;  survival  of  pathogenic.  96;  of  nitrifi<-alion,  1S8, 
191;  how  reniovvd  by  chemical  piecipitat  on.  221  ; 
growth  stimulated  bv  nitre.  224  :  removed  by  inter- 
mittent filtration.  2ti7.  275.  276.  277.  278.  282,  286, 
287,  288;  removed  at  South  Framingham,  Mass., 
489. 

Bartie  -  board  for  mixing  chemicals,  208 ;  plates, 
Worcester.  Mass..  435. 

Ball,  Phinehas.  415,  483. 

Barl)er,  Dana  C,  64. 

Bassett,  C.  Ph.,  l:«.  386.  :399,  522,  518.  549,  567. 

Bealey  v.  Shaw,  case  of,  103. 

Beggiatoa  alba  and  its  relation  to  sewage  effluents, 
342  ;  legal  proceedings  caused  by,  at  Croydon,  Eng- 
land, 343. 

Bennett.  A.  W.,  342. 

Benzenherg,  Geo.  H.,  466. 

Berlier  system,  1.  3. 

Berlin  sewage  farm.  251. 

Bitrelow,  Chief  .lustiee.  on  eminent  domain,  111. 

Billings,  Frank  S.,  26,  27. 

Blackstone  on  the  Inw  of  custom.  104. 

Blackstone  River,  analyses  of,  43,  44. 

Bio  id.  corpuscles  fouiai  in  sesvnge  muds.  95  ;  discharge 
into  streams,  actionable  pollution,  100;  source  of  or- 
ganic nitrogen,  lOn. 

Blvth,  A  Manual  of  Public  Health,  29. 

Bolton.  E,  D.,  374. 

Bond,  Fred,  559. 

Bonnot  Co.,  565. 

Boston,  decision  in  regard  to  nniintaining  purity  of 
water  supply.  105:  n  ain  drainage,  177,  182:  early 
sewers  at,  177  ;  filth-hoist,  deposit  sewers,  183  ; 
sewerage  tunnel.  184. 

Bowditch,  E.  W..  .56ii. 

Brackins,  S.  E..  548. 

Brewsteis,  X   Y..  elei'trical  treatment.  563. 

Brewer.  Professor  W.  H.,  50. 

Bridgeport  pumpinc  station,  Chicago.  174.  "62. 

Broad  irrigation,  sei'  Irrigation 

Brockton.  Mass..  inloriniitent  filtration,  567. 

Brooks,  Fred,  4!Hi. 

Brooklyn.  N.  Y.,  purification  plant  proposed  for  26th 
Ward.  567. 

Brown,  Professor  Charles  C,  71,  72. 

Byrne,  Geo.  R.,  374. 

Canal.  Illinois  and  Michigan.  6().  174. 

Canton.  O  .  chemical  preeipilnlion.  56:}. 

Carbon,  amoinit  ii\  ex<Tements,  1,57. 

Carbonic  aeid.  decomposed  by  algie.  etc.,  79. 

Carpenter,  Dr.  Alfred.  2.50. 

Carriers,  sewage,  226;  State  Insane  Hospital.  Worces- 
ter. Mass..  459;  Massachusetts  Reformatory,  Con- 
cord, 472  :  Rhode  Island  State  Institutions.  Crans- 
tiin.  477;  Hospital  for  the  Insane.  I.ornlon.  Out., 
49S  ;  .Massachusetts   Seh.M>l  for  the  I'eehle-Minded, 


592 


INDEX. 


Waltham.  Mass.,  50S,  510 ;  School  for  Boys.  Law- 
renceville.  N.  J.,  514:  Summit,  >I.  J.,  5J-I  :  Hast- 
irigs.  Neb.,  5^0;  Colorado  Springs,  Col.,  512  :  Pas- 
adena, Cal.,  548  ;  Gardner,  Mass.,  519;  Leno.x,  Mass., 
560. 
Carter,  H.  H.,  481. 

Catch-work  system  of  broad  irrigation,  228. 
Cesspool,    actionable    pollution    when    erected    near 

a  stream.  100. 
Chamber,  tidal.  Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  400,  4C4. 
Chancellor.  C.  VV..  H. 
Chandler.  Professor  Charles  F.,  70. 
Chapin,  L.  E..  .568. 

Chautauqua.  N.  Y..  chemical  precipitation,  565. 
Chemical  agencies  in  self-pu:iticalion  of  a  stream,  92. 
Clieinical  ccunfosition  of  sewaged  and  unsewaged  grass, 

210  :  milk  from  c  .vvs  fed  with  sewaged  grass.  241. 
Chemical  mixers,  East  Orange,  N.  .!..  •";90  ;  Canton, 
O.,  564 ;  Chautauqua,  N.  Y.,  Wond's  Columbian 
Exposition,  Chicago,  565 
Chemical  precipitants,  amount  used,  East  Orange,  N. 
J.,  390  :  experimeius  regarding.  Mystic  Valley 
Works,  40S.  and  Worcester.  Mass. ,  4  i6. 

Alum,  experiments.  Mystic  Valley  Works,  4C7  ;  use 

and  cost  of.  Long  Biamh,  N.  J..  404. 
Alumina,   sulphate    of,   one   of    three    chemicals 
chiefly  used  as  a  precipitant,  20-'j  :  chemical  ac- 
tion  of,  i04 ;   used   in    Lawrence   experiments. 
209,    217.    2'i6 ;    precipitant  for   manufacturing 
wastes  at  Wanskuck  Mills.    Providence,   R    1., 
296:   Kast  Orange,   N.  .T.,  :iSS,  ,3i)U.  :!9S  ;   Mystic 
Valley  Works,  experiments.  409.  use,  410,  414  ; 
Worcester,  Mass.,  n.se  and  cost.  486,  487,  438  ; 
World's  Columbian  Exposition.  565. 
Clay,  experiments,  Mystic  Valley  Works,  407. 
Copperas,    used   with   lime   in   Lawrence    experi- 
ments, 209,  214.  221 ;  World's  Columbian  Expo- 
sition. 565. 
Ferric   sulphate,   as  precipitant  in  Lawrence  ex- 
periment-:, 216,  221. 
Ferrous  sulphate,  one  of  three  chemicals  chiefly 
used  as  precipitants,  203  ;   chemical   action  of, 
204. 
Lime,  one   of  three  chemicals  chiefly  used  as   a 
precipitant,  203 ;  chemic^d  action  of,  204  ;  used 
in  Lawrence  experiments,    209.    211,    220;    and 
copperas,  214,  220;    and   ferric  sulphate,  216; 
for    manufacturing    wastes,    Wan.skuck    Mills, 
Providence,    R.    I.,    296  ;    Coney    Island,   370 ; 
Round  Lake,  N.  Y  ,  87-2:    White  Plains.  N.  Y., 
377;  Sheepshead  Bay.  N.  Y.,  382  ;  East  Orange, 
N.  J.,  388,  89(1.  :^98  ;   Mystic  Valley  Works,  ex- 
periments. 406  :  Worcester,  Mass  ,  use  and  cost, 
430.  486,  487.  438.  4:!9  ;   Woild's  Columbian  Ex- 
position, Chicago,  665. 
MangauMte  of  i-oda  and  nitre,  223. 
Perchloride   of   iron,    Conev  Island.    N.   Y'..  370 ; 
Round  Lake,  N.  Y..  372^  White  Plains,  N.  Y., 
.378  :  cost  of.  at  White  Plains,  379;  Sheepshead 
Bay,  382  ;   recommended.   East   Orange.  N.  J., 
385. 
Sulphuric  acid,  exi)eriments.  Mystic  Valley  works. 
407. 
Chemical   precipitation,  reagents  and    theory  of,  203  ; 
conditions  essential   for   success,  204  ;  chissificition 
of  methods,  205  :  capacity   of  tanks,    206  ;  vertical 
tanks,    methods   of  sludge   disposal,    207;      mixing 
chemicals.    21 '8  ;    Massachu.setts   experiments,   209; 
results  of  experiments  with  equal  mcmey  values  of 
different  chemicals,  CIS  ;  deductions  from  Lawrence 
experiments.    220 :     of    manufacturing     wastes     at 
Wanskuck  Woollen  Mills,  Providence.  R,  I.,  296:  and 
intermittent   filtration,    comparative    cost   and   effi- 
ciency whei-e  filter-beds  would  have  to  be  protected 
from   frost.  .3.37.  341  ;  relative   efficiency   of,  and  in- 
termittent filtration,  341  :  results  with,  generally  to 
be  adopted  in  America  only  where  land  treatment  is 
impracticable.  349  ;  Coney  Island.  N.  Y.,  869  ;  Round 
Lake,  N,  Y,.  871  :  White  Plains,  N.  Y,,  .374  :  cost  of 
constructing  White  Plains  plant.  380  :  estimated  cost 
of  operating   White  Plains  plant,   381  :  Sheepshead 
Bay,  N.  Y„  381  :  Kast  Orange.  N.  J..  383  ;  cost,  con- 
structing and   operating,   .397.    898 :  Long  Branch. 
N.    J.,   399  ;  Mystic   Valley    Works,  415  ;    report  of 
Wm.  Ripley  Nichols  on,  406  ;   cost,  414 ;   Worcester, 


Mass.,  415  ;  estimated  cost,  431  ;  why  preferred  by 
Mr.  Allen,  432 ;  cost  of  operating,  488  ;  Providence, 
R.  I.;  proposed,  441,  44>i,  449  ;  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane. London.  Out.,  500  ;  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  dis- 
cussed, 558,  555  ;  Canton,  O.,  563  :  Chautauqua,  N. 
Y.,  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  565. 
Chemicals,  list  of,  used  in  various  manufacturing  proc- 

esse.s,  52.  .53,  64.     See  Chemical  precipitants. 
Chesbruugh,  E.  S.,  40.  169,  180.  461. 
Cheyenne,  Wyo  ,  irrigation,  559. 

Chicago,  statistics  of  typhoid  fever  at.  19:  i)<iiiulation» 
19;  analysis  of  stock-y:ird  sewage,  ;^2  ;  drainage  com- 
mission,   66,  174;    water  supplv  and  sewerage  sys- 
tems, 169,  174,  176. 
Chicago  River,  sewer-discharge  into,  65  ;   description. 

of,  178;  pollution  of,  174, 
Chlorine,  amount  in  water  of  Beaver  Dam  brook,  ,'■'0 ; 
as  deodorizer  and  disinfectant,  Coney  I,sland,  N.  Y., 
370;  Round   Lake,  N.  Y.,  372,   873;  White   Plains, 
N.  Y.,  379. 
Cholera,  water-borne  disease,  12. 
City  populations,  American,  growth  of.  131. 
Cities,  American,  use  of  water  in,  119;  population  of, 
120,  127,  128,  129  ;  population  at  ten  year  periods, 
129. 
Clarke,  Eliot  C.  150,  152,  177.  419,  46.5.  48(i.  490. 
Clay  in  suspension,  effect  of.  in  assisting  sedimentation, 
92  ;  size  of  jiarticles,  16'j.    See  Chemical  precipitants. 
Coefficient,  uniformity,  of  filtering  materials.  167. 
Cohoes,  N.  Y.,  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  at.  10. 
Coke   filters,    Long   Branch.    N.    J,,  402,  404 ;  Mystic 

Vallev  Works,  recommended,  407. 
Collier,"Peter,  162. 

Colorado  Springs,  Col,,  irrigation,  539. 
Combined  systems  of  seweiage,  provision  for  rainfall 
in.  132  :  impossibility  of  providing  for  all  the  rain- 
fall. 134 ;  rs.  separate,  150  ;  impossibility  of  purifying 
whole  flow,  152. 
Commission,  Massachusetts  drainage,  113. 
Common  law  as  to  rights  of  riparian  proprietors,  99  ; 
prescriptive   right,  how  acquired  by,    102;   rule   of, 
modified  by  mill  acts,  113,  118, 
Connecticut,  saiiitary  investigations  in.  45. 
Connecticut   River,    flow,    pdllution,  analyses.   56,  57  J 

emergency  water  supply  at  Hartford.  57, 
Coney  Island.  N.  Y.,  chemical  precipitation  at,  370. 
Cooley,  L.  E,,  174, 

Copperas,  waste,  .3.57  ;  product  of  iron  manufacture,  4S  j 
use  in  manufacturing,  61,  52,  64.     See  Chemical  pre- 
cipitants. 
Cary,  C.  A..  25, 

Cotton  manufacture,  wastes  resulting  from,  52,  .53. 
Crenothrix,  present  in  water  of  Beaver  Dam  brook,  81„ 
Cies,<on.  Dr.  Charles  M.,  61. 
Crimp,  W    Santo,  154. 
Croes,  .T,  J,  R,,  888,  .Ml. 
Crookshank.  Manual  of  Bacteriology,  25. 
Crops,  experimi  nts  with,  in  England. '2.35,  243;  Pull- 
man, 111.,  profit  from.  465;  destroyed  by  worms,  466  j 
Hastings,  Neb,,  suitability  of  soil"  for.  528;  purifica- 
tion placed   bi-fore,  531  ;  Los  Angeles,  Cal,,   alleged 
effect  of  sewage  on.  5"6. 

Alfalfa,  Colorado  Springs,  Col..  543, 

Aspjiragus.  Pullinaii.  111.,  464:  Redding,  Cal,,  5A'X 

Barley.  Leamington,  Eng.,  246. 

Beans.  Leamington.  Eng,,  245;  Fresno,  Cal,.  545. 

Beets,  Pasadena,  Cal,,  .^49, 

Cabbage.   Leamirgton,   Eng  .  244  ;  Pullman,   111., 

464  :  South  Framingham.  Mass  .  4*9. 
CaiTots,  Leamington,  Eng,.  245. 
Cauliflower,  Pullman.  III..  4t!4. 
Celery,  Pullman,  III.,  -til. 
Corn.    Pullman.    111.    4(i4  :    South    Framingham, 

Mass,,  48S.  4  9  ;  Fresno.  Cal,,  .545, 
Garden  truck.  Pasadena,  Cal..  .v.9. 
Grain,  Massachusetts  Reformatory,  Concord.  472. 
Grass,  amount  raised  by  sewage  irrigation  and  re- 
sults of  feeding  it  to  milch  cows  at  RuL'by,  Eng., 
286,  28s :  chemical  composition  of  Rugby.  2-10  ; 
Massachusetts     Reforrnatorv,      ''oncord.      472  ; 
Wayne,   Pa..  588:  Trinidad    Col..  544;    Italian 
rye   grass,    244,  246  ;  East   Orange,   N.  J.,  390  ; 
Pullman.  Ill,,  461. 
Lettuce,  Fresno,  Cal  .  .5  .5, 
Mangolds,  Leamington,  Eng.,  244. 


INDEX. 


593 


Oats,  242  ;  Leamington,  Eng.,  245. 

Onions,  Pullman,  111.,  464. 

Parsnips,  Leamington,  Eng.,  245 ;    Fresno,   Cal., 

545. 
Peas,  Fresno.  Cal  ,  545. 
Potatoes.    Leamington,  Eng.,  245;  Pullman,  111., 

464  ;  Fresno,  Cal..  545;  Redding,  Cal.,  549. 
Prickly  comfrey  and  rhubarb.  Leamington,  Eng., 

246. 
Sqa:ishes,  Pullman,  111.,  464 ;  South  Framingham, 

Mass  ,  4!-». 
Turni|..<,  Leamington,  Eng.,  246;  Pasadena,  Cal., 

54!t. 
Vegetables,  Colorado  Springs,  Col.,  543 ;  Helena, 

Mont.,  onS. 
Yams.  Fre.sno,  Cal..  .t45. 
Current  Ho  its.  Providence,  R.  I.,  444. 
Curlier.  Dr.  Charles  (}..  75. 

Custom,  evidenc^e  of  voluntary  abrogation  of  rights  in 
streams,  1U2:  law  of,  1U4  ;  may  dedicate  stream  to 
maiuifacturing  use.  117. 
Cyclops,  present  in  polluted  water,  76:  size,  77  ;  fecun- 
dity of,  77,  78  ;  devour  human  excrement,  78. 

Davis,  J.  P.,  42,  1.30,  418,  419,  446. 

Dejecta,  sterilization  of,  from  diseased  person.s,  12  ; 
how  di.sinfected,  13. 

Deposit  sewers,  Boston  main  drainage,  183,  184. 

Derby,  Dr.  George,  34. 

Detroit,  statistics  of  use  of  water.  126. 

Diarrhnea,  water-borne  disease  12. 

Diatoms,  number  and  law  of  development  in  polluted 
streams.  79 :  nuniber  in  Beaver  Dam  brook,  82;  food 
for  young  fish,  87  ;  food  for  rhizopods,  90. 

Dibdin,  \V.  J.,  94,  l.">4. 

Dilution  to  prevent  nuisance  from  sewage  in  streams, 
12. 

Disease  germs,  theory  of,  4  ;  in  sewage  muds,  K\  9(5. 

Diseases,  communicable,  intercommunicable,  4  ;  list 
of  watei'-borne,  12 ;  infectious,  of  animals.  24.  and 
ro'ation  to  nian,:W:  views  of  natives  of  India  re- 
garding causation  of  disea.ses,  11l(. 

Di-iiiifectant.s.  American  rublic  Health  Association  re- 
port on.  8.  12  ;  chloride  of  iime,  13  :  chlorine.  Coney 
Island,  N.  Y..  370  ;  Round  Lake,  N.  Y.,  3T2,  373  ; 
White  Plains  N.  Y.,  379. 

Dudge.  Professor  James  A.,  65. 

Doty,  Duane,  465. 

Drainage,  character  of  street,  154.  1 

Drains,  sugsestion  for  covered  winter  absorption,  289  ;    t 
use  of,  for  carrying  excrenn'nt.  35. 

Drown,  Dr.  Thotiias  M  .  93,  153,  223. 

Duprc.  A.,  and  Dibdin,  \V.  .).,  experiments  on  purify- 
ing sewage  by  aeration,  222. 

Dye  wastes,  may  be  actionable  pollution  if  discharged 

into  streams,  100. 
Dysentery,  water-borne  disease,  12. 

EABEJrENTS  in  streams,  how  created,  102. 

East  Orai'gi-,  N.  J.,  ground-water  in  sewers  of,  132; 
chemical  precipitation  and  intermittent  filtration  at, 
383. 

Eaton.  Fred,  .VI.  5'>2. 

Effluent,  Co. lev  Island,  N.  Y.,  370  ;  White  Plains, 
N.  Y..  -"SO:  Sh.-epshead  Bay.  X.  Y..  3^2:  Gardner, 
Mass.  .■)2i) :  .Summit,  N.  .1..  522:  ditch,  .\I\sti<;  Valley 
w  Tks.  40s  ;  pipe,  VVon-ester.  Mas8.,4:i4.  435;  South 
Framingham,  Mass.,  48s ;  where  discharged,  Marl- 
borough. .Mass.,  506 

Ejei'tor.  Shone,  for  handling  sludge,  Worcester.  Mass., 
440  ;   Hiispital  for  the  Insane,  Rochester.  Minn.,  501, 

rm. 

Electrical   treatment.   Brewster.-.   N.  Y.,   and  cost  of, 

.563. 
Elpctrol>8is.  literature  of,  3. 
Embr<!y  v,  Owen,  decision  in  case  of.  99. 
Emm.  nt  domain,  discussion  of.  110.  111. 
Knt»li-*h  llivcrs  Pollution  Prevention  Act,  569. 
KnsllHge,  see  silos. 
Entomostraca,  in  relation  to  self  purlfl-ition  of  Btreams, 

76-79  ;  food  for  flsh,  ^7  :  niariii";  torms,  89. 
Entozoic  diseases,  sewage  farm--  centres  of  diutribution, 

30. 
EvaiiH  V.  Merriweather,  c&r :  of,  101. 


Evaporation  at  Fort  Collin.s.  Col.,  329. 

Excrement,  human,  danger  of,  in  drinking  water,  4 ; 
detected  in  sewage  contaminated  waters,  77,  78;  in 
sewage  muds,  95  ;  unreasonableness  of  turning  into 
streams.  101  ;  general  data  of  human  and  animal, 
155,  157.  158. 

Experiment  stations,  agricultural,  work  on  soil  physics, 
164.t 

Expert  witnesses,  opinions  of,  on  eflEect  of  stream  pol- 
lution, OS. 

F«CES,  in  sewage,  150  :  amount  from  mixed  popula- 
tion, nitrogen,  phosphates,  and  potash  in,  155. 
Faun  ng,  J.  T..  126. 

Farquhar  -  Oldham    filter,  2  ;       recommended.      East 
Orange,  N.  J.,  385 ;  tried.  Mystic  Valley  Works,  408. 
FarKockaway.  N.  Y.,  purification  plant  proposed,  567. 
Fernald,  Cha's.  H..  28. 

Ferric  sulphate,  see  Chemical  precipitant.s. 
Ferrous  sulphate,  see  Chemical  precipitants. 
Fertilizers,  (explanations  and  valuations.  Kit),  161,  162 ; 
experiment    sta'ion.    lt>2  ;    sludge     u.sed    as.    East 
Orange.  N.  J.,  398  :  Long  Branch.  N.  J.,  404;  Mys- 
tic Valley  Work.s.  414  ;  Worcester,  .Mass.,  439  ;  Marl- 
borough, Mass.,  506  ;  Amher.st,   Mass.,  561  ;  provi- 
sion to  iise  sewage  as.  South  Framingham,  Mass.,  486. 
Filth-hoist,  Boston  main  drainage,  183. 
Filter,  coke.  East  Orange.  N.  J.,  388;  recommended. 
Mystic  Valley  Works,  407;    Farquhar-Oldham,  rec- 
omuiended.   East  Orange,  N.  J.,  286,  tried  Mystic 
Valley  Works,  408. 

Beds,  East  Orange.  N.  .T.,  coke  and  gravel,  .390  ; 
Pullman,  111.,  467  ;  South  Framingham,  .Mass., 
487;  Medfiehi,  Mass  .  491  ;  MarlDorough,  Mass,, 
505;  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  elevated,  .562. 
Filtering  material,  relation  to  applied  sewage,  108. 
Filter  press,  literature,  208. 

Johnson,  East  Orange,  N.  J..  .394  ;  Long  Branch, 
N.    J.,   4t3 ;   Worcester,   Mass.,   recommended, 
430. 
Bonnot.  Canton,  O..  Chautauqua.  N.  Y.,  565. 
Perrin.  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  566. 
Filters,  care  of,  in  winter,  281. 
Filtration.  Lcadville.  Col..  562. 

And  irrigation,  statistics  of  foreign,  247. 
Continuous  and  intermittent,  importance  of  dis- 
tinction between.  17  :  advantages  of  continuous 
in  cold  weather,  312. 
Intermittent,  quality  of  material  required,  163  ; 
first  mentioned,  261 ;  definition  and  theory.  262  ; 
Frankland's  discussion.  263  :  a  biological  iiroc- 
ess,  264  ;  Lawrence  ex|)erimonls.  265  :  condi- 
tions most  essential  to  nitrification.  269  :  by 
means  of  trenches,  270  ;  different  materials,  272 ; 
not  a  straining  iirocess.  276:  use  of  efnuents  for 
drinking  water.  277.  2>9  :  permanency  of  filters, 
279  :  elToct  of  frost  and  snow  at  Lawrence,  2S0  ; 
South  Framingham,  Mass.,  284  ;  Summit.  N.  J., 
285  :  cultivation  of  filtration  areas.  290.  291  ; 
summaiv.  286;  suggestion  for  covered  winter 
absorption  drains,  chemical  precipitation  vs.  fil- 
tration. 289  :  at  Lawrence  in  1887-88.  deduc- 
tions, 305;  relation  of  specific  heat  to.  .309 ;  effl- 
ciency  promoted  in  cold  weather  by  changing  to 
continuous,  312:  necessity  of  preventing  forma- 
tion of  ice.  315  ;  heating  effect  of  sun  on  wet  and 
dry  soils  of  different  colors,  319  ;  remedies  for 
frost,  :^:W ;  estimated  cost  of  various  methods  of 
protecting  filtration  areas  from  frost,  3:W  ;  deduc- 
tions regarding  effect  of  temperature  of  air  and 
soil  on,  339  ;  probalily  most  practicable  moans  of 
sewage  disposal.  .SfiO  :  examples  and  pmjecfs. 
Round  Lake,  N.  Y..  tried.  :!71  :  Kast  Orange, 
X.  J.,  in  use,  .383.  3911 ;  Worcester.  Mass.,  recom- 
mended iind  estimated  cost.  418,  431.  discussed, 
423.  425;  Providence.  R.  I.,  discns.sed.  estimates 
of  cost.  449,  .150:  Pullman,  III.,  in  use,  4(;0  ; 
South  Framingham.  Mass..  480,  cost,  487  ;  Med- 
fleld.  Mass..  490,  cost  construction.  4'.'3  :  Hospital 
for  tlie  Insane.  London,  Out.,  494:  lio..  Koches. 
tor,  Minn..  500;  Marlborough,  M-iss  .  504  :  Mas- 
sachusetts School  for  the  Feeble  Minded,  507, 
cost  constrnclion,  510:  School  for  Boys.  Law- 
ronccville,  N.  J.,  recommended.  515:  Gardner, 
Mass.,  in  use,  516,  cost  construction,  521  :  .Sum- 


594 


INDKX. 


mit.  N.  J.,  533 ;  Hastings,  Neb.,  528  ;  Brockton, 
Mass.,  507  ;  Meriden.  Conn.,  6&i. 
Mechanical,  as  method  of  sewage  disposal,  2  ;  Long 
Branch.   N.   J  ,  oitO  ;   Medfield.   Mass.,  491  ;   of 
nianufactnrintr  wastes  at  woollen  mills,  Provi- 
dence, H.  I..  2i)6  ;  at  woollen  mills,  Saylesville, 
R.  I..  297  ;  at  tannery,  Winchester.  Mass.,  2'.»8 ; 
through  gravel  filter  beds,  tried,  Mystic  Valley 
Works,  4US. 
Upward,  unsuccessful  experiments  with,  261. 
Fish,   food   for,  cS(i,  87,   91  ;  effect  of   manufacturing 

wastes  on,  .see  Manufacturing  wastes. 
Fisheries,  sea,  inexhaustible,  91. 

Fission-fungi,   or  schizomycetes,  cause  of  communi- 
cable diseases,  5. 
FitzGerald,  Desmond,  -JSU,  504. 
Fitzgerald,  J.  Leiand.  371. 
Flash  boards,  Worcester,  Mass.,  435. 
Floats,  current.  Providence,  R.  I.,  444. 
Flush  tank,  invention  of,  accelerated  use  of  sub-surface 

irrigation.  292. 
Folsoin,  Chas.  F.,  .'^7.  l&O,  418. 
Food  for  fish,  8t),  87,  91. 

Foods,  valuation  of  fertilizing  ingredients  in,  162. 
Forbes,  Professor  S.  A.,  87. 
Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit  and  Bridgeport  Pumping 

Station,  Chicago,  111..  ^57. 
Franchises  for  .sewasre  disposal  works,  86. 
Frankland,  Percy  P.,  79,  80,  192,  263. 
Frere,  P.  H.,  1.59. 
Fresno.  Cal  .  irrigation,  544. 

Frost,  remedies  for,  in  connection  with  Intermittent 
filtration,  33:j  ;  effect  of  frost  and  snow  on  nitermit- 
tent  filtration,  Lawrence,  Mass..  280 ;  South  Frani- 
ingham,  Mass.,  284  :  Summit.  N.  .J.,  2S5  :  on  sewage 
farms.  4a3  ;  Pullman.  111..  4fiH  ;  Massachusetts  Re- 
formatory, Concord.  47^  :  on  broad  irrigation,  Rhode 
Island  State  Institution,  Cranston,  479;  on  inter- 
mittent filtration,  Medfield.  Mass.,  492  ;  on  irriga- 
tion, Wayne.  Va...  5"^8. 
Ftelev,  A  yi(\. 
Fuller,  i^o.  W..  8. 

CrAGlNGS  of  flow  of  seivage.  see  Sewage  gaging. 

Gardner.  Mas«.,  intermittent  filtration,  516. 

Gas.  permitting,  to  escape  near  streams  may  be  action- 
able, 100. 

Gate,  sewage  outlet.  Gardner.  Mass.,  518  :  Pasadena, 
Cal..  547;  Lenox,  Mass..  561. 

Gencssee  River.  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  water  supply,  20, 
21 .  22. 

Gerhard,  Wm.  P.,  3,  360. 

Germ  theory  of  disease.  4  ;  germs  of  typhoid  fever,  6. 

Gilbert,  J.  H..  HIO. 

Glaniieis,  bacillus  mallei,  specific  germ  of.  literature, 
25. 

Goldsmid  v.  TutiV)ridae  Wells  Commissioners,  case 
of,  10s. 

Goodell,  .Tohn  H..  488. 

Gould,  law  of  waters.  100. 

Gravel  as  filtering  materia).  275. 

Gray,  Samuel  M.,  3.  140,  413,  475,  563,  565. 

Greene.  Geo.  S,,  442. 

Greenfield.  Mass.,  disposal  on  land.  561. 

Ground-water,  infiltration  to  sewers.  131  :  Boston  and 
East  Orar.ge,  132  ;  Marlborough,  Mass..  504. 

Habdt  system  of  sewage  purification,  literature  of ,  3. 

Hasting.s  Henry,  561. 

Hastings.  Neb.,  land  disposal,  528. 

Hat  manufacture.  53. 

Hansen.  Geo..  552. 

Hazen,  Allen.  18,  466.  514,  567. 

Heald.  Simpson  C  .  481. 

Health  of  Tow-n-s  Commission's  reports,  170. 

Hf-ated  bodies,  how  they  cool,  312. 

Heat,  latent,  314. 

Heat,  specific,  defined,  .309  ;  relation  to  sewage  disposal, 
309  :  relative  power  of  different  substances  to  retain 
hcit.  311  ;  of  ice,  314. 

Hemlock  L-iUe,  pail  system  at.  3.')1. 

Hemlock  Lake,  water  supply  of  Rochester.  N.  Y.,  legis- 
lative protection.  71.  352.  575  ;  use  of.  1.39. 

Hering.  Rudolph,  12.  73.  386,  446,  466,  551,  552. 

Hewitt,  Chas.  N.,  500. 


Hilgard's  elutriator,  appliance  for  soil  analysis,  163. 

Hine,  S.  K  ,  223. 

Hott'man  and  Witt,  report  on  London  sewage,  158. 

Hog  cholera,  25  ;  water-borne  disease,  literature,  26. 

Hoiley,  N.  Y.,  purification  plant  proposed,  567. 

Holsnian  c.  Boiling  Spring  Bleaching  Co..  case  of,  !)8. 

Hospital  for  the  Insane,  Worcesier,  Mass.,  broad  irri- 
gation, 456;  London,  Ont.,' iiiteimittent  filtration 
and  broad  irrigation,  494  :  Rochester,  Minn.,  chem- 
ical precipitation  and  intermittent  filtration.  .5(0. 

Hospitals,  broad  irrigation  especially  adai)ted,  ^25. 

Hoy  c.  Cohoes  Co.,  case  of,  113. 

Hoyt,  W.  !•:..  42. 

Hudson  Ri\tr,  analyses  of  water  of,  used  as  water  sup- 
ply. 70. 

Hunt,  Dr.  Ezra  M.,  25. 

ICF.  on  sewage  farms,  423;  effect  of.  Pullman.  111., 
466. 

Illinois,  studies  of  stream  pollution  in,  65. 

Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  66  ;  rate  of  self  purifica- 
tion in,  66-70;  relation  to  Chicago  sewage  disposal, 
174. 

Indigo,  use  in  w-oollen  manufacture,  51;  cotton  manu- 
facture, 52 ;  amount  used  in  one  carpet,  blanket,  and 
cloth  mill.  64  :  may  be  actionable  pollution  if  dis- 
charged into  streams.  lOO. 

Infection,  definition.  24. 

Infusoria,  in  sewage  polluted  sireanis,  75-79;  food  for 
young  fish,  87  ;  food  of.  !  0  :  in  polluted  water,  94. 

Injunctions  against  stream  pollution,  108. 

Inspection  wells,  Rhode  Island  State  Institutions.  477; 
Summit,  N.  J.,  526. 

Intercepting  sewers  at  Boston,  182. 

Intermittent  filtration,  see  Filtration. 

Irrigation,  broad,  special  applications  in  United  States, 
different  ^y^tems,  295,  2o2 ;  cost  of  distribution  sy.s- 
tem,  229;  preparation  of  areas,  2"0:  liteiatuve  re- 
garding anas,  underdraining,  2;i2  ;  treatment  of 
heavy  clay  soils  at  Wimbledon,  Eng.,  '!'■'.:■'>:  reports  of 
sewage  of  Towns  C(mimi.«sion.  235  ;  Royal  Agricnli- 
ural  .  Society's  Sewage  Farm  ci mpetition.  ^4()  ; 
statistics  of  foreign  sew.nge  irrigation  and  filtration. 
247;  silo-..  248  ;  sanitary  aspects,  Dr.  Alfred  (  arpcn- 
ter  on,  y50  ;  Berlin  GermHny.  seware  farm.  251  ; 
statistics  regarding  health  of  persons  living  on  srw- 
age  farms.  2.52  ;  effect  of  teinpetattire  of  air  and  soil, 
339  :  efficient  ineaiis  of  sewage  disposal,  349  :  recom- 
mended and  discus.sed.  Worce-ter.  Mass.,  .11".  418, 
4'.il,  423,  425  ;  effect  of  cold  weather  on.  in  Enclmd. 
428;  discus.scd.  Providence.  R.  I..  446.447;  tried 
State  Insane  Hospital.  Woice.ster.  Mass..  4.56  ;  Pnll- 
man.  111..  4'iO.  profit  from  crops,  465  ;  Massachusetts 
Reformatory.  Concord.  468.  effect  of  winter  temiiera- 
ttire.  cost  of  operation,  473  ;  Rhode  Island  State  In- 
stitutions. 4'i5  :  South  Framingham.  Mass..  4S0  ;  Hos- 
pital for  the  Insane,  London,  Ont.,  494  ;  Wayne.  Pa., 
532  :  Colorado  Springs,  Col..  539,  annual  cost  541  ; 
Trinidad,  Col.,  annual  cost,  543  ;  Fresno,  Cal..  544  ; 
Pasadena.  Cal.,  546  ;  Redding,  Cal.,  548  ;  Los  An- 
geles, Cal..  551.  periods  sewage  ran  to  waste,  .554  ; 
Santa  Rosa,  Cal..  Helena.  Mont  .  557  :  Cheyenne. 
Wyo.,  8tockton.  Cal..  559;  Amherst,  Mass..  561; 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  567;  use  of  sewage  for.  in  the 
West.  539. 
Sub-surface,  when  fir.st  used,  202  :  plants  for  private 
houses  and  institutions.  292,  literature  of.  292, 
cost  of.  293;  School  fir  Boys.  Lawrenceville, 
N.  .1..  511,  co.st  of  construction.  514. 

Iron,  perchloride  of,  see  Chemical  precipitants. 

Iron,  wastes  from  manufacture  of,  48. 

Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  water  supply  from  Passaic  River, 

58,  63. 
Johnson.  Frank  P..  507. 
Jordan,  E.  O..  190. 

Kalamazoo,  sewer  gagings  at,  140, 
Keerl.  J.  S..  ,5.58. 
Kent,  Chancellor,  107. 
Kitiebtthler.  Kan,  "^65. 
Kirk  wood.  James  P.,  .36,  37. 
Kieldahl  method  of  analysis,  153. 
Knox,  Geo.  C,  5.52. 


INDEX. 


595 


Lake  Cochitdate,  decision  as  to  pollution  of,  105. 

Lancet,  London,  article  on  Chicago  water  supply  and 
sewerage  system,  177. 

Landreth,  Win.  B.,  143,  371,  374,  565. 

Lane,  Moses,  180. 

Latham,  J.  A.,  479. 

Lattimore,  Prof.  S.  A.,  21. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert,  157. 

Lawes,  Sir  J.  B.,  88,  159. 

Lawrence,  typhoid  fever  and  water  supply,  6. 

Lawrence  experiment  station,  experiments  regarding 
nitrification,  194.  195. 

Leadville,  Col.,  mechanical  separation  by  filtration, 
56-.'. 

Learned.  Wilbur  F.,  408. 

Leeds,  Professor  Albert  R.,  64,  65. 

Leith,  93. 

Lenox,  Mass.,  subsurface  disposal,  560. 

Lime,  waste  from  paper  mills,  49 ;  does  not  contami- 
nate New  England  streams,  which  are  deficient  in, 
50  ;  cotton  manufacture.  52  ;  pits  for  hides,  action- 
able pollution  wt'.en  ni'ar  streams,  100  ;  phosphate  of, 
as  fertilizer,  161  ;  for  treating  sludge.  Long  Branch, 
N.  J.,  404  ;  used  to  disinfect  sewage  screenings, 
Wiyne,  Pa.,  537  :  also  see  Chemical  precipitants. 

Limestone,  to  counteiact  effect  of  acid  on  nitrification, 
198. 

Littoral  proprietor?,  definition  of,  97. 

Liverpool,  former  .sanitary  condition,  170. 

Long  Branch,  N.  J.,  chemical  precipitation  and  me- 
chanical separation.  399. 

Long,  Profes.sor  J.  H..  .32.  66  70. 

Looinis,  Horace,  3S1. 

Lortet,  paper  on  the  pathogenic  bacteria  of  Lake  Ge- 
neva, 95. 

Loi  tzing  system  of  combined  mechanical  and  chemical 
purification,  2. 

Lus  Angele.s,  Cal.,  irrigation,  551. 

Lausinburgh,  N.  Y.,  effect  of  uncontani'nated  water 
supply  in  preventing  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever,  11. 

Lausen,  Switzerland,  typhoid  fever  at,  15  ;  literature, 
17. 

Lowell,  typhoid  fever  and  water  supply.  6,  7. 

Macadam,   Dk.   Stevenson,  study  of  the  water  of 

Leith,  93. 
McClintock  and  Woodfall,  516. 
MacHarg,  W.  S..  500,  51)6. 
McICenzie,  Thos.,  5(i5. 
M'Millan,  Professor  C,  567. 
Maine,  .sanitary  investigations  in,  45. 
Manufacturing  establishments,  responsible  for  purifica- 
tion of  sewage.  6 ;  on  Nashua  River,  39 ;  fo.stering 
care  of.  in  Massachusetts,  116. 
Wastes,  organic,  from  paper  manufacture,   lime, 
chloride  of  lime.  alum,  sulphuric  acid,  49 :  germs 
destroyed   in  boiling,   per  cent,  of  waste  from 
different  kinds  of  stock,  50  :  amounts  of  various 
chemicals  used  per  day  in  one  carpet,  blanket, 
and  cloth   mill,   61 ;    in  sewage,   1,50  ;    study  of 
paper  mill.  Newton  Lower  Falls,  299;  classifica- 
tion, and  how  purified.  Knglish  Rivers  Pollution 
Commission  Reports,  294. 
American  examples  of  purification,  chemical  pre- 
cipitation, Waiiskuck  Woollen  Mills.  I'rovidence. 
R.  I.,  296  :   extraction  of  grease  and  filtration, 
Lorraine  Woollen  Mills,  Saylesville,  R.  I.,  sedi- 
mentation, Robt.  Blakie  4i  Co.'s  Woollen  Mills, 
Hyd(!  Park.   Mass.,2!l7;   mechanical   filtration, 
MaxwelTs    Tannery,    Winchester,    Mass.,    298; 
wastes.    Providence.  R.  I,.  444  :  Massachnsotts 
Reformatory,   Concord,   474;    Medfield,    Mass.. 
49(1. 
Effects  upon  fish,  :U4,  .346. 
Manure,  placingof.  in  stream  actionable,  100  ;  valuable 
con.stitiients  of.  1.56  ;  source  of  nmmonia  and  nitric 
acid,  160. 
Marlborough,  Mass.,  intermittent  filtration,  504  ;  cost 

of  construction,  506. 
Martin.  K.  F.,  46.3. 
Martin,  Henry,  153. 

Martin.  Mayor  of  Boston  »'.  Gleason,  case  of,  1(15. 
Marylnnil   agricultural   experiment  station,  work  on 

soil  physics,  165. 
Mason,  Professor  Wm.  P.,  10,  69,  223. 


Massachusetts  School  for  the  Feeble  Minded,  \Valthara, 

intermittent  filtration,  507. 
Sewer  Act  of  17u9.  178. 

State  Board  of  Health  reports  and  recommenda- 
tions, 34-45:  reports  on  stream  pollution,  best 
thus  far  made  anywhere,  43  ;  other  reports  of 
value,  45  :  experiments  with  nitrifying  organ- 
ism, 190  :  power  to  protect  water  supplies,  578, 
Mayer,  August,  54t).  552. 
Mechanical   analy.sis  of   soils,   how   made,   163,   166; 

separation  and  chemical  precipitation.  Long  Branch, 

N.  J.,  399;  separation,  Atlaniic  City,  N.  J.,  5(i2. 
Medfield,  JIass.,  intermittent  filtratidii,  490. 
Meriden,  Conn.,  intermittent  filtration,  567. 
Merrimac  Rivei-,  limit  of  sewage  influence  in,  9. 
Meters,  water,  effect  in  reducing  waste,  125. 
Micro.scope.  use  of,  for  studying  stream  pollution,  77,  78. 
Microscopical  investigation  of  sewage  muds,  methods 

of,  94,  95. 
Mill  acts,  origin,  110  ;  how   they  nullify  the  natural 

rights  of   riparian   proprietors.  112  :   how  just'fied. 

112;   development  in   Massachusetts  and   Virginia, 

112  ;  none  in  New  York,  113 ;  effect  on  common-law 

rule,  11.3.  lis. 
Miller,  G.  N.,  5.")7. 
Mills,  Hiram  F.,  6. 

Milwaukee,  sewage  disposal   and   water  supply  com- 
mission, 87.  88. 
Mineral  matters,  amount  in  excrements.  157. 
Minnesota,  studies  of  stream  pollution  in.  65;  power 

of  State  Board  of  Health  to  protect  water  supplies, 

5S8. 
Mixers,  chemical,  see  Chemical. 
Mohawk  River,  used  as  water  supply,  70. 
Moore,  Robt  ,  446. 
Moule,  Rev.  Henry.  159. 
Mud,  scwaiie.  studies  of,  93,  95  :  study  of  Thames,  by 

W.  J,  Dibdin,  94. 
Muriatic  acid,  used  in  brass  manufacture,  47  ;  waste 

from    i)aper   mills,    49 ;    cotton    mannfacturc,    52 ; 

amount  used  in  one  carpet,  blanket,  and  cloth  mill, 

64 ;  may  be  actionable  pollution   if  discharged  into 

streams,  100. 

National  Sewage  and  Sewage  Utilization  Co.,  562. 

Newark.  N.  J.,  water  supply  formerly  from  Passaic 
river,  58,  63  ;  A<iueduct  Board  v .  City  of  Passaic,  579. 

Newbury,  A,  T.,  557. 

New  Jersey,  Act  to  prevent  pollution  of  streams  in, 
57  ;  act  relating  to  construction  of  sewers  in  towns, 
385. 

New  Orleans,  granted  sewage  disposal  franchise,  85  ; 
former  condition  of  city,  170. 

New  York  State,  stnam  pollution  in,  70;  protective 
legislation  in,  71.  .574  ;  Board  of  Health,  power  and 
rules  to  protect  water  supplies,  574.  575,  580. 

Nichols.  Professor  Wm.  Ripley,  34.  m.  .36,  &3,  406. 

Night  soil,  value  of,  for  manure.  1.57;  analyses  of.  157, 

Nitric  acid,  used  in  brass  manufacture,  47;  cotton 
manufacture,  52  ;  how  produced.  160. 

Nitrification  and  the  nitrifying  organism,  187  ;  litera- 
ture of,  1>^",  202;  Warington's  paper  on,  in  18S2, 
188,  in  1^4,  1^9  ;  Massachusetts  investigations, 
190  ;  experiments  by  Percy  and  Grace  Frankland, 
191,  192,  193  :  practical  experiments  at  Lawrence, 
195:  present  theory  of  deiiitrificjition.  201  :  effected 
by  intermittent  filtration.  262:  formerly  considered 
a  snmnier  process,  26() :  results  with  coarse  sand  fil- 
ters, 26S  :  conditions  mo=t  favorable  to,  2C9  :  garden 
soil  not  favorable  to,  272  :  in  winter  in  .some  of  the 
Lawrence  filter  tanks,  2S0,  283  :  agency  of  organism 
in  intermittent  filtration,  '^86. 

Nitrogen,  apimrent  reduction  of,  in  sewage  polluted 
.stream.  .59,  63;  value  of  that  in  sewaee,  83,  15S;  in 
sewage  muds,  94;  in  excrements,  155;  the  most 
valuable  fertilizer.  160  ;  trade  value  of,  162  ;  stored 
in  Lawrence  experimental  filters.  194. 

Nitrogen,  organic,  see  Organic  nitrogen  and  Nitrifica- 
tion, 

Nuisances,  public,  are  crimes,  98, 

OnELi.,  FnEDK.  S.,  511. 

Oil.  iHillution  of  streams  by,  47  ;  from  wool,  50,  51  ; 
cotton,  52,  53;  flowing  in  streams,  actionable  pollu- 
tion, 100. 


596 


INDEX. 


Olmsted,  Frederick  Law,  511. 

Organic  matter  in  sewage  muds,  94  ;  percentage  stored 
in  Lawrence  experimental  filters,  282  ;  amount  re- 
moved by  different  Lawnnice  tanks,  287,  288  ;  nitro- 
gen, relation  of.  to  ammonia.  153  ;  determination  of, 
by  Kjeldahl  methoil.  153;  in  excrements,  155;  in 
sewage,  158;  relation  to  ammonia  and  nitric  acid, 
ItiO  ;  trade  value.  102. 

Osburn's  beaker  method  of  soil  analysis,  16.S, 

Oxidation  and  aeration,  acting  in  conjunction  with 
aquatic  plants  and  animals,  62  ;  power  of  soil  to  pro- 
duce, 188,  19U  ;  bacteria  to  produce,  190 ;  of  organic 
matter  in  water,  experiments  on,  223. 

Oxygen,  free,  effect  on  nitrification,  2U0 ;  and  time  efr 
sential  elements  in  intermittent  filtration,  269. 

Pail  system  at  Hemlock  Lake,  351  ;  cost  of,  ;j54,  3.55. 

Paquin,  Paul,  26,  27. 

Paramecium,  filth  infusorian,  75  ;  aurelia,  bursaria,  76; 
food  of,  90  ;  in  polluted  water,  94. 

Parry,  W.  Kaye,  224. 

Pasadena,  Cal.,  irrigation,  546. 

Passaic,  N.  J.,  Newark  Aqueduct  Board  ('.,  579. 

Passaic  Iliver,  pollution  of,  56-63  ;  purifying  effect  of 
minute  animals  and  plants  in,  59,  62. 

Peat,  as  source  of  organic  nitrogen.  16U. 

Pennsylvania,  investigations  of  stream  pollution,  63- 
65 :  Commonvvt-alth  v.  Soulas,  98. 

Penny  and  Adams's  experiments  to  detemiine  effect  of 
manufacturing  wastes  on  life  of  fish.  344. 

Perchloride  of  iron,  see  Chemical  preeipitants. 

Permissive  pollution,  principle  of,  113,  119. 

Perriu  &  Co.,  Chicago.  .566. 

Phenolphthaiein  for  alkaline  test,  Worcester.  Mass., 
436. 

Philadelphia,  statistics  of  typhoid  fever  at,  19. 

Phosphates  in  excrements.  155;  in  sewage,  158;  in 
commercial  fertilizers.  160 

Phosphoric  acid,  as  element  of  manures,  1,56;  in  sew- 
age, 158  ;  in  commercial  fertilizers,  160  :  anhydrous, 
Ifil  ;  trade  value.  162. 

PhusphnruR,  relative  value  as  fertilizer,  160,  101  ;  trade 
value,  162. 

Pierson,  Geo.  S.,  140. 

Plants  and  anim.als.  purifying  effect  of, in  Passaic  River, 
59,62;  minute,  how  distinguished.  77  ;  assist  in  self - 
purification  of  stream,  79  ;  in  Beaver  Dam  brook,  80, 
82. 

Pneumatic  systems.  literature  of,  3. 

Polluting  matter  in  streams,  what  becomes  of  it,  92 ; 
common  nuisance.  98. 

Pollution  of  streams,  Connecticut  River.  56;  classifica- 
tion of  streams,  with  reference  to,  72  ;  common  nui- 
sance. 98:  when  actionable,  100  ;  principle  of  per- 
missive, 113.  119  ;  of  Cliicago  River.  357, 

Populations  of  American  cities,  120-122.  127, 128;  law 
of  increase,  129;  at  ten-ye;ir  periods,  129-1.30  ;  gen- 
eralizations reearding  increase  of.  131. 

Potash,  use  of.  in  manufacture.  49.  51,  52,  54,  64  ;  may 
cause  actionable  pollution  if  discharged  into  streams, 
100:  in  excrements,  155  ;  element  of  manures,  156; 
in  sewage.  1.58;  as  fertilizer,  trade  value,  162. 

Potassium,  compounds  of,  161. 

Powers,  J.  J..  3()9,  .567. 

Precipitation,  chemical,  see  Chemical  precipitation. 

Prescription,  discussion  of,  102-8,  117. 

Princeton,  N.  J.,  broad  irrigation,  567. 

Protozoa,  as  food  for  young  fish,  87  ;  food  of  other  mi- 
nute forms,  90. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  sewer  gagings,  140;  discharge  into 
tide-water  and  proposed  chemical  precipitation,  441. 

Pullman.  III.,  broad  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtra- 
tion. 460. 

Pnmps,  sewage,  Fnllerton  Ave.  conduit.  Chicago.  360  ; 
Bridgeport  pumping  station,  Chicago,  362;  Mystic 
Valley  works.  410  ;  Pullman,  111..  462.  cost  of  oper- 
ating, 462,  463  ;  M;is-achusetts  Reformatory,  Con- 
cord, 472  ;  South  Framingham,  Mass. ,  4S6  ;  Hospital 
for  the  Insane,  London,  Ont..494:  Lawrenceville, 
N.  J.,  school,  pulsometer,  512;  Wayne,  Pa.,  .5,35; 
sludge.  White  Plains,  N.  Y.,  375;  Sheepshead  Bay, 
N.  Y.,  382  ;  Mystic  Valley  Works,  410,  413. 

QuiNCT,  JosiAH,  Mayor  of  Boston,  179. 


Radiation,  solar  and  terrestrial,  317 ;  at  Maine  State 
College,  Orono,  Me.,  322  ;  Fort  Collins,  Col.,  327, 
;i29  ;  Auburn,  Ala.,  3;J2. 

Rainfall,  provision  for,  in  combined  systems,  132; 
heaviest  tor  24  hours,  134. 

Redding,  Cal..  irrigation,  548. 

Reeder.  Geo.  K.,  658. 

Reid,  II.  I.,  541'. 

Reservoirs,  sewage,  Boston  main  drainage,  184  ;  Pull- 
man, III.,  461  ;  South  Frainingham,  51ass.,4S5,  ven- 
tilation of,  4S6  ;  Wayne,  Pa.,  535  ;  Redding,  Cal., 
and  ventilation,  550. 

Rhode  Island  State  Institutions,  broad  irrigation,  475. 

Richards.  Mrs.  Ellen  H.,  190. 

Rider,  Wm.  B.,  .374. 

Ridge  and  furrow  system  of  broad  irrigation,  227. 

Rivers  pollution,  limit  of  influence  of  sewage,  6  ;  limit 
in  Merrimac,  8,  9;  Mohawk,  pollution  of  10  ;  Hud- 
son, pollution  of,  11  ;  Genesee,  at  Rochester.  N.  Y., 
21,  22  ;  by  germs  of  hog  cholera,  25  ;  Ma-ssachusetts, 
36,  .37,  45;  Nashua,  38,  39  ;  recent  rejiorts  of  Massa- 
chu.setts  State  Board  of  Health, 43  ;  Blackstone,  anal- 
yses of  vv-ater  of,  43,  44  ;  Connecticut,  flow  of  and 
analyses,  56,  57 :  pollution  of,  57 ;  in  New  Jer- 
sey, 57-63  ;  Passaic  River,  58-63  ;  investigations  in 
Pennsylvania,  63-65:  Schuylkill.  64;  studies  in 
Minnesota,  65  ;  studies  in  Illinois,  65  ;  Chicago,  dis- 
charge of  city  sewers  into.  65  :  commission,  views 
on  storm  water,  151  ;  Prevention  Act,  English,  569. 

Riparian  proprietors,  rights,  etc.,  97,  98,  100, 102,  105, 
112. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  typhoid  fever  at,  analyses  of  well 
waters,  20  ;  protection  of  water  supply,  71 ;  use  of 
water,  138. 

Rogers,  J.  D.,  371. 

Rotifers,  present  in  poUijted  waters,  75  ;  aid  in  self- 
purification  of  streams,  76  ;  food  of  young  fish,  87  ; 
food  for  polyzoa.  etc.,  90. 

Round  Lake,  N.  Y.,  chemical  precipitation  at,  .371. 

Rubber  manufacture,  little  waste  from,  55  ;  use  of  bi- 
sulphide of  carbon,  55. 


Saaee  and  Schwab's  experiments  to  determine  effect 
of  manufacturing  wastes  on  fish,  346. 

Salmon  way  for  mixing  chemicals.  208. 

Salt,  common,  effect  on  nitrification.  198. 

Saltpetre,  effect  on  nitrification.  198. 

Sand,  dian,eters  of,  163  ;  mechanical  composition  of 
tho.se  used  at  Lawrence  experiment  station,  166  ;  re- 
newal of,  in  intermittent  filtration,  ^79.  280. 

Sanitary  protection.  Hemlock  Lake,  rules  for,  575. 

Santa  Rosa,  Cal.,  irrigation.  557. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y..  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  at,  10, 
11  :  sewer  gagings  at,  143. 

Schizomycetes  or  fission  fungi,  cause  of  communicable 
diseases.  5. 

School  for  Boys,  Lawrenceville,  N.  J.,  sub  surface  ir- 
rigation, 511. 

Schuylkill  River,  pollution  of,  64,  98. 

Screen,  sewage.  Round  Lake,  N.  Y.,372  ;  White  Plains, 
N.  Y.,  377  ;  Worcester,  Mass,  435 ;  State  Insane 
Hospital.  Worcester,  Ma.ss.,  4.59  ;  Pullman,  HI..  463  ; 
Massachusetts  Reformatory,  Concord,  468  ;  Rhode 
Island  State  Institutions,  Cranston.  477 ;  South 
Framingham.  Mass.,  486;  Hospital.  London,  Out., 
494.  497:  Marlborough,  Mass.,  EOS ;  Wayne.  Pa., 
5.34,  .537  ;  Redding,  Cal.,  550  :  Lenox,  Mass.,  560. 

Sedgwick,  Professor  Wm.  T..  9.  14,  18. 

Sedimentation,  conditions  affecting,  in  streams,  73 ; 
favorable  conditions  for.  92:  no  guarantee  of  safety, 
95;  of  wa.stes  from  Woollen  Mills.  Hyde  Park.  Mass., 
297;  tried.  Mystic  Valley  Works,  408;  Medfieid, 
Mass..  490  ;   Amherst,  Mass.,  561. 

Self-purification  in  Passaic  River,  58-63  ;  in  Illinois 
and  Michigan  Canal,  and  law  of,  6<i-70  :  general  dis- 
cussion. 75-92 ;  Beaver  Dam  brook,  80  ;  biological 
agencies,  92. 

Separate  systems  of  sewerage,  150-1.52. 

Sewage,  definition,  1  ;  why  necessary  to  purify,  4; 
upon  whom  does  responsibility  for  purification  rest, 
6  ;  limit  of  influence  in  streams  and  lakes,  6-10  ;  why 
it  should  he  kept  out  of  streams.  12:  effect  of,  on 
water  supplies,  22,  23,  .32  ;  Chicago  stock  yard,  .32  ; 
Worcester,  Mass.,  44 ;  rapid  reduction   in   alkaline 


INDEX. 


597 


stream,  59 ;  necessary  dilution,  purification  by  mi- 
crobes, 73 ;  value  of  manurial  constituents,  82.  in 
Boston  sewage,  S3 ;  utilization,  right  view  of,  84  ; 
value  for  irrigation.  85  :  food  for  fiah,  86,  88  ;  sedi- 
ments, retain  dangerous  character  for  long  time, 
H:i  :  actionable  pollution  if  discharged  into  streams, 
llK)  ;  unreasonableness  of  turning  it  into  streams, 
104  :  discharge  of.  into  streams  held  to  be  a  nuisance, 
KIN  :  relation  of  sewage  flow  to  water  supply,  119, 
14ti  to  temperature,  148  ;  constituents  of,  150  :  per- 
manent ch  .racterof.  from  separate  systems,  domestic 
■wastes  in,  1.50 :  average  composition  of,  American. 
15i.  of  Enghsh,  153.  of  London,  154,  from  street 
surfaces.  154  ;  condition  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  in,  1.58  ;  value  of,  as  fertilizer,  159; 
of  Towns  C'i>mniis.sion's  report,  172  ;  farming  not 
profitable,  422  ;  characteristics  of  Worcester,  Mass., 
4211  ;  acid.  48H. 

Am  unt  of,  cause  of  variations,  131 :  maximum 
and  minimum  flow.  1.37;  Boston,  Mass.,  184; 
Pullman,  III.,  4til  ;  Massacliusetts  Reformatory, 
Concord,  473;  Meifield,  Mass.,  492:  Hospital, 
London,  Out.,  494  ;  Lawrenceville.  N.  J.,  school, 
514:  Gardner,  M,is«.,  51ti:  Wayne,  Pa,  S^ltJ  ; 
Chautauqua,  ^f.  Y..  5ti5  :  World's  Columbian  Ex- 
position, Chicago,  5t)ti,  also  see  Sewage  gagings. 
Analyses,  see  Analjses. 

Disposal,  definition  and  classification  of  methods, 
1;  new  subject  in  United  States,  3;  fundamen- 
tal proposition  of.  23  :  works  not  properly  sub- 
ject to  franchise,  .'•S;  into  tide-water.  8B  ;  into 
fresh  water.  8H-89  :  proposed  multiple  discharge. 
Milwaukee.  Wis.,  87.  88;  fixed  data  of,  1H3 : 
rules  of  New  York  State  Board  of  Health  regard- 
ing plans  for,  S^fl. 
Farm,  see  Hroad  irrigation. 

Gagings,  results.  14U  ;  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Kala- 
mdzoo,   Mich..   Weston.  W.  Va.,   140  ;   Schenec- 
tady. N.  Y.,  Toronto,  Out..  143  ;  Atlantic  City, 
N.  J..  144. 
Muds,  accumulation  of,  in  harbor  of  Leith.  93,  94  ; 
study  of,  from  Thames  River.  94.  95  ;  centres  of 
distribution  of  pathotjeiiic  bacteria,  96. 
Teinjieratures.  see  Temperatures. 
Sewer,   definition   of,  1  ;  may  be   used   for  what.  .35 ; 
Massachusetts  Act  of  1709,  178;  Boston  intercepting, 
182 ;  Boston  deposit,  18^3 ;  gagings,  see  -ewage  gug- 
ing~. 
Sewerage,   definition   of,    1  :  investigations  by  Massa- 
chusetts  State   Boaril   of   Health,   3() ;    separate  or 
combined   systems,    1,'0  :    views  of   English    Rivers 
Pollution    Commission,    151  ;    early   discussions    in 
England.  169  ;  early  American  systems,  169  ;  results 
of  early  English  systems,  171. 
Shedd,  J.  Herbert,  441. 
Shepard,  J.  C,  544. 
Shone  ejector,  see  Ejectors. 

Silk  manufa(;ture,  53  ;  silk  gum,  53  ;  waste  from,  53. 
Bilage,  see  Silos. 

Silos,  as  adjuncts  to  sewage  farming.  248,  2.54  ;  litera- 
ture of,  2.')7,  259 ;  likely  to  extend  use  of  broad  irriga- 
tion. 350. 
Silt,  effect  of,  in  sewage-polluted  streams,  73  ;  diame- 
ters of.  16:^, 
Blat<"r,  J,  W.,  .30.  IDS. 

BIndgc,  absorbent.    Round   Lake,  N.  Y..  372  ;   White 
Pla  ns.  N.  Y  ,  375  :  Sheepshead  Bay,  N.  Y.,  382. 
Amount  rr'movcd  fiom  Boston  deposit  sewers,  183. 
184;  should  be  removed  frequently,  204;  methods 
of  disposal,  207;   filter  presi-es  for,  208;  litera- 
ture rci^ardng.  dis|K)sal.  2'8  ;  nature  of.  in  sand 
removed  from  smface  of  filter  beds,  280. 
Be  Is.  Worcester.  Mass.,  436;  Marlborough,  Mass., 

50  1 :  Gardner,  Mass..  .530. 
Disposal.  (Ninev  Island.  N.  Y..  370;  Round  Lake, 
N.  Y..  :i72:  White  Plains,  N,  Y..  375;  Sheeps- 
head Bay.  N.  V..  :182  ;  East  Orange.  N.  J.,  :Wl» , 
Long  Itrnnch.  N.  ,J..  403;  Mystic  Vnllev  works, 
413,  J14  :  Worcester.  Mass.,  4-30.  436.  43\  440  ; 
Massachusetts  Reforniatory.  Concord.  171  :  Hos- 
pit'il.  London.  Ont..  5U3 ;  .M«rlborough.  Mass.. 
605.  506:  Gardner.  Muss..  520;  Lenox.  .Mass., 
Ainher-t,  Mass..  .561  :  World's  Columbian  Kxpo- 
Kltion.  .56.5.  .566  ;  drain.  Woreesier.  Mas-..  434. 
Furnace  tried.  Worcester,  MaH.s.,  438. 


Pump,  Mystic  Valley  works,  410. 
Well,  Mystic  Valley  works,  410  ;  Worcester,  Mass., 
434. 

Snow,  F.  H..  567. 

Snow  and  frost,  effect  on  intermittent  filtration  areas, 
Lawrence,  Mass.,  2?0 ;  South  Framingham,  284 ; 
Summit,  N.  J.,  285. 

Soap,  use  in  manufactures,  50,  51,  54. 

Sodium  chloride,  normal,  at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  20;  in 
sewage  at  Rochester,  21. 

Soil,  classification  of  particles,  163  ;  mechanical  analy- 
sis of,  163,  164,  166  ;  surface  area  of,  165;  per  cent, 
of  empty  space,  165  ;  oxidizing  power.  18S  ;  Law- 
rence experiments  with  fine,  for  intermittent  fil- 
tration, 272  ;  character  of,  Pullman.  111..  463  ;  Rhode 
Island  State  Institutions,  Cranston,  R.  I..  475;  Hos- 
pital, Rochester.  Minn..  502;  Redding,  Cal.,  549  ; 
Helena,  Mont..  5.58 ;  see  Temperatures. 

Sorby,  Dr.  H.  C.  77,  79,  95. 

South  Carolina  agricultural  experiment  station,  work 
on  soil  physics.  164. 

South  Frauiiugham.  Mass  ,  effect  of  frost  and  snow  on 
intermittent  filtration,  284  ;  broad  irrigation  and  in- 
termittent filtration,  480. 

Specific  heat,  see  Heat. 

St'dker,  M..  30.  31. 

State  Insane  Hospital.  Worcester,  Mass.,  broad  irriga- 
tion. 456. 

Statute  of  limitations.  102. 

Stearns.  Fretierick  P..  82.  131.  479,  488. 

Stockton,  Cal..  irrigation,  559. 

Stock  yard.  Chicago,  drainage  fnmi.  66. 

Stock  yard  sewage.  Chicago,  analysis  of,  32. 

Stokee  r.  Sing<rs.  case  of,  98. 

Storer.  Professor  F.  H.,  extracts  from  work  on  agri- 
culture, 156. 

Stream  pollution,  studies  made  in  Massachusetts,  3  ; 
in  other  States.  2-3,  in  whole  country.  33  ;  first  Ameri- 
can report  on,  34  :  by  sulphuric  acid,  42;  recent  re- 
ports of  Massachusetts  fjtate  Board  of  Health,  4:3 ; 
investigation  in  Connecticut  regarding  pollution 
from  large  number  of  manufacturing  wastes,  46,  55; 
New  Jersey  studies.  57-«i;i  ;  investigations  in  Penn- 
sylvania, 63*65;  studies  in  Minnesota,  65;  in  Illi- 
nois. 65;  in  New  York.  70,  72;  classification  with 
reference  to  pollution,  72  ;  deposits  of  sewage  muds, 
92;  letral  aspects,  97,  118. 

Streams,  self-purification  of.  73  :  purification  from  bio- 
logical point  of  view,  75  ;  minute  animals  powerful 
agents  in  self-purification  of.  8!(.  92.  93. 

Street  surfaces,  charact<^r  of  drainage  from,  154. 

Sub-surface  disposal,  Lenox,  Mass.,  560  ;  see  Imgation. 

Sugar,  effect  on  nitrification,  199. 

Sulphates,  ferric,  and  ferrous,  see  Ferrous  and  Ferrous 
sulphates  under  Chemical  precipitants. 

Sulphate  of  alumina,  see  Alumina,  under  Chemical 
precipitants. 

Sulphuric  acid,  use  in  brass  manufacture.  40  ;  iron 
manufacture.  48  ;  cotton  manufacture.  .52  :  (oil  of 
vitriol)  amount  used  in  onecarpet.  blanket,  and  cloth 
mill.  64;  may  cause  actionable  pollution  if  discharged 
into  streams,  100  ;  action  of,  to  produce  super-phos- 
phates. 160. 

Summit.  N.  .1..  effect  of  frost  and  snow  on  intermit- 
tent filtration,  285  ;  intermittent  filtration,  522. 

Swan,  Chas.  H.,  443. 

Swindon  Water- Works  r.  Wilts  and  Berks  Can:  I,  100. 

Swine  plague,  see  Hog  choleni. 

T«NIA  solium,  or  tai)e-worm,  ;!0. 

Tanks,  precipitating  and  settling,  intermittent  or 
continuous,  205;  capacity  necessarv,  206;  vertical 
system,  206  :  for  mixing  chemicals,  208  :  experimen- 
tal, at  Lawrence.  210 ;  Coney  Island,  N.  Y.,  870; 
Round  Lake,  N.  Y..  372  ;  White  Plains.  X.  Y.,  .375  ; 
East  Orange.  N.  .)..  H'.'O:  Long  Branch.  N.  J..  402  , 
Mystic  Valley  Works,  4ll8,  410,  413  ;  Woicester, 
Mass..  435.  438.  4-39;  State  Insane  Hospital,  Worces 
ter.  Mass..  458;  Pullman,  III.,  463;  .Massachu-ettR 
Reformatory.  Concord.  471.  ventilntion.  47;!:  Med- 
fielci.  Mass.."  490;  Insane  Hospital.  Rochester.  Minn., 
WM,  .502  ;  Marlborough.  Mass..  .505;  Massiichiisett.s 
School  for  the  Feeble-Mim'ed.  507  ;  LaArenceville, 
N  .1..  Sihool.  511  ventilation.  512  ;  Ganlner.  Mass., 
518  :  Ha^tings,  Neb..  .529;  Trinidad.  Col..  5-14  ;  Am- 


598 


INDEX. 


herst,  Mass.,  Lenox.  Mass.,  5fil  ;  Chautauqua,  N.  Y., 
World's  Columbian  Expositidii.  Chiciigo,  565. 

Receiviuft,  H()si)it;il  for  llie  Insane,  London,  Ont., 

4!i::i,  490  ;  World's  Culumbian  Exposition,  505. 
Screening,  Lenox,  Mass.,  .560. 
Sludge,  see  Sludge  tanks,  501. 
Tape  or  injescinal  worms,  :W. 
Taps,   water,   proportion  of,   to  population,   120-122 ; 

definition  of.  12-1. 
Temperature  of  air  and  natural  soils  and  its  relation  to 

broad  irrigation  and  intermittent  filtration,  303 
Temperatures,  air,  Lawrence.  Mass.,  304  ;  London, 
Dantzic,  Providence,  Michigan,  Alabama,  306: 
eight  places  in  Michigan  and  seven  in  Alabama, 
.307  ;  Berlin,  30!s  ;  State  Conege.  Pa.,  322  ;  Maine 
St:ite  College.  Orono.  Me..  323:  St.  Antliony  Park, 
Minn.,  :324  :  Lincoln.  N.b..  325  ;  Fort  Collins,  Col., 
327;  Central  New  York.  :«8;  Auburn.  Ala.,  331, 
332 ;  deductions  regarding  effect  of  different  tem- 
peratures on  sewage  purification,  33!) :  Dantzic,  421  ; 
Worcester,  Mass..  4'21,  424,  London,  Ei.g.,  424. 
Kelations  to  sewage  flow,  148, 

Sewage,    at   Lawrence,    Mass.,   304,   305:    Berlin, 
Germany,   30!)  ;    theoretical   results   with   filter 
beds  with  sewage  and  air  at  various  tempera- 
tures. 313;  remedies  for  low  temperatures,  333; 
Berlin,  Paris.  Worcester,   Mass.,   426 ;  Pullman, 
465;  Medfield.  Mass.,  492. 
Soil,  observaticns  abroad  and  at  Berlin,  308,  309  ; 
effect  of  intermittent  filtration,  315  ;  heating  ef- 
fect of  sun   on   wet  and  dry  soils  of  different 
colors,  319  :  American  observations.  ,321  :  State 
College.  Pa.,  322;  Maine  State  College,  Orono, 
Me.,  .323  ;  St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn.,  324;  Lin- 
coln,  Neb.,  325:    Fort  Collins,   Col.,  .327.   328; 
Central  New  York,  ;K8 :   Auburn,  Ala.,  331.  332 ; 
remedies  for  frost  and  estimates  of  cost,  3.33,  334  : 
deductions  regarding  effect  of  temperatures  of 
soil  and  air  on  sewage  purification,  3-39  ;  winter 
effect  on    broad   irrigation,   Massachusetts   Re- 
formatory, Concord,  473. 
Texas  fever,  ^6,  27 ;  literature,  2S. 
Thames  River,  study  of  sewage  muds  from,  94,  95. 
Tidd,  M.  M.,  504. 
Tide-gates,  use  of,  at  Boston,  179. 

Tide-water,    proposed   discharge  into,   at  Providence, 
R.  I..  442  ;  decided  on  in  connection  with  irrigation. 
Los  Angeles,  556. 
Tidy,  Treatment  of  Sewage,  -30. 
Toronto,  Ont..  sewer  gapings  at,  144. 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  effect  of  uncontaminated  water  supply  in 

l)reventing  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever,  10,  11. 
Trenches,  filter,  experiments  with,  at  Lawrence,  270 ; 
advantages  of,  2*8:  for  buryini;  nisht  soil  and  gar- 
bage. Hemlock  Like,  N.  Y..  3.53,  354. 
Trinidad,  Col.,  irrigation,  ,543. 
Tuberculosis,  in  animals.  27  ;  literature,  28. 
Tunnel.  Boston  main  drainage.  184. 
Tunnels,  water  supply,  at  Chicago.  170,  176. 
Typhoid  fever,  period  of   incubation,    cause,  walking 
case  of,   5  ;  germs   of,  in   air  of  sewer  in  .Jackson 
prison.  6  ;  in  drinking  water,  epidemic  at  Lnwrence, 
and  Lowell,    6,  9  :    vitality   of   bacillus  and   spores 
contrasted,  7  ;  one  of  the  preventable  diseases,  7  ; 
at   Schenectady,   Cohoes,  West  Troy,  and   Albany, 
N.  Y..  10.  11  ;  water-borne  disease,  12  ;  at  Lausen, 
Switzerland,  15  ;  in  Massachusetts  cities,  17,  IS  ;  at 
New   York,   Philadelphia,  Chicago.    Massachu-setts 
cities,  18-20  ;  at  Rochester;  N.   Y..   ?0,  21  ;  in  ani- 
mals,  28;    travellers   attacked  by,  in     uninhabited 
regions,  the   saprophytic  theory  of,  explanation  of 
mysterious  cases,  29  ;    spores,  formation  of,  7  ;  vi- 
tality of,  8. 

Undfrdbaining  in  broad  irrigation,  2.32. 

TJnderd rains,  discharge  from,  at  South  Framingham 
into  Beaver  Dam  brook,  80,  82  ;  in  Lawrence  ex- 
perimental tanks,  274,  286 :  White  Plains,  N.  Y.. 
374;  East  Orange.  N.  .)..  .390:  Pullman.  111..  463; 
Rhode  Island  State  Institutions,  475,  476  ;  South 
Framingham.  Mass..  487  ;  Hospital,  London,  Ont., 
498  :  Mas.'-aehusetts  School  for  the  Feeble  minded, 
509;  School  for  Boys,  Lawrenceville.  N.  .1.,  513; 
Gardner,  Mass.,  520  ';  Summit,  N.  J.,  524,  527. 


Uni'"ormity  coefficient  of  filtering  materials,  167. 

United  States  Fish  ('onimission,  experiments  to  deter- 
mine effect  of  manufacturing  wastes  on  fish,  346 

Urine,  use  of.  to  cleanse  wool,  50.  51  ;  in  sewage.  150; 
amount  from  mixed  population,  15.") ;  nitrogen,  phos- 
phates, and  potash  in,  155. 

Van  BuRfcN,  RoBT..  36!i.  ,567. 

Van  Valkenburgh,  J.  J.,  485. 

Vaughan,  Dr,  Victor  C,  studies  of  typhoid.  6,  7.  29. 

Vaughan  and  Novy,  i)aper.  Experimental  Studies  on 

the  Causation  of  Typhoid  Fevers,  7. 
Ventilation,  of  pump  well.  Atlantic  City.  N.  J.,  .562  : 

sewage   reservoir.  South  Framingham.  Mass.,  486; 

Redding,   Cal.,  550  :    settling   tanks,    Massachusetts' 

Reformatory,  Concord,  473. 
Voelcker,  Dr.  Augustus,  papers  by,  1.5!). 

Wadsworth  v.  Tillotson,  case  of,  98. 

Walcott.  Dr.,  418. 

Wall,  Nerval  W.,  54.3. 

Waller,  Professor  Elwyn,  72. 

Ward,  L.  B..  ;W. 

Waring,  Col.  George   E..  .Tr.,  3,  42,  150,  417,  494,  £.32,. 

.560. 
Wiirington.  Robert,  160,  188,  189,  192. 
Water,  analyses,  see  Analyses  ;  -borne  diseases,  list  of, 
12. 
Consumi)tion,  in  American  cities,  119;  condition* 
affecting.    120-123  :    does   not  follow   any   law, 
123  ;    detail   of,  at  Detroit,   126  :   at  Rochester, 
13^  ;  relation  of  consumption  of,  to  sewage  flow, 
146. 
Course,   see  Stream,   Streams,  pollution  of,  etc.  ; 
right  of  property  in,  how  derived,  97  :  actionable- 
pollution  of.  100  :  Angell  on  prescriptive  light  to- 
pollute,  cm  law  of  water-cour.ses,  103;   rc(!uisi- 
tion  of  adverse  right  in,  103  ;  no  natural  right 
to  pollute.  117. 
Drinking,  should  be  legall.\  protected,  114. 
Meters,  effect  in  reducing  waste,  125. 
Polluted,  the  cause  of  difea^e.  illustrative  cases,, 
literature,  40  ;  when  actionable  pollution  arises, 
100. 
Rights,  may  be  taken  for  public  water  suiipHes, 

may  include  prescriptive  right  to  pollute.  106, 
Supplies,  effect  of  intioduction  of  uncontaminated. 
to  cities,  20  ;  rules  for  the  i>rotection  of,  Roches- 
ter,   Fredtjnia.    Norwich,    Cobleskill,    Oneoiita, 
Amsterdam,  Mt.  Vernon,  and  New  York,  N.  Y.. 
71  :  )iollution  of,  in  sewage-laden  streams.  92  ; 
relation  to  sewage  flow,  119,  146  ;  Chicago,  first. 
170,  present,  176,  contamination  of,  177. 
Taps,  proportion  of,  to  population,  120-122. 
Waters,  Massachusetts  act  to  protect  purity  of  inland, 

.578. 
Waterford.  N.  Y.,  effect  of  uncontaminated  water  sup- 
ply in  preventing  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever,  10,  11. 
Way.  Professor  J.  T.,  155,  159. 
Wayne.  Pa.,  surface  irrigation,  532. 
West,  use  nf  sewage  for  irrigation  in,  .539. 
Weston,    \V.  Va.,  sewer  gagings   at   Insane   Ilosjiitai, 

140. 
Wcs   Troy,  N.  Y.,  epidemic  of  typhoid  fever  at.  effect 
of    discontinuing    use    of   polluted   Mohawk   River 
water.  11. 
Wheeler,  William,  470. 

Whitney.  Profes.sor  Milton,  work  on  soil  physics,  165. 
Williams,  Benezette,  460. 
Willi.ston,  Professor  S.  W.,  46,  55,  56. 
Wilson,  J.  M.,  528. 

Winogradsky's  paper  on  the  nitrifying  organism,  ir:i. 
Winsnr,  Frederick.  37. 
Wolff  and  Lehmanu,  1,55-1,58. 
Woollen  manufacture,  great  pollutiiii  of  streams  from, 

50. 
Woolf,  Albert  E.,  563;  Electric  Disinfecting  Co.,  563. 
Worcester,  Mass..    sewage  discharge   into   Blackstone 

River,  44:  chemical  precipitation,  415. 
Worthen.  William  F..,  419. 
Wurtz.  Henry,  58. 

Zoospores,  number  present  in  water  of  Beaver  Dam 
brook,  82. 


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C  OIVTEIVTS. 


SECTION  I.— Collection  and  Storage  of  Water,  and  its  Impurities. 
CnAPTEK  I.— Intrnchictory.    Ciiai>.  II.— Quantity  of  Water  ]^■(Hli^^'d.    Ciiai".  III.— Rainfall. 
Cfiai'.  IV.— Flow  of  Streams      Chap.  V.— Storage  aud  Evaporation  of  Water.     Chap.  VI.— 
Bupplying  Capacity  of  Watersheds.     Chap  VII.— Sprinjis  and  Wells.     Chap.  VIIL— Impuri- 
ties of  Water.     Chap.  IX. — Well,  Spring,  Lake,  aud  River  Supplies. 

SECTION  TI  —Plow  of  Water  through  Sluices,  Pipes  and  Channels. 
C'^..PTEi£  X.— Wei<r|it,  Pressure,  and  ]\Io1ion  of  Water.    Chap.  XI.— Flow  of  Water  through 
Orifices.     XII.— Flow  of  Water  through  Short  Tubes.     XIII.-  Flow  of  Water  through  Pipes 
under  Pressure.     Chai*.  XIV.— Measures  of  Weirs  and  Weir  Gauging.     Cuap.  '""v.— Flow 
of  Water  in  Open  Channels. 

SECTION  III.— Practical  Construction  of  Water-Works.  • 
Chaptki:  XVI.— Reservoir  Embankments  and  Chambers.  Chai".  XVII.— Open  Canals. 
Cfiap.  XVIII.  — Waste  W<irs.  Chap.  XIX.— Partitions  and  lietaiuing  Walls.  Chap.  XX.— 
Masonry  C;onduils.  Chai-.  XXI. —Mains  and  Distribution  Pipes.  Chap.  XXII.— IMstribu- 
tion  Svstems,  and  AppendaL^s.  Chap.  XXIII.— Ciariticaiitm  of  Water.  Chap.  XXIV.— 
Vimiping  of  Waier.  Chap  XXV.-  Tank  Stand  Pipes.  Chap.  XXVI.— Systems  ol  Water 
Supply. 

Appknoix  — Mis(  clhiiicdi'ii  "Nlcir-oran.Ia. 


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TABLE   OK   CONTENTS. 

Sanitary  Drainage  and  Removal  of  Organic  Wastes,  being  a  discussion  of  the  relation  of  this  service 
to  the  Public  Health ;  with  a  consideration  of  Modes  of  infection  and  of  the  Pathogenic  and  Sanitary  In- 
fluence of  Bacteria. 

The  System :— Separate  or  Combined ;  Conditions  under  which  each  is  best,  with  a  summary  of 
previous  discussions  ot  the  subject. 

The  Depth  of  Sewers— with  a  view  to  the  requirements  of  different  conditions  as  existing  In  different 
portions  of  areas  to  l)e  sewered. 

Cleansing  velority.  Flushing  and  Capacity,  as  affecting  the  sizes  and  gradients  of  Sewers  and  their  re- 
lation to  volume  of  How. 

The  Ventilation  of  Sewers,  its  Importance.  Methods,  Rationale  and  Effect. 

Main  Sewers.  Intercepting  Seweis  and  Tidal  and  other  Outlets. 

The  Preliminary  Work  of  tlie  Engineer  preparatory  to  the  making  of  a  final  Plan  of  Sewerage. 

Suggestions  for  ^^ewernge  Committees,  with  regard  to  the  Engineering  Control  of  the  work,  etc. 

The  Buffalo  Trunk  sewer.  Description  of  the  Purpose,  Construction  and  Details  of  a  Main  Intercept- 
ing Sewer  about  four  raid's  long  and  eight  feet  in  diameter. 

The  .Main  Sewer  of  Saratoga  springs.    Construi'ted  in  1874. 

Sewerage  Disposal :— with  spe^-lal  reference  to  Purlftcation  by  Agricultural  Irrigation,  with  Details  of 
Construction  and  Arrangement. 

The  General  Prim-iples  and  Best  Practice  of  House  Drainage.  i 

Drainage  Works  in  Holland.    Drainage  or  Agricultural  Lands  and  Reclamation  of  Marsh  Lands. 

Early  Work  under  the  Separate  System  in  the  United  States.  Including  Lenox,  Mass.,  and  Cumberland 
Mills,  vialne. 

'I'lie  ease  of  Memphis:— .\n  account  of  Its  former  condition,  of  the  introduction  and  execution  of  its 
present  svstem  of  Sewerage  and  of  the  results  secured. 

I'he  Sewerage  of  Norfolk.  Va.  ;— with  an  account  of  Its  Main  sewer  Siphon  and  Its  Pumping  Outlet. 

'I'hi-  S  'werage  of  Keenc  N.  H.;  Pullman,  111.;  Omaha,  Neb.;  and  Amsterdam,  N.  Y. 

I'he  Sewerage  of  San  Diego.  Gal.:— with  a  novel  method  of  disposal  by  means  of  a  Harbor  Reservoir 
auiomatlcally  discharged  during  a  portion  ot  the  ebb  tide. 

ihe  Plan  of  Sewerage  of  Owensboro.  Ky.:— a  Composite  System,  involving  a  Separate  collection  and 
Combined  removal  of  Sewage  and  Storm  water. 

Mr.  Pontzen's  Plan  for  Sewerage  of  Havre,  France,  and  his  application  of  Waring's  System  in  Paris. 

Waring's  System  of  Sewerage.    Practical  Details.       The  Dry  Earth  System.       Typhoid  Fever. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

In  addition  to  75  wood-cuts  in  the  text,  the  following  plates,  among  others,  being  mainly 
reproductions  of  detailed  working  drawings,  are  included  in  the  work. 

The  Sewerage  of  Memphis  as  constructed  in  1880.       The  Sewerage  of  Memphis  as  completed  to  1884. 

Plan  for  tlie  Comoosite  Sewerage  ot  Owensboro.  Ky.       Profiles  of  the  Different  Elements  of  this  Work. 

The  seweraee  of  .Amsterdam  on  the  Restricted  System. 

The  Plan  and  Profiles  of  the  Sewerage  of  Keene.  Plan  ot  the  Sewerage  of  Norfolk,  Va. 

Project  tor  the  Sewerage  of  Schiedam,  Holland,  with  the  use  of  Siphons  and  local  Wells  as  a  substi- 
tute for  deep  main  Sewers. 

Pontzen's  (-"Ian  tor  the  Sewerage  of  Havre,  France. 

Five  Plates  showing  the  Details  and  Construction  of  the  Main  Sewer  of  Saratoga  Springs. 

Eight  Plit^s  showing  General  Plan  and  details  of  Construction  of  the  Trunk  Sewer  of  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Plan  and  Pi-oflle  Illustrating  the  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Disposal  Works  of  the  Insane  Hospital  at 
rJorrlsfown,  Pa. 

The  rnderdrninage  of  the  Sewerage  Disposal  Field,  Norrlstown,  Pa. 

Plan  of  Sewerage  Disposal  Field,  San  Luis  obispo.  Cal. 

Two  Plates  showing  the  Arrangement  of  Agricultural  Underdrains. 

i'laies  sho'vlng  the  Pumping  Works  and  other  Details  of  the  Drainage  of  Haarlem  Lake,  Holland. 

The  cuts  in  the  text  show  the  constructions  of  Manlioles,  Inspection  Pipes,  Flushtauks 
and  oMi'T  apnli:infcs  used  it  connection  witJi  Seweraire  Construdion. 


One  vol.,  8yo,  228  pp.,  84  illustratious  and  one  folding  map,  cl.,  $2.50. 

Sewers   and    Drains  for 
Populous   Districts. 

WITH 

EULES    AND     FORMULAE    FOR    THE     DETERMINATION 

OF   THEIR    DIMENSIONS   UNDER   ALL 

CIRCUMSTANCES. 

BY 

JULIUS   W.   ADAMS,   C.E. 


CONTENTS. 

Introduction. — General  Considerations. — The  Physical  Oatlines  of  the 
District  and  the  Depth  of  the  Drainage.  Of  the  Rainfall  and  the  Proportion 
to  be  Provided  for  in  the  Sewers. — Water  Supply. — The  Final  Disposal  of 
the  Sewage. — Preparation  of  Sewerage  Plans. — Materials  Used  in  the  Con- 
struction of  Sewers  and  their  Application. — Foundations. — Appendages  to 
Sewers. — Street-basins. — Tide-valves  and  Tank  sewers. — Storm  or  Over-tlow 
Sewers. — Intercepting  Sewers  — Ventilation. — House-drainage. — ]Main  drain- 
age of  London  from  a  Paper  to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  by  the 
Constructing  Engineer.  Sir  Joseph  Bazelgette. — Specifications — Description 
o'  Clays  Used  b}"  the  Akron  Pipe  Company. — Description  of  Clays  Used,  and 
'  ae  Method  Pursued  in  the  Manufacture  of  Sewer  Pipe  in  the  Neighborhood 
of  New  York,  by  G.  W.  Rader  &  Co. — Tables:  Value  of  "g"  by  Formula,  p. 
54,  from  Francis'  Hydraulic  Experiments  for  the  Specitic  Latitudes  and 
Heights  above  the  Sea ;  Loss  of  Head  by  Friction  of  Pipe  per  1,000  Feet  on 
the  Under  mentioned  Sizes,  and  for  the  Given  Velocities,  by  Darcy's  Formula 
for  Pipe,  p.  57. 


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